Vlsi questions

Why don?t we use just one NMOS or PMOS transistor as a transmission gate?
Because we can't get full voltage swing with only NMOS or
PMOS ... we have to use both of them together for that purpose.

Why don?t we use just one NMOS or PMOS transistor as a transmission gate?
nmos passes a good 0 and a degraded 1 , whereas pmos passes
a good 1 and bad 0. for pass transistor, both voltage
levels need to be passed and hence both nmos and pmos
need to be used.
What are set up time & hold time constraints? What do they signify?
Setup time: Time before the active clock edge of the
flipflop, the input should be stable. If the signal changes
state during this interval, the output of that flipflop
cann't be predictable (called metastable).
Hold Time: The after the active clock edge of the flipflop,
the input should be stable. If the signal changes during
this interval, the output of that flipflop cann't be
predictable (called metastable).
explain Clock Skew?
clock skew is the time difference between the arrival of
active clock edge to different flipflops of the same chip
Why is NAND gate preferred over NOR gate for fabrication?
NAND is a better gate for design than NOR because at the
transistor level the mobility of electrons is normally three
times that of holes compared to NOR and thus the NAND is a
faster gate. Additionally, the gate-leakage in NAND structures
is much lower.
What is Body Effect?
In general multiple MOS devices are made on a common substrate. As a result, the substrate
voltage of all devices is normallybequal. However while connecting the devices serially this
may result in an increase in source-to-substrate voltage as we proceed vertically along the
series chain (Vsb1=0, Vsb2 0).Which results Vth2>Vth1.
Why is the substrate in NMOS connected to Ground and in PMOS to VDD?
we try to reverse bias not the channel and the substrate but we try to maintain the
drain,source junctions reverse biased with respect to the substrate so that we dont loose our
current into the substrate.
What is the fundamental difference between a MOSFET and BJT ?

In MOSFET, current flow is either due to electrons(n-channel MOS) or due to holes(pchannel MOS) - In BJT, we see current due to both the carriers.. electrons and holes. BJT is a
current controlled device and MOSFET is a voltage controlled device
In CMOS technology, in digital design, why do we design the size of pmos to be higher
than the nmos.What determines the size of pmos wrt nmos. Though this is a simple
question try to list all the reasons possible?
In PMOS the carriers are holes whose mobility is less[ aprrox half ] than the electrons, the
carriers in NMOS. That means PMOS is slower than an NMOS. In CMOS technology, nmos
helps in pulling down the output to ground ann PMOS helps in pulling up the output to Vdd.
If the sizes of PMOS and NMOS are the same, then PMOS takes long time to charge up the
output node. If we have a larger PMOS than there will be more carriers to charge the node
quickly and overcome the slow nature of PMOS . Basically we do all this to get equal rise
and fall times for the output node.
Why PMOS and NMOS are sized equally in a Transmission Gates?
In Transmission Gate, PMOS and NMOS aid each other rather competing with each other.
That's the reason why we need not size them like in CMOS. In CMOS design we have
NMOS and PMOS competing which is the reason we try to size them proportional to their
mobility.
What happens when the PMOS and NMOS are interchanged with one
another in an inverter?
If the source & drain also connected properly...it acts as a buffer. But suppose input is logic 1
O/P will be degraded 1 Similarly degraded 0;
Why are pMOS transistor networks generally used to produce high signals, while nMOS
networks are used to product low signals?
This is because threshold voltage effect. A nMOS device cannot drive a full 1 or high
and pMOS cant drive full '0' or low. The maximum voltage level in nMOS and minimum
voltage level in pMOS are limited by threshold voltage. Both nMOS and pMOS do not
give rail to rail swing.
Whats the difference between Testing & Verification?
What is Latch Up? Explain Latch Up with cross section of a CMOS Inverter. How do
you avoid Latch Up?
A latchup is the inadvertent creation of a low-impedance path between the power supply
rails of an electronic component, triggering a parasitic structure(The parasitic structure
is usually equivalent to a thyristor or SCR), which then acts as a short circuit, disrupting
proper functioning of the part. Depending on the circuits involved, the amount of current
flow produced by this mechanism can be large enough to result in permanent destruction
of the device due to electrical over stress - EOS
What is slack?
The slack is the time delay difference from the expected delay(1/clock) to the actual
delay in a particular path.

Slack may be +ve or -ve.

Difference between Synchronous and Asynchronous reset.
What is DRC ?
What is LVS ?
what are the differences between SIMULATION and SYNTHESIS
Simulation <= verify your design.
synthesis <= Check for your timing
Simulation is used to verify the functionality of the circuit.. a)Functional Simulation:study
of ckt's operation independent of timing parameters and gate delays. b) Timing
Simulation :study including estimated delays, verify setup,hold and other timing
requirements of devices like flip flops are met.
Synthesis:One of the foremost in back end steps where by synthesizing is nothing but
converting VHDL or VERILOG description to a set of primitives(equations as in CPLD) or
components(as in FPGA'S)to fit into the target technology.Basically the synthesis tools
convert the design description into equations or components

Power Electronics(PE) Lab Viva QuestionAnswers Set-2

SOME BASIC QUESTION-ANSWERS:
Q1. What is Power electronics?
Power electronics is one of the important branch of electronics and electrical
engineering. It delas with conversion and control of electric energy.
Answer
Q2. What are main applications of Power electronics?
Power supplies is Computers, medical equipments, Communication systems,
telephone exchange, Satellite systems etc.
Power control in resistance welding, induction heating, electrolysis process and
etc,
Power conversion for HVDC and HVAC transmission systems.
Answer
Q3. What is SCR?

Silicon Control Rectifier (SCR) belongs to the thyristor family, it is three terminal
four layer PNPN diode.
Answer
Q4. What are merits and applications of SCR?
Merits:
i) Very small amount of gate drive is required.
ii) SCRs with high voltage and current ratings are available.
iii) On-state losses in SCRs are reduced.
Applications:
i) SCRs are best suitable for controlled rectifier.
ii) AC regulators, lighting and heating applications.
iii) DC motor drives, large power supplies and electronic circuit breaker.
Answer
Q5. What is TRIAC?
TRIAC can be considered as antiparallel SCR. TRIAC conducts in both the
directions and it has single gate.
Some Important Points:
i) All the power electronic devices are used as on/off switches.
ii) Power converter converts input power in the form suitable for load.
iii) All power devices are solid state. Hence they are called power electronic
devices.
Answer
Q6. Differentiate between SCR and BJT.
SCR:
i) Four layer PNPN device.
ii) Turns on by regeneration.
iii) Gate has no control once SCR is turned on.
iv) External circuits are required to turn off the SCR.
v) Switching frequencies are low.
BJT:
i) Three layer (PNP or NPN) device.
ii) No regeneration exists.
iii) Base has full control over the operation of BJT.
iv) No external circuits are required. BJT turns off if base drive is removed.
v) Switching frequencies are high.
Answer
Q7. What are the differences between BJT and MOSFET?
BJT:
i) This is bipolar device.
ii) Controlled by base.
iii) Current controlled device.
iv) Negative temp coefficients.
v) Losses are low.
MOSFET:
i) This is majority carrier device.

ii) Controlled by gate.

iii) Voltage controlled devices.
iv) Positive temp coefficients.
v) Losses are high than BJTs.
Answer
Q8. What are the different ways to Turn-on and Turn-off the Thyristor.
Turn-on:
i) Gate drive.
ii) High forward voltage.
iii) Dv/dt
iv) Light
v) High temperature.
Turn-off:
i) Natural commutation.
ii) Forced commutation.
Answer
Q9. What is turn0on and turn-off time of a thyristor?
Turn-on: it is defined as the time from initiation of gate drive to the time when
anode current reaches to its full value.
Turn-off time: it is the time required to achieve forward blocking capability after
commutation is initiated.
Answer
Q10. List the thyristor current and voltage ratings.
Current ratings:
i) Average current rating.
ii) RMS current rating.
iii) Surge current rating.
iv) I2t rating.
v) Di/dt rating.
Voltage ratings:
i) Peak repetitive forward blocking voltage.
ii) Peak repetitive reverse voltage or peak inverse voltage(PIV).
iii) Non-repetitive peak reverse voltage.
iv) Dv/dt rating.
Answer
Q11. What is DIAC, and why it used?
The DIAC is the two terminal and four layer device. It is mainly used for
triggering TRIACs. it conducts in either direction. It is low power triggering
device, and there are no control terminal on the DIAC.
Answer

Q1. What are the difference between transistor and SCR?

1. SCR is four layer PNPN device, whereas transistor is three layer (PNP or NPN)
device.
2. SCR turns on by regeneration but there is no regeneration in BJT.
3. Gate has no control over the conduction once SCR turns on. BJT can be turned
off by base drive.
4. BJTs have higher switching frequencies than SCRs.
Answer
Q2. Explain latching current and holding current of the thyristor?
Latching current: Its the minimum forward current that flows through the
thyristor to keep it in forward conduction mode at the time of triggering. If the
forward current is less than latching current, thyristor doesnt turn on.
Holding Current: It is the minimum forward current that flows through the
thyristor to keep it in forward conduction mode. When forward current reduces
below holding current, thyristor turn off.
Answer
Q3. What are the advantages of MOSFETs over BJTs?
i) MOSFETs have simpler gate drive circuits.
ii) They have high switching frequencies.
iii) MOSFETs are majority carrier devices.
iv) MOSFETs have positive temperature coefficients.
Answer
Q4. Why pulsed gate drive is used for SCR?
Once SCR is turned on, gate drive is no more required. Hence if pulsed gate drive
is used, SCR turns on at particular pulse. The remaining pulses are not used. But
pulsed drive reduces losses in gate cathode of the SCR.
Answer
Q5. Define the delay angle of phase-controlled rectifier.
It is the angle at which thyristors are triggered after zero crossing. After zero
crossing of supply voltage, one pair of thyristor is forward biased. After delay
angle (), the SCRs are triggered.
Answer
Q6. Why is power factor of semiconverter better than full converter?
Answer
Q7. What are the differences between freewheeling diode and feedback diode?
Freewheeling diode is used to circulate the load energy in the load itself.
Feedback diode is used to transfer the load energy to the source. Feedback diode
is normally used in inverters. Freewheeling diode is normally used in controlled
rectifiers.

Answer
Q8. What is inverting operation of the converter?
Converters are basically AC to DC controlled rectifiers. The power flows from AC
supply to DC load. In inverting operation, the power flows from DC load to AC
supply. Under such situation, the DC load is normally a battery. Thus the power
of DC battery load is given to AC supply through controlled rectifier. For this
operation, firing angle is greater than 90.
Answer
Q9. What are control strategies of chopper?
Choppers have following control strategies:
1. Fixed frequency operation: in this type of control, the frequency of chopper
remains fixed , but on and off periods of chopper change as per the duty cycle.
2. Variable frequency operation: in this type of control, the on or off period
remains fixed. Hence frequency of the chopper changes when duty cycle is
changed.
3. Current limit control (CLC) : in this type of control, the output is sensed, when
output current falls below reference level, chopper is turned on. And when output
current rises above reference level, chopper is turned off.
Answer
Q10. Explain the use of step-up chopper.
Step-up chopper is normally used for energy transfer. The load energy is
transferred to source by step-up operation.
Answer
Q11. What is four quadrant chopper?
Four quadrant chopper operates in all the four quadrants of Vo Io plane. It can
perform forward and reverse motoring as well as forward and reverse
regeneration.
Answer
Q12. What is the main difference between voltage source inverter and current
source inverter?
1. In the voltage source inverter, input voltage remains fixed and current varies
according to load variations. But in current source inverter, input current remains
fixed and voltage varies according to the load.
2. In voltage source inverters, short circuit of the devices can damage them. In
current source inverter short circuit cannot damage the circuit.
3. Voltage source inverters need freewheeling diodes. But current source inverters
doesnt need freewheeling diodes.
Answer
Q13. What are PWM inverters?
PWM inverters are basically pulse width modulated inverters. Voltage control in
such inverters is achieved by varying width of the pulse. In one half cycle there

can be single or multiple pulses. Number of pulses determine lowest order

harmonic present in inverter output voltage. Thus PWM inverters provide voltage
control as well as harmonic reduction simultaneously.
Answer
Q14. What is cycloconverter?
Cycloconverter is AC to AC converter. It has 1 or 3 AC input. Output is
variable voltage and variable frequency. Cycloconverters are used for induction
motor drives. They have an advantages of variable frequency output over other
AC voltage.
Answer
Q15. What are the advantages and disadvantages of AC voltage controller?
Advantages:
1. They use line communication, hence no extra communication circuits are
required.
2. They have high efficiencies since device losses are reduced.
Disadvantages:
1. Large ripple and harmonics are present in the output.
2. Output waveforms are not sinusoidal.
Answer