The Lure of the City -In the half-century after the Civil War, the urban population of America increased sevenfold – a majority of the American people lived in urban areas -Natural increase accounted for only a little bit of the urban growth – mostly immigration -Offered more and better-paying jobs than those in rural America Migrations -Late nineteenth century was an age of great geographical mobility – Americans left agricultural regions at a dramatic rate – some moved to new farmlands in the West but many moved to cities of the East and Midwest -Factory jobs for blacks were rare – urban blacks tended to have low-paying jobs -there were many substantial African-American communities in over thirty cities The Ethnic City -The immigrant populations that immigrated to the United States were very diverse – no single national group dominated -To ease the transition of moving into a city, many groups formed ethnic communities – offered newcomers familiar things such as newspapers in their native languages and stores selling their native foods Assimilation -Many immigrants wanted to assimilate and become true “Americans” -This urge to assimilate put a particular strain on relations between men and women in immigrant communities – many immigrant women began working outside the home Exclusion -The huge arrival of immigrants to the U.S provoked fear among native-born Americans – through general prejudices and economic concerns -Henry Bowers founded the American Protective Association in 1887 – group committed to stopping immigrant tide -In the same year the Immigration Restriction League was founded by 5 Harvard alumni – believed that immigrants should be screened through tests -More ambitious restriction proposals made little progress because many native-born Americans actually welcomed immigration because it provided the growing economy with a cheap and plentiful labor supply The Urban Landscape The Creation of Public Space -One of the most important innovations of cities were urban parks – antidote to congestion -Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux designed New York’s Central Park in 1850s -As cities increased, urban leaders launched huge projects to remake the look of cities -The “city beautiful” movement led by architect Daniel Burham was aimed to impose a similar order and symmetry on disorder ed life of cities -Sometimes, the effort to remake cities created new landscapes – in Boston, a region of marshy tidal land was used to create a neighborhood known as “Back Bay” Housing the Well-to-Do -the moderately well-to-do and wealthy settled in new suburbs -Chicago boasted nearly 100 residential suburbs in the 1870s -Developers tried to make these communities appeal to people from the countryside Housing Workers and the Poor -Most people could not afford to live in the suburbs -Many urban residents lived in “tenements”, rental buildings – soon became “miserable abodes” – tenements became synonymous with slum dwellings only -Jacob Riis, a Danish immigrant described tenement life in How the Other Half Lives Urban Transportation -Urban growth posed transportation challenges – old streets too narrow for heavy traffic and most were not paved -In 1870, New York opened its first elevated railway – moved rapidly above streets on iron structures -Other cities experimented with cable cars – Richmond, Virginia, introduced first electric trolley line – Boston opened first American subway The “Skyscraper” -Taller buildings were made possible by steel girder construction – first tall building to use this technique appeared in Chicago – Louis Sullivan was the greatest figure in the early development of the skyscraper Strains of Urban Life Fire and Disease -Since many buildings were made out of wood, fire was a serious problem in cities -Although terrible, fires encouraged building of fireproof buildings and development of professional fire departments Environment Degradation -the air quality in many cities was very poor – from factories and from furnaces in homes -Incidence of respiratory infection much higher in urban areas than in rural areas -Alice Hamilton was a physician who was a pioneer in identification of pollution in the workplace – brought problems to public attention -In 1912, government created the Public Health Service – prevented diseases Urban Poverty -Some charitable societies such as the Salvation Army concentrated on religious revivalism rather than relieving the homeless and hungry Crime and Violence -Poverty and crowding increased crime and violence – American murder rate rose rapidly in late 19th century – caused development of more professional police forces The Machine and the Boss -Urban machine was one of America’s most distinctive political institutions – product of the potential voting power of large immigrant communities -A group of urban “bosses” of foreign birth emerged – function was to win votes for their organization – had to win loyalty of companions -Machines were vehicles for making money -Politicians enriched themselves through graft and corruption -Reasons for boss rule: power of immigrant voters, link between the political organizations and prominent citizens who profited from their dealings, and the structural weaknesses of city governments The Rise of Mass Consumption -During the last decades of the 19th century, a distinctive middle-class culture began to have a powerful influence over the whole of American life Patterns of Income and Consumption -Incomes in the industrial ear were rising for almost everyone although at uneven rates -also important to new mass market was development of new merchandising techniques, making many consumer goods available to a broader market for the first time – example of one was ready made clothing and the buying and preparing of food Chain Stores and Mail-Order Houses -Small local stores faced competition from new “chain stores” – network of stores -The Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company (A&P) created a national network of grocery stores as early as the 1850s -these stores were slow to reach remote areas – rural people eventually gained access to the new consumer world through mail-order houses – In 1872, Montgomery Ward distributed a catalog of goods in association with the farmers’ organization the Grange Department Stores -Large department stores opened in larger cities – turned shopping into a more glamorous activity -Marshall Field created one of the first American department stores – had things that were once sold in different stores in one store Women as Consumers -Women were generally the primary consumers in families -Consumer economy also produced new jobs for women as sales clerks and waitresses -the consumer economy spawned the consumer protection movement -the National Consumers League formed by Florence Kelley, wanted to use the power of women to force retailers to improve wages and working conditions for women workers Leisure in the Consumer Society Redefining Leisure -In earlier eras, leisure was associated with laziness -“Rest” was valued as a time for spiritual reflection and a time to prepare for work -Economist Simon Patten was one of the first intellectuals to say that leisure time was both a right and an important contribution to an individual’s health -Simon Patten believed that the principal goal of the current economy should be an abundance of goods and the pursuit of pleasure -One of the distinctive characteristics of urban leisure during the time was intensity of public character – entertainment meant “going out” Spectator Sports -By the end of the civil war, interest in baseball had grown rapidly – many teams existed – first salaried team was the Cincinnati Red Stockings -Football also became popular -There was elaborate betting associated with spectator sports – one of the most famous incidents of baseball was the “throwing” of the 1919 World Series by the Chicago White Sox (known as the “Black Sox Scandal” Music and Theater -Another form of popular entertainment was ethnic theater – ethnic communities maintained their own theaters, where immigrants listened to music of their homelands -Vaudeville was a form of theater adapted from French models – consisted of a variety of acts and inexpensive to produce The Movies -the first movies were plotless films designed to show off the technology -D.W. carried the motion picture into a new era with his silent epics which had plots Working-Class Leisure -An important setting for the leisure time of working-class men was the neighborhood saloon – a place where a worker could encounter a regular circle of friends – often ethnically specific – became political centers The Fourth of July -The Fourth of July was one of the few full days of leisure for many workers – celebrations on this day were one of the highlights of the year in many ethnic, working- class communities Private Pursuits -Many Americans entertained themselves privately be reading novels and poetry – dime novels were cheaply bound and widely circulated – very popular after civil war Mass Communications -Urban industrial society created vast market for ways for transmitting information -Many newspaper chains emerged by the turn of the century – most powerful was William Randolph Hearst -Hearst and rival Joseph Pulitzer helped popularize “yellow journalism” – deliberately sensational style of reporting presented in bold graphics and designed to reach mass audience High Culture in the Age of the City The Literature of Urban America -One of the strongest impulses in the time period of American literature was to recreate urban social reality – found voice in Stephen Crane Art in the Age of the City -During the new century, some American artists turned away from traditional academic style – many painters explored grim aspects of modern life -Members of the Ashcan School produced realist work startling in its naturalism The Impact of Darwinism -The most profound intellectual development of the late 19th century was acceptance of theory of evolution associated with Charles Darwin – humans evolved from earlier forms of life through “natural selection” -Darwinism helped spawn other new intellectual ideas including Social Darwinism -“Pragmatism” was a doctrine developed by William James – said that modern society should not rely on moral principles for guidance but rather on test of scientific inquiry -Darwinism promoted growth of anthropology and study of different cultures Toward Universal Schooling -Because the society depended on specialized skills and scientific knowledge, American schools underwent rapid expansion -there was a spread of free public primary and secondary education -However, rural areas lagged far behind urban ones in funding public education -Colleges and universities also grew in number during the late 19th century – benefited from the Morrill Land Grant Act – federal government donated land to states for colleges Education for Women -Most public high schools accepted women but opportunities for higher education were few -After the war, many land-grant created colleges and universities in began to admit women -The creation of a network of women’s colleges played a crucial role in womens’ education – first was Mount Holyoke