Electrical

EEPW2320
EEPW 2320
[INSTRUMENTATION&MEASUREMENT
TECHNIQUES]
INSTRUMENTATION 3
CREDIT
AND MEASUREMENT HOURS
TECHNIQUES
PREREQUISITE
EETE 2102 AND EEPW 2150
Goal
To provide the working principles and

applications of different types of measuring
instruments and transducers along with their
applications.
Outcomes
Objectives
This course should enable the

student to:
1. Understand the operation,
principles and characteristics of
functional elements in engineering
Advanced
measurement
Techniques.
2. Perceive the principle of
operation
of
Instrumentation
systems.
3. Grasp the techniques of
electrical measurements and know
the range and limitations of
measuring instruments.
4. Know the principle of operation
of various types of electrical
transducers.
5. Understand the operation of
Data Acquisition System and Data
Conversion.
The students should be able to:

1. Define the functional elements
of a typical measurement system
and evaluation of its performance.
2. Be acquainted with the principle
of operation and construction of
Analog indicating instruments. Its
calibration.
3. Deal with the principle of
operation and construction of
Wattmeter and Energy meter.
Working of Insulation Megger
4. Get acquainted with the principle
of operation and construction of
Digital instruments.
5. Get acquainted with the
principle
of
operation
and
construction of cathode ray
oscilloscope. Be familiar with the
principle
of
operation
and
1 |NIZWA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY|ENGG Department|

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6. Know how to maintain and test construction

of
Instrument
engineering measurement systems Transformers.
6. Get acquainted with the principle
of operation of Potentiometers.
A.C. D.C. Bridges, Maxwell and
Andersons bridges.
7.Identify various types of sensors
and transducers
8. Deal with all types of signal
processing and conditioning.
9. Be acquainted with all common
analogue and digital devices for
data presentation.

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CHAPTER 1
(OUTCOME 1)
Elements of Measurement Systems
Introduction:
The purpose of measurement system is to give the user a numerical value
corresponding to the variable being measured. This numerical value may not be
exact, but with some errors due to errors of the equipment or human errors.
An instrumentation system for making measurements has an input of the true
value of the variable being measured and an output of the measured value.
#
Example: Thermometer is used to give a numerical value for the temperature of
a liquid. This measured value may not be actually the true value of the variable.
There may be errors due to many reasons like as- reading falling between two scale
markings, insertion of a cold thermometer into a hot liquid, lowering the
temperature of the liquid and so altering or changing the temperature being
measured.
The Functional Elements: A measurement system consists of three basic parts:
Transducers, Signal Processors and Data Presentation Elements.
1-Transducer/Sensor: This element is a sensing device that converts a measured
physical input variable into a proportional output signal, usually a voltage.
Example:
A -Thermocouple takes input as temperature and gives a small E.M.F as output.
#
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B -Resistance thermometer (RTD) has input as temperature and output as change

in resistance
#
2-Signal Processor: This element takes output from the transducer and converts it
into a form which is suitable for display or for onward transmission to a control
system. It performs filtering, amplification, or other signal conditioning function
on the transducer device.
(1) For thermocouple sensor we need an amplifier to make the signal large.
#
(2) For RTD we need a Wheatstone bridge or potentiometer to convert the change
in resistance to a voltage and then the amplifier to make the change in voltage
larger.
#
3- Data Presentation: This element presents the data in the form, so that observer
can understand it.
#
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The four different ways of presenting the data are:

(1) display in a meter with the pointer moving across the scale.
(2) Information on a visual display unit, like computer monitor screen.
(3) Printing on a chart or paper.
(4) Writing on a floppy disk or CD etc.
Final block diagram of elements of measurement systems is shown in the below
figure
# homepages.eee.strath.ac.uk/~reza/ee902/ee902-notes.pdf
* A text book on INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS by W.Bolton

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EXAMPLES OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

EXAMPLE(1) : TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM USING THERMOCOUPLE
The thermocouple is a transducer that converts temperature to a small voltage; the

amplifier increases the magnitude of the voltage; the A/D converter (Analog to
Digital) converts the analog voltage to a digital signal, and the LEDs (light
emitting diode) display the value of the temperature.
*
EXAMPLE (2) TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM USING RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE
DETECTOR (RTD)
With a resistance thermometer, element A takes the temperature signal and

transforms it into resistance signal, element B transforms the resistance signal into
a current signal, element C transforms the current signal into a display of a
movement of a pointer across a scale.
#
*http://mechatronics.colostate.edu/figures/index.html
#A text book on INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS by W.Bolton

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Loading Effect: The act of attempting to make the measurement modify the
variable is called Loading. That is when we introduce equipment for
measurements the result will be different from the actual value.
Examples for Loading Effect:
1-When we use a cold thermometer to measure a hot liquid, the temperature will
change. The reading shown by the thermometer will not be correct. This is also due
to Loading Effect.
2-When we insert an ammeter in series to measure current, the resistance of the
ammeter will affect the reading. The current shown will be less than actual value.
This is also Loading Effect. To get good reading the resistance of the ammeter
should be very small.
*
3-When we insert a voltmeter in parallel to measure voltage as in the below figure,
the reading will be changed, because the voltmeter also takes some current. To
minimize the error the resistance of the voltmeter should be very large.
*
*A text book on INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL by W.Bolton
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Essential Requirements of Measurement Systems:

1. Fitness for the purpose:
The measurement system must give the result with the required accuracy for
the user. Accuracy of the measurement system is the amount of error in the
result. This depends on the purpose.
Example:
a) When we measure speed of car it is enough if we get the value as 80,
90 or 100 kmph. No need for a value like 81.25 kmph. Here we need
less accuracy.
b) When we measure the temperature of a patient we should know
whether it is 93.4C or 93.5C etc. Here we need more accuracy.
2.
In order to deliver the required accuracy, the measurement system should be

calibrated regularly.
Quality:
3.
Quality refers to the totality of the features and characteristics of the system
based on its ability to meet the needs of customer. Also, quality indicates
the best available. Quality systems will be fit for the purpose, which meets
all requirements.
Example:
Rolls Royce car is quality car, but small car is not of quality.
Reliability:
Reliability of system is defined as the probability that it will operate to an
agreed level of performance, for a specified period, subject to specified
environmental conditions.
The agreed level of performance might be that the measurement system
gives a particular accuracy.
The reliability of measurement system just after calibration is 1. This mean
that ten (hundred) out of ten hundred) measurements the measurement
system gives the result with the agreed level of accuracy.
A highly reliable measurement system has low failure rate. Failure rate is
the number of times during some period of time that the measurement
system fails to meet the required level of performance.

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Failure rate is affected by the environmental conditions.

Example:
A failure rate of 0.4 per year means that in one year, if ten (hundred)
measurements are observed then 4(forty) will fail to meet the required level
of performance.
Repeatability:
It is the ability of the measurement system to give same value for repeated
measurements without disconnecting the system.
Calibration of Measuring sensors & Instruments

Calibration is the comparing of an unknown measurement device against equal
or better known standard under specified conditions
This procedure is carried out for a range of inputs covering the whole
measuring range of the instrument or sensor.
Instrument calibration has to be repeated at prescribed intervals because the
characteristic of any instrument change over a period.
Performance Terms in a measurement system
Performance Terms in a measurement system are used to define the performance
of measurement system and functional elements.
1-Accuracy: Is often expressed as a percentage of the full range output or fullscale deflection (f. s. d.).
for example an ammeter has a F.S.D of (0-5A) and an accuracy of 5%
This means that accuracy of ANY reading of ammeter between 0 and 5A is
PLUS or MINUS 5% of 5A (f. s. d.)
= [(5/100) x (5)] = 0.25A.
Reading of ammeter = 2.0A (measured value).
True value = lies between (2.0 - 0.25) A and (2.0 +0.25) A = [1.75A, 2.25A].
Similarly, thermometer may have an accuracy of 0.1C. (Directly expressed
as percentage of f. s. d.)
Error = measured value true value.
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If measured value is 10.1 and true value is 10.0 then,
Error = 10.1 10.0 = 0.1 (positive).

(2) If measured value is 9.9 and true value is 10.0 then,
Error = 9.9 10.0 = -0.1 (negative).
Hysteresis Error:
Instruments can give different
readings, for the same value of
measured quantity according to
whether that value has been reached
by a continuously increasing change
or a continuously decreasing
change. This effect is called
HYSTERESIS. Occurs as result of
such things as bearing friction and
slack motion in gears in instruments.
The hysteresis error is the difference
between the measured values
obtained when the quantity is
increasing and when decreasing to
that value.
Non-Linearity Error:
A linear relationship for an element or
a system means output is directly
proportional to the input.
The non-linearity error is the
difference between the true value
and what is indicated when a linear
relationship is assumed.
##
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2-The Range: The range of an instrument is the limits between which readings
can be made.
For example (1), an ammeter has range of 0-4 A. This means that ammeter can
be used to measure current values between 0A and 4A.
The meter shown in figure (7) has the dual ranges 0 to 4 and 0 to 20.
##
Notice: The term Dead Band or Dead Space is used if there is a range of input
values for which there is no output.
3-Repeatability: The ability to give the same output for repeated applications of
the same input value, without the system being disconnected from its input or any
change in the environment in which the test is carried out.
4-Reproducibility: The ability to give the same output when used with a constant
input with the system being disconnected from its input and then reinstalled.
5-Sensitivity: The rate of change of output of system with respect to input.
Indicates to how much you get per unit input, the ratio (output/input). For e.g.:
Thermocouple has sensitivity of 20v/C. That means when the temperature
changes by 1C, the Thermocouple voltage will change by 20 v.
6-Resolution: The resolution of an instrument is the smallest change in the
quantity being measured that will produce the observable change in the reading
of the instrument.
7-Stability: The stability of an instrument is its ability to display the same reading
when it is used to measure the constant quantity or when that quantity is measured
on a number of occasions. While the Drift is often used to describe the change in
output that occur over a period of time for a constant input.
## A text book on INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL by W.Bolton

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Problems
The measurement instruments used in the tool room of a company are
found to have failure rate of 0.01 per year. What does this mean?
A voltmeter with resistance RV is connected in parallel with resistance
R=100 ohms. The applied voltage V= 100V. Determine the error (E) &
percentage error (%E) in the measurement of voltage (V) due to loading
effect of voltmeter when (i) RV =1M (Ohms) (ii) RV = 100K (Ohms).
An ammeter with resistance RA is connected in series with resistance
R=100 ohms. The applied voltage V= 200V. Determine the error (E) &
percentage error (%E) in the current measurement due to loading effect of
ammeter when-(i) RA =0.2(Ohms)
(ii) RA = 20.0 (Ohms).
An ammeter has a range of (0-5A) and an accuracy of 1% of f. s. d.
What is the accuracy can be quoted for the current reading of 3A?
A pressure measurement system is stated as having the following
characteristics. Explain the significance of the terms:
1-Range: 0 to 125 KPa and 0 to 2500 kPa.
2-Accuracy: 1% of the displayed reading.
3-Temperature Sensitivity: 0.1 % of the reading per C.
A Hydrometer is specified as having a range of 600-650 Kg/m3 and an
Accuracy of 0.5Kg/m3. Explain the significance of this data.
A thermocouple is specified as having the sensitivity of 0.03millivolt / C.
What does this mean?
8. A force-measuring system has a range of 0-200N with resolution of 0.1%

f. s. d. What is the smallest change in the force that can be measured?
9. A spring balance is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 20 oC
and has the following deflection/load characteristics
Load (Kg)
0
1
2
3
Deflection(mm) 0
20
40
60
It is used in an environment at a temperature of 30 oC and the following
deflection/ load characteristics.
Load (Kg)
0
1
2
3
Deflection(mm) 5
27
49
71
o
Determine zero drift and sensitivity drift per C change in ambient temperature.

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Chapter 2
(OUTCOMES 6,7,8,9)
Sensors, Signal Processing & Data Presentation
(I)- Transducer / Sensor Classification :
The transducer or sensor is a sensing element used in the measurement
system to take the input information about the physical variable (change in
temperature, pressure, flow of liquid, level of liquid, and displacement) to be
measured and convert it into a more suitable form. (Change in electrical
voltage, resistance, capacitance, and inductance)
Active & Passive Transducers:
Active transducers generate electric current or voltage directly in response to
environmental stimulation. Examples of active transducers are thermocouples and
piezoelectric accelerometers. Passive transducers produce a change in some
passive electrical quantity, such as capacitance, resistance, or inductance, as a
result of stimulation. These usually require additional electrical energy for
excitation. Examples of passive transducers are strain gauges, resistance
temperature detectors (RTDs), and thermistors.
Classification of transducers based on application.
Displacement sensor
Speed sensor
Fluid Flow sensor
Liquid Level sensor
Temperature sensor
A - Displacement sensor
Measure a Linear displacement. e. g. Change in linear position of
thickness of metal sheet/slab.
Measure an Angular displacement. e. g. Change in angular displacement
of a drive shaft.
Measure the Position. e. g. linear or angular position of some object.
Detect motion or the presence of some objects. e. g. An alarm is sounded
or light is switched on when there is some movement of an object within the
view of sensor / transducer.
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Displacement sensors examples:

Potentiometer
Straingauge
Linear variable differential transformer
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT):
LVDT works under the principle of mutual induction, and the displacement
which is a non-electrical energy is converted into an electrical energy. It has three
coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube. The central coil is primary coil
and the other two are secondary coils.
##
Working principle:
Due to an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating electromagnetic forces (emfs) [E1 and E2 ]are generated in secondary coils. The middlecoil is the primary coil and the other two identical (upper & lower) secondary coils
are connected in series in such a way that their output EMFs oppose each other ,
the NET OUTPUT VOLTAGE of secondary coils = (E1-E2) volts.
(1) When core is in middle position,E1 = E2 ,so net voltage is E1-E2 =0V.
(2) When core is in up position,E1>E2, so net voltage is E1-E2 = +V.
(3) When core is in down position,E2>E1, so net voltage is E1-E2 = -V.
##http://www.efunda.com/designstandards/sensors/lvdt/lvdt_theory.cfm
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B- SPEED SENSORS
The following are examples of speed sensors that can be used to
monitor linear and angular speeds.
1- Tachogenerator (for rotary speed)
2-Optical Method (for linear speed)
Speed measurement by Tachogenerator:
The basic tacho generator is consists of rotating coil mounted in a
magnetic field. When the coil rotates an alternating E. M. F. induce in the
coil. This E. M. F. is proportional to speed. The faster the coil rotates the
greater the size of alternating E. M. F.
##
The size of the alternating E.M. F. Measure of the angular speed.
By measuring the voltage measure the speed.
## http://nptel.ac.in/courses/108105063/pdf/L-05(SS)(IA&C)%20((EE)NPTEL).pdf
C- FLUID PRESSURE SENSORS

Fluid pressure sensor devices used in industrial processes involve the
monitoring of the elastic deformation of diaphragm, bellows, and tubes. The
following are some common examples of fluid pressure sensors.
1-Diaphragm Sensors:
2- Bellows Sensor:
3- Bourdon Tube:
Bellow sensor:
When the pressure inside bellows increases, relative to the pressure outside
the bellows, then the bellows increase in length. A displacement sensor can be used
to monitor the movement of bellows and hence give a measure of the pressure.
Figure below shows how a bellows can be combined with a (LVDT) to give a
pressure sensor with an electrical output.

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##
Bellows sensors are used to sense the pressure differences up to few hundred KPa
with accuracy = +/- 1%.
D- FLUID FLOW SENSORS
1- Rotameter
2-Turbine Meter:
Turbine Meter
Turbine meter consists of a multi-bladed rotor that is supported centrally in
the pipe along which the flow occurs.
##
The rotor rotates as a result of the fluid flow, the angular velocity being
approximately proportional to the flow rate. The rate of revolution of the rotor
can be determined by attaching a small permanent magnet to one of the blades
and using a pick-up coil.An induced e. m .f. pulse is produced in the coil every
time the magnet passes through it.The pulses are counted and so the numbers of
revolutions of the rotor are determined. The meter is expensive, with an
accuracy= 0.1%.
## http://nptel.ac.in/courses/108105063/pdf/L-05(SS)(IA&C)%20((EE)NPTEL).pdf
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E-LIQUID LEVEL SENSORS

1.Load cell
2-Potentiometer Float Gauge:
Potentiometer Float Gauge:
A simple float system is shown in the figure below.
The float is at one end of a pivoted rod with the other end connected
to the slider of a potentiometer. Changes in level cause the float to move up
and down. Hence move the slider over the potentiometer resistance track and
so give a output voltage related to the liquid level.
CHANGE IN LIQUID LEVEL
**
CHANGE IN VOLTAGE
F-TEMPERATURE SENSORS
The following are some of the most commonly used temperature
sensors.
1-Glass Thermometer
2- Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
3- Thermistor
4-Thermocouples:
Thermocouples:
A thermocouple consists of two different metal wires joined together.
When two different metals are joined together, a potential difference
occurs across the junction.
** http://www.cse.dmu.ac.uk/~eg/tele/background.html
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The potential difference across the junction depends on the two metals used
and the temperature of the junction. The Thermocouple involves two such
junctions. If both junctions have same temperature, then there is NO NET E.M.F.
An EMF is produced between two junctions when there is a temperature
difference between the two junctions.
Usually one junction (Cold Junction) is kept at 0 (C) so then value of EMF
depends on the temperature (C) of other junction (Hot Junction).
TYPE
MATERIAL
E
J
K
R
CHROMEL-CONSTANTAN
IRON-CONSTANTAN
CHEOMEL-ALUMEL
PLATINUM-PLATINUM/ RHODIUM 13%
COPPER-CONSTANTAN
RANGE ( C)
0 to 980
-180 to 760
-180 to 1260
0 to 1750
SENSITIVITY
V/ C
36
36
14
3
-180to 370
16
Signal Processing and Data Presentation

Signal Processor / Conditioner Classification:
A signal processor takes signal from the sensor and converts it into a form suitable
for display or transmission to other places.
Examples:
1-Small signal amplified Bigger signal.
2-Resistance change Current or Voltage change.
3-Analogue signal to Digital signal.
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1-Resistance to Voltage Converter:

a) Voltage divider Circuit / Potential Divider Circuit
A potential Divider can be used to convert the resistance change into voltage
change.Thermister is used to measure temperature.
A constant source voltage (6V) is applied across the Thermister and another
resistor (10K) in series. The output voltage (V0) is taken across the resistor (R).
When the resistance of the Thermister (RT) changes the output voltage of Potential
divider changes.
The potential divider (shown in figure below) is a simple resistance to
voltage converter. Hence it is a signal processor.
*
Source Voltage = VS (volts)
Output voltage (V0) = [R/(R + RT) X VS] (volts)
b) BRIDGE CIRCUITS
DC bridge Circuits
1. Wheatstone bridge
2. Kelvin bridge
Wheatstone Bridge (R to V) Converter:
The basic form of Wheatstone bridge is shown in figure below.
*
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Four resistances
are the arms of Wheatstone bridge.
R1 Thermister according to temperature.
Output voltage = V0 = ZERO Bridge is balanced.
Potential difference between points B and D = ZERO.
Potential at B = potential at D.
. Thus
.
.
Now dividing the two equations:
{The BRIDGE IS BALANCED IN THIS CASE}.

If one resistance (R1) changes, the bridge will become unbalanced and there
will be voltage across BD.
The voltage drop in
across AB =
The voltage drop in
across AD =
*
The potential difference between B & D = output voltage = VO is:
The above equation gives the balanced condition V0 =0.
* A text book on INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL by W.Bolton

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A.C Bridges
1. Capacitance comparison bridge
2. Inductance comparison bridge
3. Maxwells bridge
4. Anderson bridge
5. Wein bridge
6. hays bridge
7. Schering bridge
Maxwell Wein Bridge circuit
It is used for measuring unknown inductance and resistance.
At balance,
Z1 Z2= Z3 Z4
Unknown Inductance L and resistance (r)
Anderson Bridge:
It is a very important and useful modification of the Maxwell-Wien bridge .
In this method, the unknown inductance is measured in terms of a known
capacitance and resistance.
The unknown inductance is measured by using the formula

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**
**Text book of electrical technology by B.L.Theraja
2-Analogue To Digital Converters (A/D )

Introduction :
The electrical output from the sensors, are in the analogue form. (Thermocouples,
Pressure Gauges, Strain Gauges, etc.)
An analogue Signal: is continuously varying as a function of time.
A digital Signal: In contrast to an analogue, a digital signal exist only at specific
levels or states and changes its level in discrete steps.
The process of converting the analogue signals to digital form is called
Analogue to Digital Conversion (ADC).
Most digital signals have only two states, the high logic state (1) and the low logic
state (0).
What is the need of ADC & DAC in a measurement & control system?
Microprocessors and computers need digital signals. To process the output
from analogue sensors using computers, ADC is required (to convert analogue
output from sensor to digital form).
The output from computers and microprocessors are in digital form. The
conversion of digital signals into analogue form is required for operating the
control system like to operate some analogue valve to control some liquid flow or
to operate any other type of analogue output devices.
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ADC stages:
Stage 1:The sample of the analogue signal is taken at regular intervals. This gives
a series of narrow pulses with heights that vary as the analogue signal.
Stage 2: These samples are then converted into digital signals using analogue to
digital conversion.

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*
The minimum change in input that can be detected (The Resolution),is thus
.
Digital to Analogue Converters(DAC):
The input to D/A converter is a binary word and the output its equivalent
analogue value.
For example, if we have a full scale output of 7V then a digital input of 000 will
give 0 V, and 111 the full scale of 7 V, like in figure below:
*
The basic form of D/A converter involves the digital input being used to activate
the electronic switches.
1 activates switch and 0 does not activate the switch.
The position 1 in the word determines which switch is activated.

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ADC Techniques
Single slope ADC,
Dual slope ADC,
Successive approximation ADC,
Flash ADC.
DAC Techniques
Binary Weighted DAC,
R/2R Ladder DAC.
Data Presentation Elements/ Classification:
Display devices
Display devices are used for the visual presentation of information.
Analog display devices
Analogue displays use a needle and calibrated scale to indicate values.
Example: moving coil meters and moving iron meters.

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Digital display devices

Digital displays show the measured value as digits and they are more
accurate than analogue.
Examples :
LED (including OLED) displays

VF (vacuum fluorescent ) displays
LCD (liquid crystal) displays
Nixie tube displays and PDPs (plasma display panels)
Electroluminescent displays (ELDs)
Others:
Alphanumeric Printers.
Chart Recorders.
Magnetic Recording
Computer Disks (Hard Disk, Floppy, CD, DVD).
Problems
1. With an A/D converter having a word length of 10 bits and the maximum
analogue signal input range 10V, what will be the resolution?
2. A thermocouple gives an output of 0.4mv for each degree change in
temperature. What will be the word length required when its output passes
through an A/D if temperatures from 0 to 200C are to be measured with a
resolution of 0.5C?
3. A microprocessor gives an output of an 8-bit word. This is fed through an 8bit D/A converter to a control valve, which requires 6.0 V to be fully open.
If the fully open state is to be indicated by the output of the digital word
(11111111) what will be the change in output to the valve when there is a
change of 1 bit?
4. A Maxwell bridge circuit ABCD has the following arm impedances: AB,
250 resistance; BC, 15F capacitor in parallel with a 10k resistor: CD,
400 resistor; DA, unknown inductor having inductance L and resistance R
Determine the values of L and R assuming the bridge is balanced.
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Chapter-3
(OUTCOMES 2, 3,4)
Electrical Measuring Instruments & Measurements
Introduction
Tests and measurements are important in designing evaluating,
maintaining and servicing electrical circuits and equipment. In order to detect
electrical quantities such as current, voltage, resistance or power, it is necessary
to transform an electrical quantity or condition into a visible indication. This is
done with the aid of instruments that indicate the magnitude of quantities either
by the position of a pointer moving over a graduated scale (analogue
instrument) or in the form of a decimal number (digital instrument).
Analogue Instruments
The main devices in an analogue instrument are deflecting device, controlling
device and damping device.
(a) Deflecting or operating device: A mechanical force produced by current
and voltage causes the pointer to deflect from its zero position.
(b) Controlling device: The controlling force acts in opposition to the
deflecting force. It ensures that the deflection shown on the meter is same
for a given measured quantity. Also prevents pointer going to maximum
deflection.
Types: Spring control, gravity control.
(c) Damping device: The damping force ensures that the pointer comes to rest
in its final position quickly and without oscillation. There are three main
types of damping used.
Types: Eddy current, Air friction and Fluid friction damping
Moving Iron Instrument:
Attraction Type Fig. (a)
When current flows in the solenoid, a pivoted soft iron disc is attracted
towards the solenoid and the movement causes a pointer to move across a scale.
The force moving the pointer I 2
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Repulsion Type Fig. (b)

As in fig3.1 pieces of iron are placed inside the solenoid. One is fixed and
the other is attached to the pointer. When current passes through the solenoid,
the 2 pieces of iron are magnetized in the same direction and therefore repel
each other. The pointer thus moves across the scale.
*
Fig3.1 Moving Iron Instrument
Moving Coil Instrument

A moving coil instrument operates on the motor principle. When a
conductor carrying current is placed in a magnetic field, a force F is exerted on
a conductor, given by F=BIL where B-flux density, L-conductor length, Icurrent flowing in the conductor.
**
Fig3.2 Moving Iron Instrument
* http://www.electrical-engineering-assignment.com/repulsion-type
##http://yourelectrichome.blogspot.com/2014/05/moving-iron-instruments.html.
**http://electrical4u.com/electrical-measuring-instruments-types-accuracy-precisionresolution-speed/
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Comparison of moving coil and moving iron instruments

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Ammeters and voltmeters

Voltmeters and ammeters are devices used to measure the electrical characteristics
of parts of a circuit.
Ammeters measure current.
Voltmeters measure voltage (potential difference).
Ammeters
Ammeters are always wired in series to the circuit.
*
Since the current in a series circuit is the same all the way, the current
measure with the ammeter is also the current flowing through the resistor.
If the ammeter was wired in parallel, part of the current would branch off into the
ammeter, part into the resistor, and we cannot have an accurate reading of the
current in the circuit.
Since the ammeter is in series in the circuit it must has the lowest resistance
possible. If it has very much resistance at all, it would increase the overall
resistance of the circuit and change the current what we are measuring.
Voltmeters
*
* www.studyphysics.ca/30/voltamm.pdf
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Voltmeters are always wired in parallel to the circuit. Anything that is

connected in parallel has the same voltage across everything, so the
voltage drop measured across the resistor is accurate.
If there is no source of electricity or resistance between the connections
of the voltmeter it will read zero, since no potential difference exists
between the two points.
If the voltmeter was wired in series, it would have a voltage drop of its
own, but would not be able to measure the potential difference between
two points in the circuit.
Since the voltmeter is in parallel, voltmeters must always have very high
resistances.
Shunts and Multipliers
Shunts and Multipliers are the resistances connected in parallel or series with
the voltmeters or ammeters to enhance their measuring capacity.
Shunts
A resistance placed in parallel with an instrument (or Galvanometer) to
control the current passing through it, when placed in a circuit carrying a fairly
large current is called a shunt. The resistance of the shunt should not vary with
time.
For shunt, I a ra = Is Rs
**
Multipliers
A high resistance in series with a galvanometer is connected, to limit the
current flowing through the meter so that it does not exceed the value for full scale
deflection and thus prevents the instrument from being damaged. Such a resistance
is called multiplier.

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**
**A Text book on Electrical-and-Electronic-Principles-and-TechnologyThird-Edition by john bird.

Practical Multirange Voltmeter
The range of the basic d.c. voltmeter can be extended by using number of
multipliers and a selector switch. Such a meter is called multi range voltmeter
#
#http://yourelectrichome.blogspot.com/2014/07/multirange-voltmeter.html
Ohmmeters
The purpose of an ohmmeter, of course, is to measure the resistance placed
between its leads. This resistance reading is indicated through a mechanical meter
movement which operates on electric current. The ohmmeter must then have an
internal source of voltage to create the necessary current to operate the movement,
and also have appropriate ranging resistors to allow just the right amount of current
through the movement at any given resistance.

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*
*http://electriciantraining.tpub.com/14188/css/14188_94.htm
The megger
Megger is a portable instrument which is used to measure insulation
resistance of the electrical machinery or system. It can be battery operated or
mechanically operated (hand crank dc generator) and gives direct reading in ohms.
An ohmmeter designed for measuring high values of resistance (i.e.
megohms) is called an insulation resistance tester (e.g. Megger).
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
**

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(1) Deflecting & Control coil : Connected parallel to the generator, mounted at
right angle to each other and maintain polarities in such a way to produced torque
in opposite direction.
2) Permanent Magnets: Produce magnetic field to deflect pointer with NorthSouth pole magnet.
3) Pointer : One end of the pointer connected with coil another end deflects on
scale from infinity to zero.
4) Scale : A scale is provided in front-top of the megger from range zero to
infinity, enable us to read the value.
5) D.C generator or Battery connection : Testing voltage is produced by hand
operated
D.C
generator for
manual
operated
Megger. Battery /
electronic voltage charger is provided for automatic type Megger for same
purpose.
A hand driven dc generator, G, which supplies the necessary current for making
the measurement
6) Pressure coil resistance and Current coil resistance : Protect instrument from
any damage because of low external electrical resistance under test.
Working
Coil A is connected in series with R3 and the unknown resistance, Rx, to be
measured. Coil B is connected in series with R2.
If the terminals are open circuited, no current flows in coil A, and the current
in coil B alone controls the movement of the moving element.
When a resistance is connected between the terminals, current flows in coil
A, tending to move the pointer clockwise. At the same time, coil B tends to
move the pointer counterclockwise.
Therefore, the moving element comes to rest at a position at which the two
forces are balanced.
This position depends upon the value of the external resistance.
** http://avstop.com/ac/apgeneral/ohmmeters.html
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ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL MULTIMETER

Millimeters are An instrument designed to measure
electrical quantities. A typical multimeter can measure alternating- and directcurrent potential differences (voltages), current, and resistance, with several fullscale ranges provided for each quantity.
*
*https://rodzah.files.wordpress.com/2011/07/topic_2-1f37518.pdf
Wattmeter
The wattmeter is an indicating type instruments, generally used for
power measurement of the electrical circuit . A wattmeter consists of
(1) a low resistance current coil which is inserted in series with the line
carrying the current and
(2) a high resistance pressure coil which is connected across the two points
whose potential difference is to be measured.
**
**A Text book on Electrical-and-Electronic-Principles-and-Technology-Third-Edition
by john bird.
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Energy meter
An energy meter is a device that measures the amount of electrical
energy consumed by a residence, business, or an electrically powered device.
The most common unit of measurement on the electricity meter is the
kilowatt hour, which is equal to the amount of energy used by a load of one
kilowatt over a period of one hour, or 3,600,000 joules.
Energy is the product of power and time for which power is used (i.e)
Energy= power time
Principle of operation
The meters fall into two basic categories, electromechanical and electronic.
The electromechanical induction meter operates by counting the revolutions
of an aluminium disc which is made to rotate at a speed proportional to the power.
The number of revolutions is thus proportional to the energy usage. The metallic
disc is acted upon by two coils. One coil is connected in such a way that it
produces a magnetic flux in proportion to the voltage and the other produces a
magnetic flux in proportion to the current. The type of meter described below is
used on a single-phase AC supply.
**
**A Text Book OF Electrical technology by Rajput

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Creep: In an induction type meter, creep is a phenomenon that can adversely affect
accuracy that occurs when the meter disc rotates continuously with potential
applied and the load terminals open circuited. A test for error due to creep is called
a creep test.
DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS:
The digital measuring instruments indicate the values of the quantity in
digital format that is in numbers, which can be read easily.
Examples of digital instruments:
Digital voltmeter
Digital millimeter
Digital frequency meter
Digital measurement of time etc.
Digital voltmeter (DVM):

Any digital instrument requires analog to digital converter at its input. Hence first
block in a general DVM is ADC.
Types of DVM
1. Ramp type DVM
2. Dual slope DVM
3. Successive approximation type DVM
Ramp type DVM
This DVM is known as ramp type DVM, because to convert analog
input into digital form ramp signal is used as a reference signal. Analog to
digital converter (ADC) circuit used in this DVM is called ramp type ADC.
Principle:
Input voltage is converted into digital equivalent by counting the time
taken for the ramp wave to decrease from the magnitude of input voltage to 0V.

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Construction:
The block diagram of the Ramp-type ADC can be divided into two sections as
follows:
1. Voltage to time conversion section
2. Time measurement section
In the voltage to time conversion section, the analog input voltage is fed to
the attenuation circuit. The attenuated signal is compared with the ramp signal generated
by the ramp generator by the input comparator 'C1'. Similarly, The ramp signal generated
is compared with 0V via a zero-crossing detector 'C2'. A sample rate multivibrator is
connected to the ramp generator whose purpose is to provide an initiating pulse for the
ramp generator to start the next ramp voltage for the next measurement. It is also used to
reset the counter before generating the next ramp voltage.
**
In the time measurement section, there is counter which is triggered by a gating
pulse. The inputs of the gating pulse are (i) Output of 'C1' (ii) Output of 'C2' (iii)
Clock pulse from the oscillator. The counter is reset after each successful
completion of time measurement by a control signal from the sample rate
multivibrator. The count produced is displayed by connecting suitable display
device.

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Detailed Operation:
Initially, the attenuated signal is compared with a negative going ramp signal
generated by the ramp generator. When the ramp voltage coincides with the
input signal, the output of 'C1' becomes low. This point is called coincidence
point. This initiates the counting process ( start of count ). The counter
continues to count until the ramp voltage reduces and crosses zero (0V). This is
detected by zero crossing detector 'C2'. The output of 'C2' becomes high which
ends the counting process (end of count).
** http://yengal-marumugam.blogspot.com/2011/10/digital-voltmeter-part-ii.html

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Problems
1. Calculate the power dissipated by the voltmeter and by resistor R when (a)
R=300 and (b) R=3M. The voltmeter sensitivity (figure of merit) is 12k/V,
f.s.d=200V.
2. For the figure below, determine the (a) Power dissipated in the load (b)
Wattmeter reading
3. A 0-1A ammeter having a resistance of 50 is used to measure the current

flowing in a 1k resistor when the supply voltage is 250V. Calculate: (a)
the approximate value of current (neglecting the ammeter resistance), (b) the
actual current in the circuit, (c) the power dissipated in the meter, (d) the
power dissipated in 1k resistor.
4. Electrical equipment in an office takes a current of 13A from a 240V supply.
Estimate the cost per week of electricity if the equipment is used for 30 hours
each week and 1 kWh of energy costs 12.5p.
5. An electric heater consumes 3.6 MJ when connected to a 250V supply for 40
minutes. Find the power rating of the heater and the current taken from the
supply.

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CHAPTER 4
(OUTCOME 5)
CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE & INSTRUMENT
TRANSFORMERS
The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that
provides accurate time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide
range of frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable
as a general purpose laboratory instrument. The heart of the CRO is a cathode-ray
tube shown schematically in Fig. 1.
**
Main Parts of Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Electron gun
Deflection System
Fluorescent screen
Glass tube
Base
**http://boson.physics.sc.edu/~hoskins/Demos/CathodeRay.html
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The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by the heated
cathode (negative electrode) and accelerated toward the fluorescent screen. The
assembly of the cathode, intensity grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode (positive
electrode) is called an electron gun. Its purpose is to generate the electron beam
and control its intensity and focus. Between the electron gun and the fluorescent
screen are two pair of metal plates - one oriented to provide horizontal deflection
of the beam and one pair oriented to give vertical deflection to the beam.
These plates are thus referred to as the horizontal and vertical deflection
plates. The combination of these two deflections allows the beam to reach any
portion of the fluorescent screen. Wherever the electron beam hits the screen, the
phosphor is excited and light is emitted from that point. This conversion of
electron energy into light allows us to write with points or lines of light on an
otherwise darkened screen.
CRO operation
A simplified block diagram of a typical oscilloscope is shown in Fig. 3. In
general, the instrument is operated in the following manner. The signal to be
displayed is amplified by the vertical amplifier and applied to the verical deflection
plates of the CRT. A portion of the signal in the vertical amplifier is applied to the
sweep trigger as a triggering signal. The sweep trigger then generates a pulse
coincident with a selected point in the cycle of the triggering signal. This pulse
turns on the sweep generator, initiating the saw tooth wave form as in figure 2.
The sawtooth wave is amplified by the horizontal amplifier and

applied to the horizontal deflection plates. Usually, additional provisions signal are
made for appliying an external triggering signal or utilizing the 60 Hz line for
triggering. Also the sweep generator may be bypassed and an external signal
applied directly to the horizontal amplifier .
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**
CRO CONTROLS
The controls available on most oscilloscopes provide a wide range of
operating conditions. Since many of these controls are common to most
oscilloscopes a brief description of them follows.
Power and Scale Illumination: Turns instrument on and controls illumination of
the graticule (screen).
Focus: Focus the spot or trace on the screen.
Intensity: Regulates the brightness of the spot or trace.
VERTICAL AMPLIFIER SECTION
Position: Controls vertical positioning of oscilloscope display.
Sensitivity: Selects the sensitivity of the vertical amplifier in calibrated steps. This
is usually in volts/div
AC-DC-GND: Selects desired coupling (ac or dc) for incoming signal applied to
vertical amplifier, or grounds the amplifier input. Selecting dc couples the input
directly to the amplifier; selecting ac send the signal through a capacitor before
going to the amplifier thus blocking any constant component.
**http://boson.physics.sc.edu/~hoskins/Demos/CathodeRay.html
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HORIZONTAL-SWEEP SECTION
Sweep time/cm: Selects desired sweep rate from calibrated steps or admits
external signal to horizontal amplifier.
Position: Controls horizontal position of trace on screen.
Trigger: The trigger selects the timing of the beginning of the horizontal sweep. It
is used to synchronize horizontal deflection with vertical deflection.
Level: Selects the voltage point on the triggering signal at which sweep is
triggered. It also allows automatic (auto) triggering of allows sweep to run free
(free run).
The Screen of oscilloscope
The screen of this oscilloscope has 8 squares or divisions on the vertical
axis, and 10 squares or divisions on the horizontal axis. Usually, these squares are
1 cm in each direction:
**
Calibration:
A built in source of signals is available to check that the oscilloscope is
working or not.It provides standard signal to calibrate the vertical amplifier
controls. In most CROs it is a square wave of 1 VPP.
** http://secte1.elec.uow.edu.au/traininglab/Equipment/CRO.htm
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***
The diagram shows a lead with a BNC plug at one end and crocodile clips
at the other. When the crocodile clip from the red wire is clipped to the lower metal
terminal, a 2 V square wave is connected to the input of CH 1. Adjust VOLTS/DIV
and TIME/DIV until you obtain a clear picture of the 2 V signal like below
###
***http://www.doctronics.co.uk/scope.htm
### http://www.doctronics.co.uk/scope.htm
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Types of CRO
Dual beam oscilloscopes: are useful whenever two signals are to be compared
simultaneously. It allows viewing two voltage / time graphs in the screen at the
same time. In this two electron beams are used.
In Dual trace oscilloscope, same electron beam is used to generate two traces
which can be deflected from two independent vertical sources.
Uses of CRO
CRO is used in the observation of waveforms and for the measurement of voltage,
current, and frequency, current and periodic time.
TUTORIALS
Q1. For the CRO display of a pulse waveform, the time/cm is on 50ms/cm and the
volt/cm switch is on 0.2V/cm. The width of one complete cycle is 3.5cm and the
height of the pulse is 3.4cm. Determine a) the periodic time b) the frequency and c)
the magnitude of the pulse voltage.
Q2. For a sinusoidal voltage trace displayed by the CRO, the time/cm switch is on
500s/cm and the volt/cm switch is on 5V/cm. The width of one complete cycle is
4cm and peak to peak height is 5cm. Find for the waveform a) the frequency, b)
the peak to peak voltage, c) the amplitude, and d) the r.m.s value
Q3. A double beam oscilloscope displays 2sine waveforms A and B. The time/cm
switch is on 100s/cm and the volt/cm switch on 2V/cm. The width of each
complete cycle is 5cm for both the waveforms. The height of waveforms A and B
are 2cm and 2.5cm respectively. Determine their a) frequency, b) phase difference,
and c) peak and r.m.s value of voltages. The difference between the two
waveforms is 0.5 cm.

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INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
These are special type of transformers used for the measurement of heavy
voltage and current which cannot be measured by the methods of shunt and
multipliers.
Instrument transformers are necessary for
Isolating the protection, control & measurement equipment from the high
voltages of a power system
Supplying the equipment with the appropriate values of current and voltage
Types of Instrument Transformer
1. Current Transformer (or Series Transformer)
Current transformers are used when the magnitude of AC currents exceeds
the safe value of current of measuring instruments.
2. Potential Transformer (or Parallel Transformer)
Potential transformers are used where the voltage of an AC circuit exceeds
750 V as it is not possible to provide adequate insulation on measuring
instruments for voltage more than this.
CURRENT TRANSFORMER
construction
**
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Current transformer has a primary coil of one or more turns of heavy cross
sectional area. The secondary is made up of a large number of turns of fine
wire having small cross sectional area. Primary is connected in series with the
line carrying heavy current .secondary is connected to a normal range of
ammeter ,usually (0-5A)
Working principle
It step up the voltage from primary to secondary
It steps down the current from primary to secondary
Let
For a current transformer ,the ratio of I1/I2 is very high

If the ratio is 600:5 ,then it measures upto 600A
100:5 ,then it measures upto 100A
1k:5,then it measures upto 1kA
Important note:
The secondary of current transformer should not be open. It is either connected
with a low resistance coil or a meter or shorted.
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Potential transformer
The high AC voltage is reduced in a fixed proportion with the help of the
potential transformer.
Construction
Primary winding consists of large number of turns.Secondary winding has
less number of turns and usually rated for 110 V.Primary is connected across
the high voltage line.Secondary is connected to the low range voltmeter
coil.One end of the secondary coil is always grounded for safety purpose
**
Working principle
It step-up the current from primary to secondary
It step down the voltage from primary to secondary
As a normal transducer
The ratio is
If the ratio of V1 to V2 is known and the voltmeter reading is known,then the

high voltage to be measured can be determined.
** A Textbook of electrical technology by B.L.Theraja

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Application of potential transformer

(i)
In electrical instrumentation systems
Example : we want to measure 13.8 kV accurately.
**
Direct measurement of high voltage by a voltmeter is a potential safety
hazard. Designing, installing, and maintaining a voltmeter capable of directly
measuring 13,800 volts AC would be no easy task.But by using a precision stepdown transformer, we can reduce the 13.8 kV down to a safe level of voltage at a
constant ratio, and isolate it from the instrument connections, adding an additional
level of safety to the metering system as shown in below figure.
**
Potential transformer precisely scales dangerous high voltage to a safe value
applicable to a conventional voltmeter.
Application of current transformer
We can use a transformer to step down current through a power line so that
we are able to safely and easily measure high system currents with inexpensive
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ammeters. Of course, such a transformer would be connected in series with the

power line as shown below
**
Currrent transformer
steps high current down to a value applicable to a
conventional ammeter.
** http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_2/chpt_9/7.html

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Comparison of current transformer with potential transformer

Current Transformer
Potential transformer
The secondary of a C.T can not The secondary of a P.T can be open
be open circuited
circuited
A Current Transformer may be P.T may be considered as a parallel

considered
as
a
series transformer.
transformer.
The primary current in a C.T is The primary current of a P.T depends

independent of the secondary upon the secondary circuit conditions .
circuit conditions .
The primary winding of the CT

is connected in series with the
line carring the current to be
measured. Hence it carries of the
full line current.
The primary winding P.T is connected

across the line of voltage to be
measured. Hence the full line voltage is
impressed across its terminal.
With the help of CT, a 5A With the help of P.T, a 120V voltmeter
ammeter can be used measure a can be used to measure very high
high current like 200A.
voltages like 11KV.

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EEPW2320

EETE 2102 AND EEPW 2150

To provide the working principles and

This course should enable the

The students should be able to:

1 |NIZWA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY|ENGG Department|

6. Know how to maintain and test construction

2 |NIZWA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY|ENGG Department|

B -Resistance thermometer (RTD) has input as temperature and output as change

The four different ways of presenting the data are:

* A text book on INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS by W.Bolton

5 |NIZWA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY|ENGG Department|

EXAMPLES OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

The thermocouple is a transducer that converts temperature to a small voltage; the

With a resistance thermometer, element A takes the temperature signal and

6 |NIZWA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY|ENGG Department|

Essential Requirements of Measurement Systems:

In order to deliver the required accuracy, the measurement system should be

8 |NIZWA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY|ENGG Department|

Failure rate is affected by the environmental conditions.

Calibration of Measuring sensors & Instruments

If measured value is 10.1 and true value is 10.0 then,

Error = 10.1 10.0 = 0.1 (positive).

## A text book on INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL by W.Bolton

8. A force-measuring system has a range of 0-200N with resolution of 0.1%

12 |NIZWA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY|ENGG Department|

Displacement sensors examples:

C- FLUID PRESSURE SENSORS

15 |NIZWA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY|ENGG Department|

E-LIQUID LEVEL SENSORS

CHANGE IN LIQUID LEVEL

Signal Processing and Data Presentation

1-Resistance to Voltage Converter:

Now dividing the two equations:

{The BRIDGE IS BALANCED IN THIS CASE}.

The voltage drop in

* A text book on INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL by W.Bolton

Unknown Inductance L and resistance (r)

21 |NIZWA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY|ENGG Department|

**Text book of electrical technology by B.L.Theraja

2-Analogue To Digital Converters (A/D )

* A text book on INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL by W.Bolton

* A text book on INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL by W.Bolton

Data Presentation Elements/ Classification:

25 |NIZWA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY|ENGG Department|

Digital display devices

LED (including OLED) displays

Repulsion Type Fig. (b)

Moving Coil Instrument

Comparison of moving coil and moving iron instruments

29 |NIZWA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY|ENGG Department|

Ammeters and voltmeters

Voltmeters are always wired in parallel to the circuit. Anything that is

31 |NIZWA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY|ENGG Department|

**A Text book on Electrical-and-Electronic-Principles-and-TechnologyThird-Edition by john bird.

32 |NIZWA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY|ENGG Department|

33 |NIZWA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY|ENGG Department|

ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL MULTIMETER

36 |NIZWA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY|ENGG Department|

Digital voltmeter (DVM):

37 |NIZWA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY|ENGG Department|

38 |NIZWA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY|ENGG Department|

39 |NIZWA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY|ENGG Department|

3. A 0-1A ammeter having a resistance of 50 is used to measure the current