Oral examination on case-study: issues like selection element types, material models, loads, supports, checks, output

interpretation will be raised, with possibly a few links to exercises, lectures too
Short Summary
Motivation for FEM: increasing complexity: large span, wide cantilevers, high rise, underground soil-structure, new materials in
structures, hybrids, non-cartesian free-form structures, shells etc.
nonlinear finite element analysis
Structural reassessments of existing infrastructure
Seismic assessments of buildings in the province of Groningen
Nonlinear FEM: reveals stress redistributions and capacity beyond elastic design stage
Input selection of element types, meshes, constitutive models, material parameters, boundary conditions, tyings, loadings,
Analysis control procedures
Output interpretation, presentation, checks, judgement
Displacement method: Displacements and rotations at the nodes are considered as the fundamental unknowns
Typically, Displacements continuous over element boundaries. Strains and stresses are not!
Physically nonlinear: plasticity, crack & crush models, nonlinear engineering stress-strain relations, interface and bedding
models,
Geometrically nonlinear: deformations are so large that they alter the orientation of forces and moments
Running a FEA job
1.
Preprocessing Via pre-processors (FX+): model preparation and checking (element types, generate mesh, check
connectivities, Choose units, dimensions, Material (isotropic linear, or nonlinear), Schematize loads, supports

2.

Analysis and checking: Check log-file with warnings, error messages; Check condition stiffness matrix, ratio diagonal
terms; Check convergence for nonlinear analysis

3.

Post-processing and checking: Plot displacements, (principal) stresses and strains, history data. Check equilibrium
total load versus reactions. Quantitative interpretation & Check hand calculation

Top-5 errors
1.
Inconsistent use of units, dimensions: e.g. gravity, density, length
2.
Inadequate constraints (supports, tyings) rigid body motion, mechanism,
3.
mixing up local/global axes,
4.
It doesnt converge (divergence). divergence failure!, check solution procedures, constitutive models, softening

An overview of structural finite element types

We only focused on element types used for structural mechanics applications, relating forces (moments) to displacements
(rotations)
Displacement-based FEM
the displacements (& rotations) at the nodes are considered as the fundamental unknowns. Typically: The displacements are
continuous over the elements. The strains and stresses are not! 2 super slides are thus:
FEM wants to relate displacement at nodes to the
internal forces at the nopde. Note that the DoF is
determined by the displacement/rotation.
Stiffness matrix is an important aspect

Displacement at node
Differentiated to get strain =
(kinematic relation)

Next is material model linking stress

& strain =
Both stress and strain are at
integration point
Internal forces obtained from
Integration = over whole
element. Internal force @ node

Now look at an example of an element. Follow the reasoning well

Un in the figure is displacement and rn is

internal forces
DoF is 8x3 = 24. We have internal force
corresponding to each DoF.
Stress and strain are 6x1 matrix
D which is the material model is 6 X 6
matrix
Stiffness matrix F=KU has to be enough
for each DoF. Hence 24X24 matrix

At the end, it still led to F=Ku

An integration point is the point within an element at which integrals are evaluated numerically. The stresses at the integration
points are the most accurate. These points are chosen in such a way that the results for a particular numerical integration
scheme are the most accurate. Depending on the integration scheme used the location of these points will vary. finite element
displacements are most accurate at the nodes. However, derived values (i.e. stresses and strains) tend to be most accurate at
the integration points (and sometimes least accurate at the nodes). They occur inside the element and may not be the highest
stress in the area. i think it's because FEA calculates stresses at the integration points of the elements and extrapolates these to
the nodes, and averages across adjacent elements
On a (somewhat) related note, folks often compare elemental strains with averaged nodal strains to determine whether their
mesh is adequate. If there is a significant difference, mesh refinement is required.

Read the full slide on elements

Interface elements:
Rather than a strain an interface elements uses relative displacements u: E.g. representing an opening or A sliding. Typical
applications include Discrete cracking, Bond slip of reinforcement bars. No-tension and elastic beddings
Connectivity & Compatibility of elements: Requires common nodes of neighboring elements Requires similar (displacement)
interpolation

How does the finite element calculate the internal forces? (numerical integrated, analytical)

The figure show a FEM vs analytical

result
See the result. Numerically
integrated at the intregration point.
Stress at the integration point is
accurate.
For the node however, the stress is
extrapolated from the integration
point. Not as accurate obviously

See the impact of using nodal

averaging.
Software can be instructed to use
nodal average values for
postprocessing:
Visually more pleasing
But, information useful in judging
the quality is lost! Remedy: Prefinement H-refinement

See. If we refine the mesh, we get

better results. Even the difference
with nodal averaging become less.
More integration points in the
refined one.
P & H refinement

A mesh is characterized by the local

mesh size h and the order of
approximation p. The h-version refines
mesh size (e.g. finer mesh) while
keeping the order of polynomial fixed;
the p-version uses a fixed mesh but
increases p to improve accuracy (e.g.
quadratic, cubic).

additional stress points or

integration points

An introduction to nonlinear analysis

Types of nonlinearity in structural mechanics

1. Physical/Material nonlinearity: Material properties are a function of State of stress or strain; (Deformation) history; Time,
Temperature, Maturity etc. Example include Nonlinear elasticity, plasticity, cracking, creep viscoelastic,
2. Geometric nonlinearity: Deformation is large enough that equilibrium equations must be written with respect to the deformed
structural geometry. Large Displacements effects. Loads may change direction or magnitude
3. Contact nonlinearity: Gaps open or close; Contact areas changes; Possible sliding with frictional forces. In the civil
engineering practice many contact problems could be simplified by using Interface elements with no-tension material
behavior

Solution procedures

See Fig 1 above, if we use an incremental procedure, we could be monitoring better how the non-linearity affects. Important
details on the material behaviour (for instance) would be gained. However, we could be drifting from the true equilibrium path.
A purely incremental method usually leads to inaccurate solutions in nonlinear analysis, unless very small step sizes are used. In
an iterative process the errors that occur can be reduced successively.
Most commonly used: Incremental-Iterative Solution

In nonlinear Finite Element Analysis the relation between a force vector and displacement vector is no longer linear.
For several reasons, discussed in Volume Material Library and 31.2, the relation becomes nonlinear and the
displacements often depend on the displacements at earlier stages, e.g. in case of plastic material behavior. Just as
with a linear analysis, we want to calculate a displacement vector that equilibrates the internal and external forces. In
the linear case, the solution vector could be calculated right away but in the nonlinear case it cannot. To determine the
state of equilibrium we not only make the problems discrete in space (with finite elements) but also in time (with
increments). To achieve equilibrium at the end of the increment, we can use an iterative solution algorithm. The
combination of both is called an incremental-iterative solution procedure.

Newton-Raphson
Within the class of Newton-Raphson methods, generally two subclasses are distinguished: the Regular and the Modified NewtonRaphson method. In a Newton-Raphson method, the stiffness matrix Ki represents the tangential stiffness of the structure: The
difference between the Regular and the Modified Newton-Raphson method is the point at which the stiffness matrix is evaluated.

Regular Newton-Raphson.
In the Regular Newton-Raphson iteration the stiffness
relation (31.8) is evaluated every iteration [Fig.31.2]. This
means that the prediction of (31.7) is based on the last
known or predicted situation, even if this is not an
equilibrium state. The Regular Newton-Raphson method
yields a quadratic convergence characteristic, which
means that the method converges to the final solution
within only a few iterations.

Modified Newton-Raphson.
The Modified Newton-Raphson method only evaluates the
stiffness relation (31.8) at the start of the increment [Fig.31.3].
This means that the prediction is always based on a converged
equilibrium state. Usually, Modified Newton-Raphson converges
slower to equilibrium than Regular Newton-Raphson. The

See fewer iterations

See more iterations

Modified Newton-Raphson method usually needs more

iterations, but every iteration is faster than in Regular
Newton-Raphson.

Load & Displacement control

Load control: increasing loads on nodes or elements, and monitoring displacement

Displacement control: Increasing prescribed displacement on the nodes, and monitoring the resulting reaction
forces
If both are possible: use displacement control!
Force control- fails to overcome the top
Displacement control overcomes it. It simply continues with load increment
Arc-length control: With automatic load increments and subsequent
decrements to overcome the top

Convergence criteria
Force convergence: The remaining force imbalance is a small fraction of the total applied force. Example: pure
stress relaxation, Force norm is the only choice
Displacement convergence: The last update of the displacement increment is a small fraction of the initial
displacement increment. Example: pure creep deformations, Displacement norm is the obvious choice
Energy convergence: The last update of the stored energy is a small fraction of the initial stored energy. The
Energy norm combines displacements and forces

Nonlinear springs and interfaces

Motivation nonlinear springs and interfaces discrete/Discontinuous behavior:

Bedding; Gapping, no-tension; Plastic hinges; Yield lines; Discrete cracking; Shear friction/slipping;
Discrete crushing; Steel-concrete interface, bond-slip;Etc., all types of joint behavior
Essence: Deformations lumped into a hinge, a line or a plane. Often complies with true physical
behavior, localization. If not: still a conceptually and numerically attractive method. Generic approach: not
only plastic hinges, yield lines, but also softening hinges, softening lines, brittle behavior, rotation capacity
issues

Structural Interfaces: The structural interface elements describe the interface behavior in terms of a
relation between the normal and shear tractions and the normal and shear relative displacements across
the interface. Typical applications for structural interface elements are elastic bedding, nonlinear-elastic
bedding (for instance no-tension bedding), discrete cracking, bond-slip along reinforcement, friction
between surfaces, joints in rock, masonry etc. Many types, usually place between 2 elements e.g. nodal
interface element to be placed between two nodes. Line interface elements to be placed between

truss elements, Plane interface elements to be placed between faces of three-dimensional

elements etc

Where do we place them? How to predefine them

Mechanism based on engineering judgment, e.g.
Plastic hinges in corners and at locations of
point loads
Cracks in tensile zones of concrete
Yield line assumptions, based on insight in
possible mechanisms
At as many places as possible, e.g.:
Discrete block/spring assemblies, particle/spring
models
At all joints in masonry, rock or block systems,
as mostly the joints are the weak places of
preferential damage
Blocks are then kept linear, while all
nonlinearity is lumped into the springs or
interfaces
An alternative is remeshing: Start with continuum elements only; when strength is exceeded: split nodes
and/or remesh, insert interfaces, map the old stress situation to the new mesh, continue and redo, follow

the propagation of the crack or plastic zone. Cumbersome: most finite element programs prefer to have a
fixed mesh with fixed degrees of freedom
See example below:
tn normal traction
(stresses)
tt tangential
traction (stresses)
It could even be
coupled with
shear ts
Integration schemes interface elements: Gauss integration along the line or in the plane

Assignments:
1. Verify Strong stiffness changes: full Newton-Raphson. Plot traction vs displacement
2. Study how moment is different between linear bedding and no-tension bedding

Smeared cracks and reinforcement

The effect of cracking is spread over the area that belongs to an
integration point. Advantage: We dont need to know the crack
location. it can occur anywhere in the mesh in any direction
Stress versus strain, continuum
While it was a single localized crack in interface (discrete), here we
have distributed cracking in concrete
Crack initiation in smeared
A crack is initiated when the principal tensile stress 1 exceeds the value of the tensile strength
ft. The direction of the crack is perpendicular to the direction of the principal tensile stress. After
crack initiation, the principal stress follows a tension-softening stress-strain diagram
Additional parameter: crack band width h over which the crack
is smeared out.
If its crushing, the 3 material parameters we need are
compressive strength, compressing crushing energy (both much
higher than tensile) and the shape of the diagram. Also crushing
band width. Fracture energy in compression much higer

In the first diagram for discrete, see the high intial stiffness.. For smeared, initial stiffnes not as high. We
are smearing out the crack over 1 element hence the reason the thickness (h) come in. Also see the effect
of element size (thickness) in the fracture energy. For discrete, thickness was not considered, the crack
was localized in a line
See the impact of tension stiffening effect in the above compared with noakowski. Concrete contributes to
steel, till the steel starts to yield
Modeling of reinforcements
Model reinforcement as truss element, connected to the nodes of the continuum elements. Embedded in the
continuum elements. Strain is derived from nodal displacements of mother element. Embedded element dont have
nodes. They depend on the concrete nodes.