Understanding the "World's Largest" All-Reinforced-Concrete Office Building

Author(s): GREG DONOFRIO and MEGHAN ELLIOTT

Source: APT Bulletin, Vol. 44, No. 2/3 (2013), pp. 23-33
Published by: Association for Preservation Technology International (APT)
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41982402 .
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the

Understanding

"World's

All-Reinforced-Concrete

Largest"
Office

Building

GREG DONOFR 10 AND MEGHAN ELLIOTT

An unrecognizedbuildingis
determinedto playa roleinthe
developmentofthe modernreinforced-concrete
frame,beggingthe
"Is
question, engineeringhistory
'significant'?"

and
Everybuildinghas an engineering
construction
Someofthese
history.
histories
mayyieldimportant
insights
abouttechnical
socioecoinnovation,
thestrucnomics,and,quiteliterally,
tureofourbuiltenvironment.
However,
documenting
whytheseaspectsofa
makeit "significant"
building's
history
as defined
and evaluation
bythecriteria
standardsoftheNationalRegister
of
HistoricPlaces,administered
bythe
U.S. NationalParkService,posesseveralpracticaland perhapsevenphiloforpreservationists
sophicalchallenges
and historians.
Theseissuesinclude
difficulties
thehistorical
establishing
contextofbuildingsystems
forwhich
thereis littlescholarship,
therelative
ofarchivalengineering
docuscarcity
and
the
that
the
ments,
way
preservationfieldusestermsrelatedto architecturalstyleand thinksaboutthetransmissionofsignificance
through
physical
materials.
Thesechallenges
maynotbe
or uniqueto buildings
with
exceptional
or
potentially
significant
engineering
construction
history.
Theymay,howIfso, theyhavethe
ever,be persistent.
thewaypreservapotentialto influence
tionists"construct"
limitsignificance,1
docuingnotonlythescopeofhistory
mentedbytheNationalRegister
but
also accessto theeconomicbenefits
availablefortheredevelopment
ofsome
in theNationalRegister,
buildings
whichis defined
as "theofficial
listof
theNation'shistoric
of
placesworthy
preservation."
Powerful
financial
incentives
offer
in
reasons
to
list
compelling
buildings
theNationalRegister.
The history
ofold
in
is receiving
newattention
buildings
manyU.S. states,which,likeMinnesota,
haveenactedstaterehabilitation
taxcreditprograms
withinthelastfiveto
tenyears.2
Whencombinedwithfederal
rehabilitation
taxcredits,
state-level

incentives
areencouraging
property
ownersand developers
to consider
more
theeconomicvalueofolder
carefully
and thefinancial
of
buildings
feasibility
theirpreservation
and adaptivereuse.
Amongthefirst
questionstheymustask
is whether
thebuilding
is listedinthe
Ifnot,is iteligiblefor
NationalRegister.
notall old buildings
are
listing?
Clearly,
historic.
Butthereis goodreason,along
withstrongmarket
to bring
pressures,
newapproaches,
research
sophisticated
and
creative
to
techniques,
arguments
theassessment
ofhistorical
significance,
whichis thebasisofNationalRegister
to hisand,inturn,accessibility
listing
torictaxcredits.
In somecases,engiand construction
offers
neering
history
newperspectives
on theevaluation
of
significance.
Thisarticlebeginsbyintroducing
the
a 12-story
Plymouth
Building,
skybuilt
scraperin downtown
Minneapolis
in 1909 and 1910. Itsownercontracted
Preservation
DesignWorks(PVN) to
inthe
evaluatethebuilding's
history
interest
oftakingadvantageofstateand
federaltaxcreditsavailableforthe
rehabilitation
ofincome-producing
listedintheNationalRegister.
buildings
The first
sectionofthepaperexplains
howthepreliminary
building
history
and physicaldetailsweregleanedfrom
archivalsourcematerials,
such
primary,
as old newspaper
articles,
originalconstruction
and historic
drawings,
phoThe nextsectionpresents
an
tographs.
assessment
ofthePlymouth
Building
and theevidenceforsignificance
that
was established
basedon bothprimary
and secondary
sources.The research
methodsarethendescribed,
usingthe
as a case studyto
Plymouth
Building
illustrate
to
widespread
impediments
construction
andengineerdocumenting
theirsignifiingdetailsand evaluating
cancewithina broadercontextofengi23

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24 APTBULLETIN:
TECHNOLOGY
JOURNAL
OF PRESERVATION
/44:2-3,2013
and processesin a timeof
technologies
flux.
Accountsofconstruction
activity
arewellfoundin old newspapers
knownsourcesofinformation
thatmay
historiformthebasisforunderstanding
buttheycan sometimes
cal significance,
also be inaccurate
and shouldtherefore
be corroborated
byon-siteexamination
ofthebuilding
whenever
possible.Such
was thecase withthePlymouth
BuildA
article
that
announced
ing. newspaper
and ponthebeginning
ofconstruction
dered"The RomanceofModernand
thebuildAncientConcrete"attributed
ing'sengineering
designto thelocal
Claude
engineer
Minneapolis-based
whois
AllenPorter(C. A. P.)Turner,
as
a
now
widelyrecognized pioneerof
The "Historic"PlymouthBuilding
The
reinforced-concrete
construction.7
The Plymouth
Buildingwas namedfor
wouldnothavebeenamong
Plymouth
itsfirst
anchortenant,thePlymouth
innovative
thefirst
examplesofTurner's
in
ClothingCompany.Established
reinMushroomSystem,
a four-way
1880,thecompanyhad becomeone of.
flat-slab
structural
floor
forced-concrete
Minneapolis'largestretailers
bythe
been
one
it
would
have
merely
system;
timeitsnewflagship
storewas finished ofmanyofthatengineer's
buildings
in 1910; theclothing
store,knownfor
theTwinCitiesof
locatedthroughout
"newstyles,
smallprofits,"
sales,
large
Minneapolisand St.Paul,earlierexamand basement
occupiedtheentirefirst
plesofwhichwerealreadylistedinthe
floorsof "thelargestand mostelaboAndwhileitwas
NationalRegister.
rateoffice
buildingin theNorthwest."3 admittedly
or
large, eventhelargest
Upperfloorswerefilledwithoffices
intheTwinCities,as
office
building
leasedbyindividual
tenantsranging
relocalnewspapers
enthusiastically
fromrealtors
to a smalllocal law
portedat thetimeofitsconstruction,8
school.Itsleasingagentshad no diffibasis
sizealoneseemedan insufficient
tenantsforthespace,given forhistorical
cultyfinding
Moreimporsignificance.
therapidgrowthofMinneapolisat the
thebuilding
didnothavethe
tantly,
turnofthetwentieth
Between
century.4
flaredcolumncapitalsand
characteristic
1900 and 1910 thecity'spopulation
thatTurnermade
floorsystem
girderless
increasedfrom202,718 to 301,408
the
a walkthrough
famous.Rather,
residents.5
revealspredominantly
square
building
conreinforced-concrete
Likewise,
columnsand a regulargridofgirders
inAmericasaw a periodof
struction
castintegrally
withthetwo-wayfloor
immense
growthandchangeinthetwo
betweenearlyreslab.The mismatch
decadesleadingup to theconstruction
ofthe
and
the
porting
physicalstructure
ofthePlymouth
Numerous
Building.
raised
additional
questions
building
newpatents,
innovations, aboutthehistory
technologies,
ofthebuildingand its
andentrepreneurs
entered
themarket.
historical
significance.
Duringthistransitional
period,concrete
forthisproject
research
Preliminary
construction
evolvedfromexperimental suggested
thatthePlymouth
Building
to a
designsandproprietary
products
an important
transition
mightrepresent
codified
thatwas
engineering
specialty
inthedevelopment
ofthereinforcedpracticed
bydesignand construction
concrete
frameandwas potentially
companieswithexpanding
managerial
inpartbecauseitwas denoteworthy
andgeographic
sophistication
range.6
underthesupersignedand constructed
Designedand builtamidintense
growth visionofan engineer
otherthanTurner.
andchange,thePlymouth
is an
Building
was facilitated
The investigation
bythe
excellent
case studyto contemplate
the
ofan unusually
amount
existence
large
relative
ofconstruction
significance
ofprivately
heldarchivalinformation.

andconstruction
The
neering
history.
conclusion
proposesa rangeofcoordinatedstrategies
which,intime,may
research
Presertjie
mitigate
challenges
vationDesignWorksencountered
with
thePlymouth
These
Building.
suggestionsincludedigitizing
theNational
and makingnominations
enRegister
in orderto faciliwordsearchable
tirely
tateresearch
aboutengineering,
encourof
and
construcagingstudy engineering
tionhistory
as partofprofessional
andevaluating
engineering
pedagogy,
withnewer
engineering
significance
theoretical
frameworks
used
increasingly
to understand
ofarchitecture
thehistory
andtechnology.

Despiteitsmore-than-hundred-year
has had
thePlymouth
Building
history,
owners.
of
the
two
early
Many
only
whichareso combuildingdocuments,
or discarded,
monlylost,misplaced,
werepassedon to thecurrent
owner;
theyincludeda partialsetofreproducdrawtionsoftheoriginalarchitectural
oftheorigiphotographs
ings,extensive
nal construction
and laterremodeling
and
the
log.
dailyconstruction
projects,
The logrecordedsuchdetailedinformaofdifferent
tionas theparticipation
weather
ofmaterials,
trades,quantities
and thenamesofprojectconditions,
Datedphotomanagement
personnel.
seillustrate
the
construction
graphs
steel-reinforcement
and
details,
quence
manyofwhichwereexecutedinwintry
ExcavationbeganinDecemconditions.
concrete
ber1909,withthefirst
poured
incoldweatheron February
7, 1910.
was largely
ofthebuilding
Construction
1910.
October
25,
by
completed
FourQuestions
Combinedwiththemorenarrative
ofengineering,
labor,and
descriptions
construction
byhisprocessesoffered
toricnewspaperaccounts,theseprimary
leadsto
sourcesprovidedtantalizing
ofthe
a
more
completehistory
pursue
revealed
that
the
The
research
building.
not
Buildingwas engineered
Plymouth
byC. A. P.Turnerbutratherbythe
JohnM. EwenCompanyofChicago,
Illinois,forNew Yorkinvestor
JohnE.
with
Andrus,
Long,
Minneapolis-based
Lamoreauxand Longas thearchitecturalfirmofrecord.All steelreinforcewas a product
mentfortheconcrete
calledthe"M/BSpecialOpen Hearth
Bar,"whichwas producedbytheWilalso basedin
liamB. HoughCompany,
12
stories
abovegrade,
Chicago.Rising
thebuildingreachedthemaximum
in Minneapolisat the
heightpermissible
The building
has a
timeofconstruction.
thefootbasementand subbasement;
bedrock,
ingsextendto thelimestone
35 feetbelowgrade.The
approximately
witha
buildinghad a skeletonframe,
Beams
and
columns
exterior.9
masonry
to be continuous,
andthe
arereinforced
floorsconsistofapproximately
square,
slabsspanning
to
two-wayreinforced
is
The regulargridofgirders
beams.10
the
with
the
concrete
slab;
integral

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OFFICEBUILDING25
ALL-REINFORCED-CONCRETE
THE"WORLD'SLARGEST"
is the
elevationofthetopofthegirders
sameas thetopoftheconcreteslabs,
is
butthelowerportionofthegirders
visiblefrombelow.Footingsand founof
dationwallsarealso constructed
reinforced
concrete.
The archivaldocuments
werein
insufficient
to explainhowor
themselves
whythePlymouth
mightbe significant,
buttheydidraisequestionsaboutthe
thatmerited
addibuilding's
history
tionalresearch.
Fourquestionsabout
seemedsalient
thePlymouth
Building
andmostlikelyto yieldhistorically
significant
insights:
Wastheconcrete
as a
frameintended
bothvertical
skeleton
frameresisting
and lateralloads,or was ityetanotherincremental
and inadvertent
steptowardsmoremodernconcrete
detailing?
Werethetwisted
M/BBarsusedto
reinforce
theconcrete
innovative?
WhowasJohnM. Ewen,andwhy
was hisChicago-based
engineering
andconstruction
companyselectedto
buildinMinneapolis
whenother
like
well-known
localalternatives,
C. A. P.Turner,
wereavailable?
Whendidcold-weather
concreting
withinthe
becomea generalpractice
andwhat
construction
industry,
ledto itsaccepmethods
ultimately
tance?
AssessingSignificance
Thesefourquestionsweremotivated
by
details
a needto situatethesite-specific
construction
ofthePlymouth
Building's
withina broaderhistorical
narrative
ofengiand comparative
framework
and thebuilding
technology,
neering,
to theU.S. National
arts.According
ParkService(NPS), "To qualifyforthe
mustbe
NationalRegister,
a property
a
that
it
must
represent
significant; is,
architecof
the
part
history,
significant
or culture
ture,archeology,
engineering,
ofan area,a'nditmusthavethecharacthatmakeita good representateristics
associatedwiththat
tiveofproperties
aspectofthepast."NPS guidancegoes
mustbe
on to explainthatsignificance
conevaluatedwithinan appropriate
or trends
text,meaning"thosepatterns
in history
occurbywhicha specific
or siteis understood
rence,property,

December
for"M/B
advertisement
B.Hough
Bars,"
Special
OpenHearth
Company
Fig.1.William
concrete
office
all-reinforced
isproclaimed
as the"world's
1911. ThePlymouth
largest
Building
Books.
1911):29,digitized
Cement
From
byGoogle
Age13(December
building."
its
and itsmeaning(and ultimately
is made
withinhistory...
significance)
clear."11
and
ofsignificance
The investigation
contextbeganwitha verystraightforwardstrategy:
a Googlesearch.Entering
Minneapolis"in
"'Plymouth
Building,'
a provocative
bit
GoogleBooksreturned
forthe
ofevidence- an advertisement
M/BSpecialOpen HearthBarin a 1911
issueoftheindustry
journalCementAge
celebrated
The
advertisement
(Fig.1).

conuseintherecently
theproduct's
structed
which,it
Building,
Plymouth
claimed,was the"world'slargestallconcrete
office
reinforced
building."12
to
as
it
was
acceptthisunsubTempting
as fact,anyone
stantiated
assertion
oftheearly
withadvertisements
familiar
from"cure-all"
twentieth
century,
to building
products,
patentmedicines
knowsthatsuchclaimsmustbe taken
Nevdoseofskepticism.
witha healthy
and
accounts
local
ertheless, newspaper

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26 APTBULLETIN:
JOURNAL
OF PRESERVATION
TECHNOLOGY
/44:2-3,2013
concrete
wallsabovegrade,evenat the
elevatorand staircores.19
and
Building
upontheprimary
archivalsources,secondary
sourceswere
usedto construct
a context,
a timeline,
and an argument
forthebuilding's
significance
usingthefourareasofexplorationas a framework:
of
development
thereinforced-concrete
evolution
frame,
ofsteelreinforcement
andconcrete-steel
bondtheories,
adaptationofconcretemodels,andthearrival
building
delivery
ofsuccessful
cold-weather
It
concreting.
becameclearthatthePlymouth
Building
or
was notthebiggest,
best,tallest,
An
landmark.20
longest
engineering
Minnesota.
Thedrawing,
dated
Fig.2.Concrete-beam
reinforcing,
Plymouth
Building,
Minneapolis,
to assessthemagnitude
and
attempt
beamreinforcing
with
a spandrel
beamcondition
attheleft.
Thespan25,1910,showstypical
April
the
of
the
size
of
drelbeamisconcealed
veneer
attheprimary
facades
andexposed
atthesecondary
significance
Plymouth
bymasonry
Aconcrete
facades.
shelf
isprovided
toaccommodate
onewythe
ofmasonry,
with
additional
wythes Buildinginrelationto otherconcrete
ontopofthebeamandinset
from
thefaceofthebuilding.
ofMeyer
placed
Courtesy
Borgman
contemporaries
provedbasicallyfutile.
Johnson,
Minneapolis.
CouldthePlymouth
havebeenthe
world'slargestall-reinforced
concrete
a nationaladvertisement
weresugnoneidentify
thestructural
Building,
office
Basedon nationaltrends
building?
thatthebuilding's
construction designintention
or capacityofthesysgesting
documented
it
byConditandFriedman,
was uniqueforitstime.
temto actlikea frame.Forexample,
is possiblebutlikelyalso impossible
to
CarlCondit'sreviewoftheIngalls
evenifithad
prove.Moreimportantly,
in Cincinnati
Building
providesa concise definitively
Structural
itwas not
Frame
beenthelargest,
ofreinforced
concrete
to 1903,
history
inthecontext
clearthatsizemattered
of
Moreuseful,and arguablymoredefenthecontributions
ofErnest
highlighting
reinforced-concrete
building
developwere
sible,sourcesofinformation
Ransomeinparticular.
However,the
ment.Superlative
sizemadeforgood
foundinthesmallbutslowlygrowing
articlenotesthatthecontribution
ofthe
but
contributed
advertising arguably
literature
about
bodyofsecondary
frameto thelateralresistance
ofthe
littleto an understanding
ofthebuildconstruction
Notablecontribu- buildingis unclear,
history.
bothat thetimeof
inhistory.
Moreconclusive
ing's
place
tionsincludebooksbyPeterCollins,
itsconstruction,
whenthearchitect
and meaningful
was thefactthatits
Carl Condit,ReynerBanham,Donald
referred
to thestructure
as a concrete
structural
was distinct
fromits
system
Friedman,
AmySlaton,AndrewSaint,
In A Concrete
box,as wellas today.16
documented
itsconcrete
predecessors:
and AdrianForty.13
The limitedyetrele- Atlantis
the
ReynerBanhamdescribes
frameappearsto havebeendesigned
vantliterature
was reviewedin search
riseofthedaylight
as a building withtheintent
factory
to resistbothlateraland
ofanswersto thefourquestionsthat
Modernist
architects, vertical
typethatinspired
loads.Ratherthana definitive
couldformthebasisforthesignificance ratherthanas a structural
system
signifi- "-est,"thePlymouth
embodies
Building
ofthePlymouth
ifplaced
Building,
cantto construction
While
history.17
in severalaspectsof
advancements
withinan appropriate
historical
conexterior
spandrelbeamsallowedforthe
and
concrete-engineering
knowledge
text.The first
considered
the
question
use ofnon-load-bearing
exterior
matheconcrete
building
practice,
including
structural
frame.Framesystems
are
the
factories,
sonrywallsin daylight
reinskeletonframe,
useofdeformed
defined
as structural
members designofa concrete
generally
frameis notdisan
contractorsteel, integrated
forcing
thatacttogether
to resistbothlateral
as
cussed,and possiblynotintended,
andcold-weather
engineering
delivery,
and vertical
loads.14The emergence
and
partofthelateral-force-resisting
system concreting.
The Plymouth
thus
Building
refinement
ofthereinforced-concrete ofthe
In contrast,
theframe
buildings.
inthe
an important
represents
step
skeletonframeis relatively
understudied ofthePlymouth
Buildingappearsto be
ofmodernreinforceddevelopment
to
the
ofiron
compared
development
to resistlateral
designedas a system
concrete
and design.
engineering
thedevelopment
ofthestrucframing;
force.The engineering
designis illusPlansand construction
photographs
tural-steel
skeletonframeprecededthe
tratedinthedrawings.18
Relevantdetails revealedthata keyfeature
ofthePlyconcrete
frameand is usuallypresented includetheuse ofcontinuous
beamand
mouth'sstructural
framewas a spandrel
as a keycomponent
oftheinvention
of
columnreinforcing,
largewindowopenbeambuiltintegrally
intotheexterior
theskyscraper.15
on
the
lackofa designed
exterior,
ings
ofthefloorslab (Fig.2). Allexteedge
Whileseveralsourcesdescribeand
shear-transfer
mechanism
at theexterior riorwallsofthebuilding
aresupported
assessthesignificance
ofreinforcedand interior
brick-masonry
clay-tile
at eachfloorlevelbythespandrel
concrete
beam-and-column
systems
ofexterior beams,allowingfortheuse ofnon-loaduniform
thickness
partitions,
similarto theone usedinthePlymouth
walls,and theabsenceofany
masonry
infill
wallsand larger
bearingmasonry

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OFFICEBUILDING27
ALL-REINFORCED-CONCRETE
THE"WORLD'SLARGEST"

features
ofthe
October
25,1910.Decorative
Building,
Fig.3. Plymouth
redbrick
included
rusticated
terra-cotta
facades
pavilions,
original
primary
window
anda twelfthbond
with
molded-brick
wallslaidinFlemish
sills,
and
terra-cotta
ornamented
with
dentils,
consoles,
cartouches,
story
richly
of
balustrade.
alltopped
cornice,
Courtesy
bya terra-cotta
projecting
ofMinnesota
Architectural
Northwest
Libraries,
Archives,
University
& McLaren.
Collection
N69,Box322- Larsen
Minneapolis,
An important
distincwindowopenings.
structure
tionofthebuilding's
concrete
comparedto thatofmanyofitspredethatensuredthat
cessorswas detailing
theframecouldsupportbothvertical
and lateralloads
loadsdueto gravity
fromwindwithout
on theexterelying
riormasonry
walls.Use ofa reinforcedconcrete
skeleton-frame
structural
systemalso madeitpossibleto dramaticallyalterthefacadeas ownersofthe
soughtto adaptto changing
building
architectural
styles.A forward-looking
articlepublishedin
Tribune
Minneapolis.
and
1910 alludedto boththenovelty
theutility
ofthisdesign,notingthat
is built
"Theframeofthebuilding
fromtheoutside
separateand distinct
willbe good
shell.The frametherefore
forcenturies
and couldnotbe demolishedexceptat fabulousexpense.The
time
can be redressed
outside,however,

fashowstheprimary
1936.Thephotograph
Building,
Fig.4. Plymouth
unThefacades
their
"modernization."
cadesafter
essentially
appear
of
Architectural
ofNorthwest
Archives,
University
Courtesy
changed
today.
&
Collection
Minnesota
N69,Box322- Larsen
Libraries,
Minneapolis,
McLaren.

and again;justhuskedlikecornevery
or two,and a newexterior
century
added."21
in 1910,thepriWhencompleted
followed
the
facades
of
Plymouth
mary
a Beaux-Artsstylepopularat thattime
(Fig.3). In 1936 theTwinCities-based
firmofLarsonand
architectural
itstwoprimary
McLarenredesigned
neoclassicalstyle,
facadesin a restrained
referred
to as "StarvedClassometimes
a large
sicism."22
Duringthisrenovation
and
of
the
facade
was
removed
portion
thefacadeswere
replaced.Essentially,
offthelightermodernized
bystripping
coloredterracottaand brickdetailsat
as wellas on the
thebaseand topstory,
at
the
ends
and
at thebeveled
pavilions
cornerofthetwoprimary
facades;cornicesand beltcourseswerealso simplithewallsurfied,generally
flattening
facesto achievea moretwo-dimensional

oneappearance(Fig.4). Approximately
thirdoftheexterior
bayswere
masonry
removedand replaced.A 1936 newspatherecladding
perarticledescribing
had
notedthatbecausethePlymouth
and
struc"incorporated
manydesigns
in buildings
ofmorerecent
turalfeatures
ofthe
themodernizing
construction,
fewerchangesthan
necessitates
building
be necessary."23
mightotherwise
ConcreteReinforcement
The use ofthetwistedsteelM/BBars
was also an indicaforreinforcement
tionthatthePlymouth
Buildingwas
ofnationaltrends
moredemonstrative
thanofthelocal concretebuilding
which
influenced
byTurner,
techniques
bars(Fig.
favoredsmoothreinforcing
aboutsteelreinforce5). Publications
suchas theConcrete
mentofconcrete,
Evaluation
SteelInstitute's
Reinforcing

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TECHNOLOGY
JOURNAL
OF PRESERVATION
28 APTBULLETIN:
/44:2-3,2013

barreinforcement,
Bartwisted
1,1910.ThephotoApril
Building,
Plymouth
square-steel
Fig.5. M/B
slabneartheelevator
atanatypical
oftheslabconstruction
wastaken
opening.
one-way
graph
inboth
directions.
ofsteelreinforcement
floor
slabshadthesamesizeandspacing
Courtesy
Typical
ofHistoric
LLC.
Plymouth
Building,
in Old
SteelSystems
ofReinforcing
Concrete
Structures
, and
Reinforced
ofotherreinbyproponents
writings
fromthetimewhen
forcement
systems
thePlymouth
Buildingwas constructed
(suchas ErnestRansomeand C. A. P.
Turner)helpedto situatethePlymouth
M/BBarswithina broader
Building's
contextofearlyconcretereinforcement.
WhileM/BBarswerea brand-name
product,
theywerejustone ofmany
twisted"Ransomestyle"barsavailable
at thattime.24
Documenting
types,or
usedin
evenbrands,ofreinforcement
construction
is difficult
today,muchless
with
instructures
thatarecontemporary
the
thePlymouth
However, use
Building.
ofthe
oftheM/BBarswas prescient
eventualacceptanceoftherelationship
ofdeformed
(i.e.,twistedor textured)
and adhesionwith
steelreinforcement
ConcreteInconcrete
bytheAmerican
in 1919,as Ransomepromoted.25
stitute
fromaccepted
Itwas a cleardeparture
local
contemporary practiceofsmooth
roundbars,as Turnerstrongly
advocated.26
Ransomeargued,and proved
reinthatdeformed
through
testing,
adhesion
forcement
achievedgreater
withconcrete
comparedto smooth

ingreater
reinforcement,
resulting
oftheoverallreinforced-constrength
Thistypeoftwistedreincretesystem.
to as the
often
forcement, referred
"RansomeSystem,"
eventually
gained
use nationally.27
widespread
DeliveryMethod
in the
JohnM. Ewen'sinvolvement
in the
projectcan in partbe understood
contextofprofessional
realignments
ofsome
thatled to theconsolidation
formerly
separatesectorsofthebuilding
in theearlydecadesofthe
industry
HistorianAmySlatwentieth
century.
threemethodsusedhistortondescribes
reinforced-concrete
icallyto construct
method
The
factory
buildings. first
owners
to
employ
requiredbuilding
theirown forcesforall construction
or architect
an engineer
work,enlisting
to createplansand engagingsubconforspecializedwork.The sectractors
ond optioninvolvedtheowner'ssolicitfora buildingplansand specifications
from
an
firm,
ing
engineering then
themto generalcontractors
submitting
forbids.The thirdoptionwas to hire
and
bothcontracting
firms
thatoffered

an
as integrated
services,
engineering
approachthatbeganto gainnational
acceptancearound1910.28
offered
The expertise
byin-house
with
reinforcedfamiliar
engineers
thethirdoption,
concrete
construction,
in increased
resulted
economythrough
efficient
design,as wellas higher"qualvariables
ityofservices"bycontrolling
enhanced
sophistimanagerial
through
Thisadvantagemayhavebeen
cation.29
ofthePlybythedeveloper
recognized
and mayhelpto explain
mouthBuilding
fromChicago.
whyhe selecteda firm
TheJohnM. EwenCompanyadvertised
and builders(Fig.6).30
as engineers
local
Therewerea numberofcompetent
inMinneapolis
at
contractors
concrete
conthetimeofthePlymouth
Building's
C. F.Haglin,James
struction,
including
andJ.L. Robinson,
Leek&; Company,
only
amongothers,buttheyadvertised
In addiand builders.31
as contractors
andcontionto integrating
engineering
Ewenwas also knownfor
struction,
method
havingdevelopedan innovative
andconforsimultaneously
excavating
and
subgradefoundations
structing
which,basedon newspaper
structures,
reports,
appearsto havebeenutilizedin
BuildofthePlymouth
theconstruction
"leavmethod
as
his
He
described
ing.32
untilsuch
ingtheearthunexcavated
is wellalong,
timeas thesuper-structure
methofthepresent
theexactreverse
od."33The arrivalofan outsideengineer
ina localmarket
suband contractor
thepositionofthePlymouth
stantiated
ofnational
as demonstrative
Building
trends.
Cold-Weather
Concreting
The Plymouth
Buildingis also a welldocumented
earlyexampleofcoldwhichSlatonasweatherconcreting,
sertswas notpossibleintheUnited
Statespriorto 1910.34Historicconand theforestruction
photographs
man'slog indicatethatlaborersbegan
pouringconcreteforthePlymouth
on
massivefoundations
Building's
when
7, 1910,
temperatures
February
Workers
werewellbelowfreezing.
in
continued
to mixand pourconcrete
theweeksthatfollowed,as temperaturesdroppedto a low of2F on Februconary16 and 17. Earlierconcrete
in theUnitedStateshad been
struction

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OFFICEBUILDING29
ALL-REINFORCED-CONCRETE
THE"WORLD'SLARGEST"
limited
to monthswhentemperatures
Whileworkingin
wereabovefreezing.
warmweatherwas a practicalsolution,
ittendedto increasethecostofconcrete
construction
due to labordemandsin
warmermonths,
thusdelayingnational
acceptanceofthematerialforthestructureoftalloffice
buildings.
theuseof
Earlyarticles
promted
mixto prevent
saltsintheconcrete
ofthewaterduringcuring,
freezing
AnwhichevenRansomesupported.35
in
othermethodofcastingconcrete
weatherinvolvesthe
below-freezing
materials:
aggreheatingoftheconcrete
andwater.A Portgate,sand,cement,
landCementAssociation
handbook,
Cold Weather
(1916),deConcreting
scribestheuseoftubesand stovesto
materials
andthenthe
heattheconcrete
On
pouredstructure
duringcuring.36
10, 1910,thePlymouth's
February
foreman
notedin hislogthat
Building's
"smokecausedbyfireinthetubeswith
whichwe heattheconcrete
materials,
has beenleakingoutat theedgeofthe
thechinamen"
who
roof...annoying
restaurant
adjaoperateda chop-suey
centto theworksite(Fig.7).37
PersistentResearchChallenges
Efforts
to situatethePlymouth
Building
contextoflocal,
withina historical
state,or nationalconcrete-construction
oftheexterior
12,1910.TheJohn
walls,
September
Building,
Plymouth
masonry
Fig.6. Construction
and processes
typologies,
technologies,
Are
Floors
Abillboard
"Lower
advertised
as "Engineers
andBuilders."
M.EwenCompany
advertised
werecomplicated
LLC.
ofHistoric
byseveralfactors,
Building,
Plymouth
Courtesy
OpenForBusiness."
noneofwhichwas uniqueto thiscase
thehistory
ofengineering
study.Rather,
fromthosethatare
tativeor exemplary
recengineering
practiceofshredding
is in somewaysarguablymoredifficult ordsafterthe"statuteof
lostintegrity.
or
have
more
common
had
repose"
to research
thanarchitectural
histories
ofstructural
visual
trend
that
continues
a
investigation
Rapid
today.38
expired,
with
thatarebasedon associations
difficult
inthefieldis,however,
ownerswhohaveretained
systems
Building
or exemplary
notablearchitects
styles.
at best;comparative
increasstructural
analysiswithinor
plansarebecoming
Thereis a relative
paucityofinformaacrossstructural
to sharethemwiththe
typesvergeson the
inglyreluctant
and theirassocitionaboutengineers
insubbaseoflurking
in
short
the
concern
for
out
of
impossible,
safety
public
methods
ateddesignsand construction
As a
attics.40
around
ments
and
National
faceofterrorism.
poking
Although
comparedto thetypesofrecordsdocuare
the
nominations
are
result,
components
engineering
usuallypublic
Register
therelationships
between
menting
intheanalysisofthe
oftenoverlooked
record,eventhataccessis sometimes
architects
and theirclients.Thereis a
eleofbuilding
historical
limited.39
significance
widerangeofreasonswhythisis true.
inpublicaments.Thistrendis reflected
reasonfortheemphasis
Another
motives
First,thercarepragmatic
tionsbytheNationalParkService,
on thearchiplacedbypreservationists
andpracticaldifficulties.
Whilearchitec- tecture
seemto implythatthe
is thatthestructure whosecriteria
ofbuildings
ofnotablebuildings
and
turaldrawings
whichitdefines
ofa building,
concealed.Structural integrity
is oftencompletely
structures
areoftensavedin libraries
to convey
of
a
as
"the
on
one
be
clad
a
facade
property
ability
by
systems
may
andarchives
as muchfortheirvisual
in
mustbe present
itssignificance,"
finishes
sideand sheathedwithinterior
beautyas fortheinformation
theymay
thatare "visible
on theother.A "windshield
physicalfeatures
survey"is a
were
convey,
engineering
drawings
usefulmethodforhistorians
enoughto conveytheirsignificance,"
seekingto
Insurance
and liabil- document
destroyed.
typically
a
and nuancesof
thevariations
althoughitadmitsthisis "sometimes
ledto thecommon
ityconsiderations
This
the
architectural
judgment."41 requirestyle,sorting represen- subjective

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TECHNOLOGY
30 APTBULLETIN:
JOURNAL
OF PRESERVATION
/44:2-3,2013
Conclusion
couldbe implemented
Severalstrategies
to mitigate
thechallenges
encountered
in establishing
theengineering
significanceofthePlymouth
First,
Building.
theNationalParkServiceshouldbe
neededto comgiventheresources
pletelydigitizetheNationalRegister
the
archive.To date,ithas digitized
ofall but11 states;the
nominations
word
nominations
areentirely
digitized
searchablewiththehelpofGoogle.43
The NationalParkServiceguidelines
mustbe
resources
suggestthathistoric
in thecontextofotherexconsidered
typeto
amplesofthesameproperty
and determine
evaluatesignificance
Yet,untiltheentirearchive
eligibility.44
is digitized,
itis notpossibleto search
fordetailsabout
all
nominations
among
or structural
sysbuildingtechnologies
tems.The NationalParkServicemight
theNational
also considermodifying
evaluationformto requireor
Register
1910.
andconstruction
ofthebuilding
foundation,
January
Plymouth
Building,
Fig.7. Excavation
aboutthestrucencourageinformation
as temperatures
toa lowof2FinFebruary
Workers
continued
tomixandpour
concrete
dropped
the
tural
design,equaling detailnow
mixbothered
theowners
oftheadjacent
1910.Smoke
from
tubesusedtoheattheconcrete
chopto descriptions
ofarchitecdedicated
Historic
intheupper-left
ofthisimage.
of
whosesignisvisible
corner
Courtesy
sueyrestaurant,
turalstyleand ornamentation.
LLC.
Plymouth
Building,
andthe
Detailsaboutthestructure
and
of
related
technologies
significance
and
which
limits
the
of
research
mentseemsto potentially
a
quantity
disqualify
be
more
readily
might
building
processes
who
those
can
structure
from
potentially
beingsignifianalysisby
building's
infused
intotheNationalRegister
prothesubjectmaterial.
architecbestunderstand
cantifitis hiddenunderneath
if
becamea
history
Another
turalfinishes,
whichis commonin hischallengeoftenencountered gram engineering
ofengineering
education
theengineering
toricbuildings.
The reinforced-concrete whendetermining
signif- component
if
Service
and
the
Park
developed
preseris
the
need
of
is
icance
of
a
structure
structure thePlymouth
implied
Building
the
Secrevation
as
one
of
engineering
in
this
article
in
to
use
what
is
referred
to
the
subbasement
and
attic
exposed
Professional
QualitaryoftheInterior's
floorsandis also detailedintheoriginal as the"superlative
approach"to estabAccreditation
fication
Standards.45
it
comes
to
lish
When
it
to
be
described
drawings,
allowing
significance.
standards
forundergraduate
engineering
has
andphotographically
documented
experience
engineering
significance,
in
programs theUnitedStates,first
notenough
shownthatitis sometimes
theguidelines
oftheNational
following
in 1932,consistently
recomestablished
charto merely"embodythedistinctive
ParkService.
minimum
or
a
mended
percentrequired
of
a
or
method
to
other
listed
acteristics
type,period,
Comparisons
buildings
inthehumanage ofoverallcoursework
intheNationalRegister
ofconstruction";
numerous
ofHistoric
examplesof
was specifiities,amongwhichhistory
assocican
NationalRegister
nominations
Placeswithsimilarcharacteristics
this
criterion
was
until
callynamed,
thata
the
atedwithengineering
oftenbe invaluableinestablishing
suggest
in
and
2000.46
Scholars
eliminated
is often
moresuperlative
benchmark
ofa building.
However,
significance
that
havesincesuggested
practitioners
one
thereis a largeemphasison architectural usedto demonstrate
"significance,"
would
of
history
knowledge
engineering
intheNationalRegister,
thatdistinguishes
thestructure
as the
and
significance
better
cultivate
bypresenting
engineers
the"tallest,"the"longest,"or in
theengineering
ofa struc"first,"
significance
ofthe
them
with
a
broader
perspective
examevenwhenit
somewaythesingularly
tureis notalwaysincluded,
greatest
within
field
and
the
career
opportunities
in
of
This
is
is merited.
Mostengineering
curricula
a
ple
type.
approach problembeen
it
has
it;moreover,
recently sugaroundthereaticbecauseitobscuresthemorecomtheU.S. arestructured
gestedthatthetimeis ripeforacademic
monelements
and themesinthedeveloftheAccreditation
Board
quirements
to preservation
engitraining
specific
and
ofEngineering
andTechnology,
which
ideas,methods,
opmentofhistorical
that
Professional
neering.47
programs
that
foster
a
richer
understanddoesnotmandatethecoverageofengidesigns
be
should
also
train
preservationists
A
of
of
lack
of
history.
history.42
coverage
ing engineering
neering
to includemoreaboutengiencouraged
curricula
leads
thisfieldinengineering
as a
andconstruction
history
neering
to a subsequent
lackofawarenessofit,
to
companion architectural-history

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31
OFFICEBUILDING
THE"WORLD'SLARGEST"
ALL-CONCRETE
REINFORCED
coursesthathaveforso longbeenat the
coreofpreservation
pedagogy.48
Preservation
DesignWorkswas able
to makea seriesofunconventional
arguof
mentsfortheengineering
significance
The Minnesota
thePlymouth
Building.
Officeand
StateHistoricPreservation
theNationalParkServicedetermined
thatitwas eligiblefortheNational
ofHistoricPlacesunderCriteRegister
ofthedevelrionC as a representation
opmentand acceptanceofthereinskeleton
framebythe
forced-concrete
as an early
American
industry,
building
and
concreting,
exampleofcold-weather
and
as theproductofinnovative
design
construction
processesat a pivotal
ofconcrete
archiperiodinthehistory
tecture.
this
narrative
Constructing
forcedtheprojectteamto rejectthe
superlative
approach,a wayofthinking
thatis
aboutengineering
significance
histoanalogousto whatarchitectural
rianRichardLongstreth
calledthe
"problemwithstyle.""Insteadofa
develcomplexand nuancedconstruct
to
oped analyzemeaning,"
Longstreth
styleoftenbinds
argues,architectural
to a "rigidsetofcharacpreservationists
a faulty
classification
scheme
teristics,"
inwhichanything
lessthana pureexandthereampleis seenas a "hybrid,"
An early
foresomething
insignificant.49
of
the
newspaper
description
Plymouth
notonlymisidentified
the
Building
of
italso
"style" engineering;
building's
raisedquestionsaboutwhether
associationwitha well-known
was
engineer
enoughto makethestructure
significant
whentherearealreadyso manyother
documented
earlier,
examplesofhis
worklistedintheNationalRegister.
Thislineofthinking
considerprevents
of
that
ingaspects significance Longstreth
arguesmakefora "fullersense
of...historical
value."Theseinclude
function,
structure,
labor,
processes,
andpatronage,
all ofwhich
systems,
informed
an understanding
ofthePlymouthBuilding's
significance.
Historians
and sociologists
oftechhave
abandoned
nology
similarly
largely
to document
attempts
technological
"firsts"
andto seetheindividual
inventoras a "genius"figure
in
operating
isolationfromothereconomicand
socialforces.Instead,scholarslike
ThomasHugheshavelongencouraged
a
for
"systems"
metaphor understanding

ofphysicalartitheinterconnectedness
and institutions.
facts,economicforces,
In a similarvein,sociologists
oftechnolthe
to understand
ogyadvocateresearch
ofconsumers,
influence
and interactions
and
associations,
patrons,professional
intheacceptanceor
usersofartifacts
These
oftechnological
rejection
systems.
insights
mayprovidepreservationists
to
withnewtheoretical
perspectives
construct
significance.50
Thesemorerecentapproachesto
and
thehistory
ofarchitecture
studying
helpedmakesenseofthe
technology
a
Buildingas an artifact,
Plymouth
of
and
the
product processes
story,
was complex,nuwhosesignificance
clear.Ultimately,
anced,and notinitially
eventhoughtheNationalParkService
was
formally
agreedthatthebuilding
intheNationalRegiseligibleforlisting
ter,itssignificance
maystillbe subjectto
debate.Whilesimilarexamplesofits
details
reinforced-concrete
particular
a
or
earlier
examto
applied
skyscraper
of
or
cold-weather
ples
concreting
Ewen'smethodsofexcavationwerenot
located,itwas also notpossibleto prove
thatthePlymouth
was a foreBuilding
thefirst,
or in somewaythe
runner,
mostsignificant.
Sucharethedifficulties
NationalRegister
nominations
writing
forbuildingtypologies,
technologies,
and practices(likestripping
and rea
as
was
done
cladding facade,
partially
to thePlymouth
in
the
absence
Building)
ofpublications
thatprovidehistorical
context.Thisis a call formoreresearch.
backand
Modulatingiteratively
forthbetweenprimary
and secondary
sourceswas thekeyto thesuccessful
ofthePlymouth
investigation
Building.
The Plymouth
us that
Buildingreminds
historical
is
not
an
inherent
significance
- something
qualityofbuildings
imbeddedin materials
fromthepast.
we construct,
and hopefully
Rather,
thesignificance
continuously
reinterpret,
ofall typesofculturalresources
in the
Afterall,significance
is an
present.51
and theNationalRegister
argument,
needsnewonesto invigorate
thepreservationmovement
and to sustainthe
economicredevelopment
ofolderand
historic
potentially
buildings.52
GREGORY
of
DONOFRIO,
PhD,isdirector
research
atPreservation
Works.
Heis
Design
alsoanassistant
andthedirector
of
professor
theHeritage
Conservation
andPreservation

Graduate
attheUniversity
ofMinProgram
Hisresearch
School
ofArchitecture.
nesota
aswellas
thehistory
oftechnology,
includes
conincentives
andregulatory
theeconomic
He
straints
ofhistoric-property
redevelopment.
atdonofrio@pvnworks.com.
canbereached
MEGHAN
ELLIOTT,
PE,Associate
AIA,is
andowner
ofPreservation
founder
Design
dedicated
toincreasWorks
(PVN),a company
buildings
through
design,
ingtheuseofhistoric
andresearch.
real-estate
services,
development
of
assistant
Sheisalsoanadjunct
professor
intheUniversity
conservation
historic-building
to
ofArchitecture.
Prior
ofMinnesota
School
PVN,sheledthepreservation
engineering
Shecanbe
atMeyer
Johnson.
Borgman
group
atelliott@pvnworks.com
reached
Acknowledgements
wish
tothank
PVNProject
Theauthors
Associate
assistance
Salmon,
EIT,forhissubstantial
Ryan
this
comandwriting
article.
researching
Helpful
ments
andsuggestions
were
alsoprovided
bythe
reviewers.
APTBulletin's
three
anonymous
peer
Notes
1.Howard
L. Green
thatnotallpreserargues
arewilling
toaccept
thatsignificance
vationists
isa socialconstruct;
seehisessay"TheSocial
ofHistorical
in
Construction
Significance"
A Critical
Preservation
, forWhom?:
ofWhat
LookatHistorical
, ed.Michael
Significance
N.Y.:National
Tomlan
Council
for
(Ithaca,
Preservation
Education,
1998),85-94.
2. Themost
listofstates
with
up-to-date
historic-rehabilitation
tax-credit
can
programs
inRutgers
befound
Center
forUrban
Policy
"Third
Annual
ontheEcoResearch,
Report
nomic
oftheFederal
Historic
Tax
Impact
Credit,"
2012,http://www.nps.gov/tps/taxincentives/taxdocs/economic-impact-20
12.pdf
March13,2013).
(accessed
3. "$1,500,000
Office
Planned,"
Building
Tribune
,July
16,1909.
Minneapolis
4. Ibid.
5.John
DavidGebhard,
David
Borchert,
andJudith
Martin,
Lanegran,
Legacy
ofMinPreservation
Amid
(Minneapolis:
Change
1983),31.
neapolis:
CityofMinneapolis,
6. Fora brief
butwelldocumented
introductiontothehistory
ofreinforced
see
concrete,
E. Slaton,
PaulE. Gaudette,
William
G.
Amy
andJames
D. Connolly,
"Reinforced
Hime,
inTwentieth
MaConcrete,"
-Century
Building
terials:
andConservation
, ed.Thomas
History
D.C.:National
ParkSerJester
(Washington,
citations
vice,1995).Subsequent
throughout
thispaper
additional
detail.
provide
7. "TheRomance
ofModern
andAncient
Tribune
Concrete,"
, May
Minneapolis
Morning
15,1910.
8. "ThePlymouth
inthe
Building:
Something
Nature
ofa Record
inStructural
Breaker
MadeHere,"
Operations
Minneapolis
Morning
Tribune
, Sept.4, 1910.
9. Complete
andconstruction
plans,
drawings,
forofthestructure
arelocated
at
specifications
theNorthwest
Architectural
UniverArchives,

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TECHNOLOGY
OF PRESERVATION
JOURNAL
/44:2-3,2013
32 APTBULLETIN:
Method
M. Ewen,
Ewen's
33.John
ofPlymouth
23."PlanRefacing
ofMinnesota
ofSubBuilding
Libraries,
Minneapolis,
sity
toSteelBuildings,
as Applied
construction
Minn.
,June
4, 1936.
Soon,"Minneapolis
Journal
Etc.(Chicago:
1905),1.
ontwisted-steel Subways
Ransome's
inplanfrom 24.Ernest
10.Typical
patent
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ernization
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"Cold
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also
Nicoli,
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being
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25.TheAmerican
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Cement
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Age14(Feb.,1912):81-84;
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Places
ofHistoric
11.National
staff,
Register
of
"Reconstruction
E. Anderson,
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of
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bond
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ences
How
to
15:
Bulletin
National
strength
Apply
Register
Railroad
Central
New
York
298,
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in
their
reinforcement
deformed
versus
smooth
Criteria
theNational
,
forEvaluation
Register
and
in
Cold
Weather,"
Engineering
Concreting
ConvenAnnual
revised
forInternet
oftheFifteenth
2002,http://www.nps.gov/
Proceedings
36 (Dec.6, 1911):616-618.
Contracting
Concrete
American
tion
Nov.
(Atlantic
N.J.:
(accessed
City,
nr/publications/bulletins/nrbl5/
in
ofFreezing
35.R.K.Meade,"Prevention
1919),393.
Institute,
10,2012).
Calcium
Concrete
Chloride,"
Engineering
by
ConA.
P.
and
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T.Eddy
26.Henry
12."CalltheRoll,"Cement
Turner,
Age13(Dec.
Ransome
Record
55 (April
20,1907):501-502.
Construction
crete-Steel
Author,
(Minneapolis:
1911):29.
indicated
tests
useofsaltsbecause
supported
with
he
coauthored
21.
In
the
textbook
1919),
: TheVision
Concrete
13.Peter
ofconcrete;
resistance
thefire
thatitincreased
Collins,
ofA
of
attheUniversity
a professor
Eddy,
Henry
Faber
andFaber,
NewArchitecture
Conand
see
Ransome
(London:
Reinforced
Saurbrey,
reinforcethatsteel
Turner
Minnesota,
argues
Art:
American
now
well
It
is
185.
crete
Building
1959).CarlCondit,
,
recognized
Buildings
duetoshrinkisheldinplacebyconcrete
ment
Oxford
TheTwentieth
reinforcethesteel
with
ionsreact
(NewYork:
Century
fortheappropriate- thatchloride
andprovides
reasoning
age
A
and
in
corrosion
ment
Banham,
1961).Reyner
Press,
University
ultimately
resulting
of
a
An
smooth
reinforcement.
nessof
example
and
U.S.Industrial
Atlantis:
Concrete
current
most
therefore
ofthesystem;
Building
thatincorporated failure
thatTurner
designed
Architecture
Modern
onthe
limits
construction
(Cambridge: building
European
projects
placestrict
Northwest
was
the
reinforcement
smooth
Historical
MITPress,
mix.Seefor
ofsaltstotheconcrete
addition
1989).DonaldFriedman,
in
BuildingMinneapolis,
Company
Knitting
and
Construction:
of
Attack
"Chloride
AdamNeville,
, Materials,
Design
Building
example
Concrete
"Reinforced
inthearticle
described
W.W.Norton
&:Co.,
Materials
An
Concrete:
Reinforced
(NewYork:
Overview,"
Technology
forNorthwest
Warehouse
Co.,MinKnitting
and
Concrete
28 (1995):63-70;American
andStructures
Slaton,
1995).Amy
Reinforced
News(June
8,
Minn,"
Engineering
neapolis,
American
Code
theModernization
ACI318-05:
Concrete
,
Building
of
Building
Institute,
593-594.
1905):
Univ.
and
1900-1930
Concrete
(Baltimore:
Johns
Hopkins
forStructural
Requirements
ConstrucHistorical
27.Friedman,
and
Architect
Mich.:
Building
2001).Andrew
Saint,
2005),
Press,
Hills,
(Farmington
Commentary
AStudy
"Corrosion
Ward139,150.
tion,
(New
Rivalry
Waller,
ofSibling
Engineer:
54;andElizabeth
YaleUniversity
Reinforcement"
Haven:
ofConcrete
Resistance
2007).Adrian
Press,
(PhD
andtheModConcrete
28.Slaton,
Reinforced
: A Material
andCulture
ofTechnology,
Concrete
Institute
Massachusetts
Forty,
diss.,
139.
American
ernization
,
Today,
Building
of
Reaktion
2012).
Books,
(London:
History
2005),9-18.
relation- June
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Modern
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Skeletons,"
1916),5-6.
Building
(Chicago:
no.4(2012):18.
29.Ibid.,140.
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37.Plymouth
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theuseofany
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Hopkins
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Document
Professional
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pany:
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Liability
Historical Buildings"
Univ.
1995),45-89;Friedman,
Press,
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2005).
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andCulture
crete
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andJ.L. Robinson
C. F.Haglin
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public
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1968):16.
(Jan.
arestillprominent
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contractors
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95.
York:
1997),
(New
Wiley,
Offices

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33
ALLOFFICEBUILDING
REINFORCED
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