the Key Questions of

Seed’s Tear-outable tool for living in the 21st century Quantum computing:
CriBsheet #15 What is a quantum

QUANTUM COMPUTING
computer, and how does
it differ from modern
computers? How can we
use quantum computing?
Intel cofounder Gordon Moore famously observed nearly half a century Miniaturization may ultimately lead to quantum computers, which use
quantum computing 101
ago that the number of transistors economically crammed into a single quantum effects to perform calculations. Quantum computers could, in
computer chip was doubling every two years. This trend toward miniatur- principle, solve certain problems exponentially faster than the best known 0
ization is seen throughout the history of modern computing. Today ele- “classical” methods with far-reaching consequences for cryptography and
ments of microchips are only tens of nanometers in size, and if miniaturiza- the simulation of quantum physics. Simple quantum computers have al-
tion continues, microchip components will eventually reach atomic scales, ready been built, but most experts believe robust and powerful systems
where their properties will be dictated by quantum mechanics. remain many years away.

Hundreds or thousands of qubits would be needed

to factor very large numbers. For convenience, here we’ve
The encryption vital for modern secure communications as- illustrated only four.
sumes that factoring large numbers in a reasonable amount
of time is beyond the capabilities of today’s commercial
FINDING aN aNSWER
computers. In 1994 computer scientist Peter Shor devised an The ability of quantum objects to simultaneously hold
algorithm allowing a quantum computer to quickly factor multiple, seemingly conflicting values is at the heart of
large numbers. Thus, a powerful quantum computer could
break the world’s dominant encryption schemes, resulting quantum computing. This state is called a quantum
in the need for new security methods. For perspective, to- superposition (at right). Superpositions occur
day’s quantum computers are scarcely powerful enough to
factor a number like 15. At right, a schematic illustration
all the time at the quantum level. In fact, any
outlining how Shor’s algorithm works: Place the isolated quantum object like an atom or a 1
qubits in a superposition photon is in a superposition. But as soon
over all of their
as the object interacts with some- Both classical and quantum computers
possible configurations
interference patterns in preparation thing else, such as another atom perform calculations by manipulating
The latent possibilities within a for initiating a or photon, the superposition is information. Classical computers
quantum interference represent information as binary digits,
superposition can actually interfere pattern. liable to collapse. The collapse
with each other, constructively of a superposition is called or bits, which can have values of
reinforcing or destructively decoherence. Decoher- either 0 or 1. Quantum computers
canceling each other to ence is essentially an act represent information as quantum
form the final definite of measurement, where bits, or qubits. Many different
state. The programmer all possible states in the physical objects can be used as qubits,
of a quantum computer superposition collapse such as atoms, photons, or electrons.
must choreograph the into the one ultimately Paradoxically, a qubit can represent
calculation in such a way observed. If the quantum 0 and 1, as well as other possible
Choreograph
that computational paths quantum computer’s qubits suffer too values, at the same time, in what is
leading to a “wrong” answer
interference to allow
much decoherence before the called a quantum superposition.
paths to correct
will destructively interfere with calculation is completed, the in- This allows a qubit to simultaneously
Illustrator: Thomas Porostocky — www.porostocky.com Writer: Lee Billings Consultant: Scott Aaronson, Assistant Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science,

answers to reinforce
each other, canceling each each other.
formation will be irretrievably use many more informational
other out and leaving lost and the probability of states for computation and is
only the “right” producing a correct responsible for quantum computing’s
answers to be answer becomes advantages over classical computing.
observed. essentially zero. In the illustration above, an atomic
spin represents a qubit. An “up”
spin corresponds to 0; a “down”spin
equates to 1. A quantum superposition
encompasses 0, 1 and all possible
values in between.
Perform a measurement, collapsing the qubits’ superposition. By repeating these steps and combining the results, we can reliably obtain the factors of a very large number.

What ProBlems Can a Quantum Computer Solve?

NP
Computational time

Factoring
a very
large
Easily solved BQP number
by quantum
computers
Testing if 2n
a number is
prime n2
Easily solved P
by classical n
computers
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Problem size (bits)

Computer scientists classify a problem’s difficulty by the number of computational steps an algorithm requires to solve it.
Problems that a classical computer can quickly solve are called P (polynomial time) problems. In P problems, as the problem
size n increases, the number of steps to solve it grows polynomially, for instance by n2. Determining whether a number is
prime is an example of a P problem. NP (nondeterministic polynomial time) problems consist of all problems for which the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
such as 2n. Every P problem is also an NP problem, but computer scientists believe that not all NP problems are P problems.
BQP (bounded-error, quantum polynomial time) problems are the class of problems that quantum computers can effi-
ciently solve. Factoring the product of two large prime numbers is an example of a problem that is both an NP and a BQP
problem. Though no one knows for certain, it appears that BQP does not include most NP problems. This means that for

answers are easy to check, even though finding those answers may take an exponential number of computational steps, most NP problems, quantum computers may offer no significant advantages over classical computers.

THE ISSUE: can we Build a sophisticated quantum computer?

A company called D-Wave Systems has exhibited what it controversially calls the world’s first commercial quantum computer, but most experts Quantum computers could theoreti-
treat these claims with considerable skepticism. Some of the best minds in physics today are struggling to build simple quantum computers, and cally revolutionize our ability to solve
computer scientists are still seeking their ideal applications. It seems that even if practical, powerful quantum computing existed today, we prob- certain kinds of computational prob-
ably wouldn’t know how to best use it. Ironically, if building sophisticated quantum computers turns out to be impossible in principle, this may lems, but first we must discover how
be the biggest breakthrough of all, as it would imply that our fundamental understanding of the quantum world is incorrect. best to build and use them.