Hybrid Concrete Buildings

UDC
624.072.33:624.012.3/.4
CCIP-030
CI/Sfb
Design of Hybrid Concrete Buildings
Bearings, interface details, consideration of movement, composite

action, robustness and the effects of prestressing are all explained in
this guide and design examples are included where appropriate. The
importance of overall responsibility and construction aspects are also
described.
Design of Hybrid
Concrete Buildings
A guide to the design of buildings combining in-situ
and precast concrete
R. Whittle MA (Cantab) CEng MICE

H. Taylor FREng, BSc, PhD, CEng, FICE, FIStructE
Robin Whittle has extensive knowledge and experience of designing

all types of concrete buildings. He regular contributes to concrete
industry publications and is a consultant to Arup. He was a member
of the project team which drafted Eurocode 2.
Howard Taylor has extensive knowledge and experience of
designing precast concrete elements and buildings, including
developing alternative production methods. He is a past president
of the Institution of Structural Engineers and is currently chairman
of the British Standards Institution Building and civil engineering
structures Technical Committee B/525.
CCIP-030
Published January 2009
ISBN 978-1-904482-55-0
Price Group P
R. Whittle MA (Cantab) CEng MICE H. Taylor FREng, BSc, PhD, CEng, FICE, FIStructE
This design guide is intended to provide the structural

engineer with essential guidance for the design of structures
that combine precast and in-situ concrete in a hybrid
concrete structure. It introduces the options available for
hybrid concrete structures, and goes on to explain the key
considerations in the design of this type of structure.
A cement and concrete industry publication
The Concrete Centre
Riverside House, 4 Meadows Business Park,

Station Approach, Blackwater, Camberley, Surrey, GU17 9AB
Tel: +44 (0)1276 606 800
www.concretecentre.com
Hybrid cov-.indd 1
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Type 1
Precast twin wall and lattice girder slab with
in-situ concrete
Type 2
Precast column and edge beam with in-situ
oor slab
Type 4
In-situ columns or walls and beams with precast
oor units
Type 5
In-situ column and structural topping with precast
beams and oor units
Type 3
Precast column and oor units with cast in-situ
beams
Acknowledgements
The authors would particularly like to thank the following people for their support in the development of this
design guide:
Tony Jones
Ian Feltham
Arup
Arup
The contributions and comments from the Concrete Society Design Group and also from the following
people are gratefully acknowledged:
John Stehle
Graham Hardwick
Peter Kelly
Alex Davie
David Appleton
Kevin Laney
Norman Brown
Type 6
In-situ columns with lattice girder slabs with
optional spherical void formers
Typical hybrid concrete options.

Please note this diagram is a repeat of Figure 2.1, page 8.
Laing ORourke
John Doyle Construction Ltd
Bison Concrete Products Ltd
Consultant
Hanson Concrete Products
Strongforce Engineering Plc
British Precast Concrete Federation Ltd
Published by The Concrete Centre

Riverside House, 4 Meadows Business Park, Station Approach, Blackwater, Camberley, Surrey GU17 9AB
Tel: +44 (0)1276 606800 Fax: +44 (0)1276 606801
CCIP-030
ISBN 978-1-904482-55-0
Price Group P
The Concrete Centre
Cement and Concrete Industry Publications (CCIP) are produced through an industry initiative to
publish technical guidance in support of concrete design and construction.
CCIP publications are available from the Concrete Bookshop at www.concretebookshop.com
Tel: +44 (0)7004 607777
All advice or information from The Concrete Centre is only intended for use in the UK by those who will evaluate the signicance
and limitations of its contents and take responsibility for its use and application. No liability(including that for negligence) for any
loss resulting from such advice or information is accepted by The Concrete Centre or their subcontractors, suppliers or advisors.
Readers should note that the publications from The Concrete Centre are subject to revision from time to time and should
therefore ensure that they are in possession of the latest version.
Cover photo: Courtesy of Outinord International Ltd.
Printed by Information Press Ltd, Eynsham, UK
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Contents
1.
Introduction
1.1 Single point of responsibility
1.2 Design considerations
1.3 Best practice procurement guidance
2.
Overview of hybrid solutions

2.1 Type 1: Precast twin wall and lattice girder slab with in-situ concrete
2.2 Type 2: Precast column with in-situ oor slab
2.3 Type 3: Precast column and oor units with cast in-situ beams
2.4 Type 4: In-situ columns or walls and beams with precast oor units
2.5 Type 5: In-situ column and structural topping with precast beams and
oor units
2.6 Type 6: In-situ columns with lattice girder slabs with optional spherical
void formers
7
7
9
10
12
Overall structural design

3.1 Robustness
3.2 Stability
3.3 Diaphragm action
3.4 Shear at interface of concrete cast at different times
3.5 Interface shear
3.6 Shear and torsion design
3.7 Long-line prestressing system
3.8 Secondary effects of prestressing and the equivalent load method
3.9 Temperature effects
3.10 Differential shrinkage
3.11 Designing for construction
15
15
18
18
19
22
25
26
29
29
29
33
3.
Design of Hybrid Concrete Buildi1 1
5
5
6
6
13
14
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4.
Bearings and movement joints

4.1 Horizontal forces at bearings
4.2 Restrained bearings
4.3 Movement joints
4.4 Actions and restraints
4.6 Allowance for anchorage of reinforcement at supports
4.7 Bearings that allow limited movement
4.8 Connections between precast oors and in-situ concrete beams
34
34
35
36
36
37
37
38
42
5.
Structural elements and connections

5.1 Twin wall construction (type 1)
5.2 Precast columns, edge beams and in-situ slabs (type 2)
5.3 Biaxial voided slabs
5.4 Prestressed hollowcore units
5.5 Double tee beams
5.6 Stairs
5.7 Corbels, nibs and half joints
43
43
52
55
58
68
74
82
6.
Construction issues
6.1 Method of construction
6.2 Composite action between precast units and in-situ structural topping
6.3 Specially shaped standard units
6.4 Long and short units adjacent to each other
6.5 Differences of camber in double tees
6.6 Method of de-tensioning double tee units
6.7 Checking strand or wire pull-in for hollowcore units
6.8 Placing hollowcore units into the correct position
6.9 Production tolerances
87
87
89
89
89
91
91
91
91
92
7.
Special structures - case studies

7.1 Lloyds of London
7.2 Bracken House
References
93
93
100
104
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List of worked examples

Worked example 1
Worked example 2
Worked example 3
Worked example 4
Worked example 5
Worked example 6
Worked example 7
Worked example 8
Worked example 9
Hollowcore oor acting as a diaphragm

Interface shear between hollowcore slab and edge beam
Upwards camber on slab due to temperature gradient
Differential shrinkage
Bearing of a hollowcore unit
Vertical tie
Anchorage length of longitudinal tie bar
Dowel bar for connection of precast stairs
Corbel design
20
23
30
31
41
56
65
80
84
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Introduction 1
1. Introduction
Hybrid construction allows the most appropriate use of different materials and methods
of construction to produce a pleasing and effective form of structure. The search for
greater economy, in terms of material costs and reduced construction time, has resulted
in innovative approaches that seek to combine construction materials and methods to
optimum effect. Hybrid concrete construction (HCC) is one such development that
combines in-situ and precast concrete to maximise the benets of both forms of concrete
construction. Further guidance on the benets of HCC is given in Section 2.1.
This design guide is aimed at the designer and considers a range of hybrid concepts and
the overall structural aspects. It provides design and detailing information for some of the
common systems used and structural elements involved. Where applicable the information
is in accordance with BS EN 1992-1-1 1, together with the UK National Annex (Eurocode 2
is used to refer to BS EN 1992-1-1 throughout this guide unless noted otherwise). This
incorporates a section on the design of members by strut and tie methods, which is
particularly useful when considering hybrid design details. This guide also considers and
refers to the following European Concrete Product Standards for precast concrete elements:
BS EN 133692 Common Rules for Precast Concrete Products
BS EN 11683 Precast Concrete Products Hollowcore Slabs
BS EN 137474 Precast Concrete Products Floor Plates for Floor Systems
BS EN 132245 Precast Concrete Products Ribbed Floor Elements
BS EN 132256 Precast Concrete Products Linear Structural Elements
BS EN 149927 Precast Concrete Products Wall Elements
BS EN 148438 Precast Concrete Products Stairs
1.1 Single point of

responsibility
The use of precast and in-situ concrete may well lead to the design of the individual
elements by designers working for different companies. Therefore, it is essential that
there should be a single named designer or engineer who retains overall responsibility
for the stability of the structure and the compatibility of the design and details of the
parts and components, even where some or all of the design, including details, of those
parts and components are not carried out by this engineer. This is particularly important
for the design of hybrid structures where misunderstandings as to who is responsible have
occurred.
It is the responsibility of the designer, before incorporating any proprietary system as part
of the structure, to ensure that the assumptions made in the design and construction of
such are compatible with the design of the whole structure. This should include:
an adequate specification for that part.
ensuring that any standard product designed and detailed by the precast
manufacturer, is suitable for that particular structure.
the design of any such part is reviewed by the designer to ensure that it satisfies the
design intent and is compatible with the rest of the structure.
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1 Introduction
The design of each component should include consideration of:

its performance in the permanent condition
the construction method and loading
any temporary supports required during construction.
The design should be carried out following the requirement of Eurocode 2, Cl. 1.3, which
assumes:
Structures are designed by appropriately qualified and experienced personnel.
Adequate supervision and quality control is provided in factories, in plants and on site.
Construction is carried out by personnel having the appropriate skill and experience.
The construction materials and products are used as specified in Eurocode 2 or in the
relevant material or product specifications.
The structure will be adequately maintained.
The structure will be used in accordance with the design brief.
The requirements for execution and workmanship given in EN 136709 are complied with.
The design assumptions should generally include the following construction related
information:
sequence of construction
exposure requirements
pour sizes assumed (if appropriate)
concrete strength at time of striking formwork and back-propping requirements
breakdown of loading including allowance for construction loads
loading history assumed.
It should be noted that some of the advice given in this design guide is a result of failures
that have occurred on completed structures.
1.3 Best practice

procurement guidance
Best Practice Guidance for Hybrid Concrete Construction10 looks at the procurement
process from concept stages through to design and construction, suggesting processes
that allow the capture of best practice. It is supported by a number of case studies. The
guidance explains the benets that result from:
early involvement of specialist contractors
using a lead frame contractor
using best value philosophy
holding planned workshops
measuring performance
trust
close cooperation with an emphasis on partnering.
It is recommended that this guidance document is used to maximise the advantages of
using HCC.
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Overview of hybrid solutions 2
2. Overview of hybrid solutions

This section considers a range of possible hybrid concrete construction (HCC). The ideal
combination of precast and in-situ is inuenced by the project requirements. There is a
wide range of possible options, a selection of which is presented here as representative of
current UK practice. This is not intended to be exhaustive, but to reect the spectrum of
possibilities. The planning and detailed design of hybrid structural systems will almost
always require the involvement of specialist precast concrete manufacturers. These
manufacturers are willing and able to assist early in the design process to produce an
efcient design.
There are advantages to using both precast and in-situ concrete summarised in Table 2.1; more
detailed discussion on the benets of concrete can be found in other publications11, 12, 13.
The key to maximising the benets of HCC is to use the most appropriate technique for
each element to produce an economic structure.
Table 2.1
Benets of concrete.
Precast concrete
Precast or in-situ concrete
In-situ concrete
Economic for repetitive elements
Inherent re resistance
Economic for bespoke areas
Long clear spans
Durability
Continuity
Speed of erection
Sustainability
Inherent robustness
Buildability
Acoustic performance
Flexibility
High-quality nishes
Thermal mass that can be utilised for

fabric energy storage
Services coordination later in

programme
Consistent colour
Prestressing
Locally sourced materials
Accuracy
Mouldability
Short lead-in times
Reduced propping on site
Low vibration characteristics
Reduced skilled labour on site
Six of the most regularly used HCC options are shown in Figure 2.1 and are described in
more detail in the remainder of this chapter. They will be referred to by type number
throughout this guide where the detailed design of the various elements is discussed.
Suggested span limits are given for each type of construction. Further guidance for initial
sizing can be found in Economic Concrete Frame Elements14.
2.1 Type 1: Precast twin wall

and lattice girder slab with
in-situ concrete
Hybrid concrete wall panels are increasingly being proposed on projects throughout the UK
and are often known as twin wall. They comprise two skins of precast concrete connected
by steel lattices, which are lled with concrete on site, see Figure 2.2. The external skins of
the twin wall system are factory made, typically using steel moulds. This results in a higher
quality nish than a typical in-situ wall. The panel surface quality is suitable to receive a
plaster nish or wallpaper. The panel surface is not normally architectural concrete and
the colour may not be consistent or easy to specify. Joints are cast using in-situ concrete
and either have to be expressed as a feature or concealed. This option offers potential
advantages to the contractor in terms of speed of construction, as well as reducing the
number of skilled site staff required to construct the walls.
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2 Overview of hybrid solutions
Type 1
in-situ concrete
Type 2
oor slab
Type 4
oor units
Type 5
beams and oor units
Type 3
beams
Type 6
Figure 2.1
Please note this diagram is repeated on the inside
back cover for ease of reference.
Figure 2.2
Type 1 construction,
twin wall erection.
Photo: John Doyle Construction Ltd
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Often the twin wall system is combined with the use of lattice girder precast soft slabs,
with or without spherical void formers. These provide permanent shuttering for an in-situ
slab that can be relatively easily tted to the wall system. Spans up to 8 m are common
and spans up to 14 m are possible. (The manufacturer should be consulted early on to
ensure the longer spans are viable.)
Potential structural uses of the twin wall system include:
cellular type structures for residential use
walls carrying vertical loads only
shear and core walls; this has significant implications for the design, as discussed in
Section 5.1
retaining walls; this has significant implications for the design, as discussed in Section 5.1
single sided formwork situations, where there is no access to one side of the wall to erect
formwork, for example wall construction on a party wall line against neighbouring buildings.
The major advantage is that it is an in-situ structure, fully continuous and tied together,
but without the need for shuttering on site. Twin wall can also be cast with fully trimmed
openings and with ducts for cables and other services.
Advantages:
Quality finish for walls and soffits.
No formwork for vertical structure and horizontal structure when lattice girder slabs are
used.
Structural connection between wall and slabs is by standard reinforced concrete detail
and inherently robust.
Reduced propping.
Disadvantages:
Propping of precast required prior to sufficient strength gain of in-situ concrete.
The smaller dimension of the precast units is typically a maximum of 3.6 m, so joints
in walls and soffits must be dealt with: expressed or concealed.
Reduced flexibility of layout as this option requires walls rather than columns.
2.2 Type 2: Precast column

with in-situ oor slab
The combination of an in-situ slab, e.g. post-tensioned at slab, with precast columns
can provide an economic and fast construction system. Precast concrete edge beams
may also be used to avoid edge shutters on site and to allow perimeter reinforcement,
cladding xings or prestressing anchorages to be cast in. This reduces the time required
for reinforcement xing and erecting the formwork.
The maximum span for this form of construction depends largely on whether the in-situ
slab is post-tensioned. For at slabs with spans greater than 10 m punching shear is likely
to be a critical design issue.
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Where long-span thin slabs are used vibration limits should be checked, see A Design Guide
for Footfall Induced Vibration of Structures15.
This form of construction relies on the structure being braced. This is achieved by the lift
core(s) or separate shear walls.
Advantages:
Columns can be erected quickly.
Quality finish for columns.
Precast edge beam contains post-tensioning anchorages (if required), slab edge
reinforcement and cladding fixings, and avoids need for slab edge shuttering.
Can be used with a variety of in-situ slabs, selected to suit individual project requirements.
More flexible for late changes.
Disadvantages:
In-situ slab requires falsework, formwork and curing time.
2.3 Type 3: Precast column

and oor units with cast
in-situ beams
This form of construction allows a high proportion of the structure to be manufactured in

quality controlled factory conditions off site leading to fast construction on site.
A variety of precast oor products could be used with this type of construction, including
hollowcore units, double tees or lattice girder slabs (with or without spherical void formers)
or bespoke cofferred oor units, see Figures 2.3a and 2.3b. The latter have successfully
been used in high quality buildings designed for energy efciency, where the light ttings,
architectural features and cooling systems have all been incorporated into the unit.
Advantages:
Vertical structure can be erected quickly; no formwork required.
Precast floor structure can be erected quickly; no formwork required.
Quality finish for columns and soffits (although this is not always possible with
hollowcore units).
Structural connection between precast elements is via standard reinforced or posttensioned concrete.
Disadvantages:
Precast flooring must be temporarily propped.
Sealing between precast units is required.
10
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Figure 2.3a
Example of type 3 projects.
Paternoster Square and ofce building.
Figure 2.3b
Example of type 3 projects.
Homer Road, Solihull.
Photo: Foggo Associates
11
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2.4 Type 4: In-situ columns

or walls and beams with
precast oor units
This is a similar form to type 3 discussed above, the key difference being that the columns
are cast in-situ rather than being precast, see Figure 2.4.
The advantage of this form of construction over a fully in-situ concrete structure is the
ability to use long spans (up to 16 m) precast oor units, e.g. hollowcore slabs, double tees.
These obviate the need for slab formwork and provide a relatively lightweight oor. This
construction system does not require the involvement of a specialist subcontractor beyond
the manufacture and supply of the standard precast units.
Figure 2.4
Example of type 4 project, car park, West
Quay, Southampton
Photo: Hanson Concrete Products
Advantages:
Precast floor structure can be erected quickly.
Quality finish for soffits (although this is not always possible with hollowcore units).
Short lead time for standard precast products.
Disadvantages:
Sealing between precast units is required.
12
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2.5 Type 5: In-situ column

and structural topping with
precast beams and oor
units
In this form of construction the oor consists entirely of precast elements, which are tied
together with an in-situ structural topping, see Figure 2.5. (A structural topping is now
dened as wearing screed in BS 820416.) The column formwork can be designed as a
temporary support for the precast beams and slabs to reduce the requirement for propping
of the precast oor. The joint between the beam and columns and any structural screed is
concreted with the columns to form a monolithic, robust structure.
This system requires particular attention to the connection details between the precast
beam and oor units. It should be ensured that adequate structural ties are provided to
achieve a robust structure.
Advantages:
Precast floor structure can be erected quickly.
Precast beams support precast floor units, minimising floor propping.
Precast quality finish for soffits.
Formwork for in-situ columns can be used to prop precast beams.
Structural connection between precast elements is via standard reinforced concrete.
In-situ structural topping to beam permits beams to be continuous over columns.
Disadvantages:
Downstand beams need to be coordinated with the services distribution.
Figure 2.5
Example type 5 project, Home Ofce
Headquarters, London.
Photo: Pell Frischmann Consulting Engineers Ltd and Bouygues (UK) Ltd
13
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2.6 Type 6: In-situ columns

with lattice girder slabs
with optional spherical void
formers
The main feature of this system is the use of the lattice girder panels to act as permanent
formwork for a at slab. A variation is to include spherical void formers, which reduce the
self-weight of the slab, for only a small reduction in exural strength and stiffness. Lattice
girders and void former cages are cast into (usually class C40/50) concrete panels
containing reinforcement in two directions, providing a precast panel that acts as the
permanent formwork, see Figure 2.6. The slab may be designed as a at slab. If the
spherical void formers are used, they are removed in areas of high shear where a solid
section provides greater shear resistance.
The slab may be designed as a at slab, although propping of the panels will be required,
to reduce the overall oor zone of the building and to simplify installation of services. The
quality of the factory produced softs provides the opportunity to take advantage of the
thermal mass properties of the concrete slab by exposing them.
Advantages:
Precast floor structure can be erected quickly; no formwork required.
Structural connection between precast elements is via standard reinforced concrete.
Quality finish for soffits.
More flexible for late changes.
Disadvantages:
Figure 2.6
Type 6: Lattice girder soft panels used as
permanent formwork.
14
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Overall structural design 3
3. Overall structural design

This section gives specic guidance on the aspects of structural design that will apply to
most forms of hybrid concrete construction (HCC). HCC requires special design care
because the connections of elements within the structure are unlikely to use standard
in-situ reinforcement details; more detailed guidance is given in Sections 4 and 5 on bearings,
movement joints, various elements and their connections. The designer must be condent
that the details will work satisfactory for all situations that the structure is likely to experience.
The introduction to this design guide emphasizes the importance of a single named
engineer responsible for the design of a hybrid concrete structure. This is particularly
important in the design of the connection details.
3.1 Robustness
The design and detailing advice provided in this guide assumes that the structure falls
into Approved Document A17, class 2B (risk group 2B in Scotland) or above. It is essential to
create a robust structure and this may require special details to be developed to allow the
precast elements to be properly integrated.
The UK Building Regulations18 through Approved Document A refers to BS EN 1991-7,
Actions on Structures Accidental Actions19 and Eurocode 2. The full requirements are
given in Eurocode 2, Cl. 9.10, its UK National Annex20 and PD 6687, Background Paper to
the UK National Annexes to BS EN 1992-121. The design of ties should take account of the
minimum reinforcement requirements (related to the tensile strength of concrete) and
the anchorage capacity of the bars.
Continuity of ties
A tie may be considered effectively continuous if the rules for anchoring and lapping bars
given in Eurocode 2, Cl. 8.4 and 8.7 are followed and the minimum dimension of any in-situ
concrete section in which tie bars are provided is not less than the sum of the bar size (or
twice the bar size at laps), twice the maximum aggregate size and 10 mm.
The tie should also satisfy one of the following conditions:
A bar or tendon in a precast member lapped with a bar in connecting in-situ concrete,
bounded on two opposite sides, by rough faces of the same precast member, see
Figure 3.1.
A bar or tendon in a precast concrete member lapped with a bar in in-situ structural
topping or connecting concrete anchored to the precast member by enclosing links.
The combined ultimate tensile resistance of the links should be not less than the
ultimate tension in the tie, see Figure 3.2.
Bars projecting from the ends of precast members joined by any method conforming
with Eurocode 2, Cl. 8.7.
Bars lapped within in-situ structural topping or connecting concrete to form a continuous
reinforcement with projecting links from the support of the precast floor or roof
members to anchor such support to the topping or connecting concrete, see Figure 3.3.
15
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3 Overall structural design
Figure 3.1
Continuity of ties: Bars in precast member
lapped with bar in in-situ concrete.
Figure 3.2
Continuity of ties: Anchorage by enclosing
links.
Tie
Tie
Figure 3.3
Tie
Tie
Continuity of ties: Bars lapped within in-situ

concrete.
Peripheral ties
The peripheral tie should be capable of resisting a design tensile force:
Ftie,per = (20 + 4n0) 60 kN
where
n0
= number of storeys
Internal ties
The internal tie should be capable of resisting a design tensile force:
Ftie,int = [(qk + gk)/7.5](lr /5)(Ft) Ft kN/m
where
(qk + gk) = sum of the average permanent and variable floor loads (in kN/m2)
= greater of the distances (in metres) between the centres of the columns,
lr
frames or walls supporting any two adjacent floor spans in the direction of
the tie under consideration, and
Ft
= (20 + 4n0) 60 kN
Maximum spacing of internal ties = 1.5lr
16
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Horizontal ties to columns and/or walls

Edge columns and walls should be tied horizontally to the structure at each oor and roof
level. The tie should be capable of resisting a design tensile force:
Ftie, fac = Ftie, col = Maximum (Minimum (2Ft; lsFt/2.5); 0.03 NEd)
where
Ftie,fac
= in kN/m run of wall
Ftie,col
= in kN/column
Ft
= as defined in above
ls
= floor to ceiling height (in metres)
NEd
= total design ultimate vertical load in wall or column at the level considered
Tying of external walls is only required if the peripheral tie is not located in the wall.
Vertical ties
For class 2B and 3 buildings Approved Document A (and similarly the Technical Handbooks
for Scotland for risk group 2B and 3 buildings) has the following requirements:
a) Each column and each wall carrying vertical load should be tied continuously from the
lowest to the highest level. The tie should be capable of carrying a tensile force equal to
the design load carried by the column or wall from any one storey under accidental design
situation (that is loading calculated using BS EN 1990, Eurocode: Basis of Structural
Design22, Expression (6.11b)).
b) Where ties described in a) are not provided a check should be carried out to show that
upon notional removal of each supporting column and wall, and each beam supporting
columns or walls (one at a time in each storey of the building) that the building remains
stable and that the area of floor at any storey at risk of collapse does not exceed 15 per
cent of the floor area of that storey or 70 m2, whichever is the smaller, and does not
extend further than the immediate adjacent storeys.
c) Where the notional removal of such elements would result in damage or is in excess of the
limit above then these elements should be designed as key elements. A key element
should be capable of withstanding a design load of 34 kN/m2 at ultimate limit state
applied from any direction to the projected area of the member together with the reaction
from the attached components, which should also be assumed to be subject to 34 kN/m2.
The latter may be reduced to the maximum reaction that can be transmitted by the
attached component and its connections.
Anchorage of precast oor and roof units and stair members

PD 6687, Background Paper to the UK National Annexes to BS EN 1992-1-1 and BS EN
1992-1-221, Cl. 2.20.2 Anchorage of precast oor and roof units and stair members states that:
a) In buildings that fall into class 2B and 3 as defined in Section 5 of Approved Document A
all precast floor, roof and stair members should be effectively anchored whether or
not such members are used to provide other ties required in Eurocode 2, Cl. 9.10.2.
(Similar requirements apply in Scotland.)
b) The anchorage described in a) should be capable of carrying the dead weight of the
member to that part of the structure that contains the ties.
17
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3.2 Stability
HCC frames may be designed as either braced or unbraced. The design of unbraced frames
requires extra care to ensure that the joint details can resist the applied moments without
excessive rotation.
3.3 Diaphragm action
Where oor diaphragm action is used in the design, type 3 and 4 structures have the
precast elements carrying horizontal shears for diaphragm action to take place. Types 2 and
6 structures have the in-situ oor acting as a diaphragm, and type 1 and 5 structures can
have the diaphragm action shared by the precast units and the in-situ structural topping.
Multi Storey Precast Concrete Framed Structures23 describes the design approaches for
oor diaphragm action formed from different types of precast units supported by tests.
One approach is the use of precast units, either alone or with a structural topping, having
sufcient horizontal shear capacity between them, such that together they can be considered
as horizontal beams with longitudinal steel at each gable and tie steel across the unit-tounit joints, see Figure 3.4a.
An alternative method, appropriate to hollowcore oors with no structural topping
considers the hollowcore unit as a member in a virendeel girder and with reinforcement
in the embedment zone in the edge beams acting as the stiffening component in the
virendeel joints, see Figure 3.4b.
Figure 3.4
Typical diaphragm action from precast oor
systems.
a) Floor carrying horizontal forces from wind by beam action
b) Floor carrying horizontal forces from wind by virendal action
18
29/01/2009 16:48:03
BS EN 1168, Precast Concrete Products Hollowcore Slabs3 has an informative annex that
gives some advice on the design of horizontal diaphragms to carry lateral loads, usually wind
loading. This, in turn, refers to Eurocode 2, Cl. 10.9.3 where the maximum longitudinal
shear stress for grouted connections vRdi is limited to 0.15 MPa for smooth and rough
surfaces, as found at the edges of hollowcore, and 0.1 MPa for very smooth surfaces as
found in the ex-mould nish of bounding edge beams, see Figure 3.2.
A considerable amount of test work has also been carried out on hollowcore diaphragms
and is discussed by Elliott23.
3.4 Shear at interface of

concrete cast at different
times
Eurocode 2, Cl. 6.2.5 also covers the design approach for shear at the interface between
concrete cast at different times. A design example (worked example 1) is included here to
illustrate the process, as it is required in many areas of hybrid design where precast and
in-situ concretes are combined to produce composite sections. The example using
hollowcore without structural topping is a useful one as it is more critical than diaphragms
with any topping.
A further consideration is the shear connection between the hollowcore units and also
between the end unit and the bounding beam. In this case, the connection to the main
support beams and the longitudinal steel in the support beams is usually sufcient to
ensure that the hollowcore units cannot move apart and so the structural model used in
worked example 1 remains valid.
19
29/01/2009 16:48:03

Project details
Worked example 1
Hollowcore floor acting as a diaphragm
Calculated by
RW
Job No.
CCIP-030
Checked by
OB
Sheet No.
WE 1/1
Client
TCC
Date
April 08
Check the design of the hollowcore diaphragm, without structural topping, carrying wind load to
walls at each end, as shown below.
Edge beam
vs
vs
s
Hollowcore
unit
vs
vs
KEY
vs - Very smooth surface

s - Smooth surface
Section A - A
Plan:
15 m x 9 m with 250 mm thick hollowcore unit
20
29/01/2009 16:48:04

Project details
Worked example 1
Wind load: 2 kN/m2
Calculated by
RW
Job No.
CCIP-030
Checked by
OB
Sheet No.
WE 1/2
Client
TCC
Date
April 08
(A high wind load)
Assume a 3 m high storey, calculate maximum moment, MEd, from the diaphragm edge wind load/m run.
wd = 1.5 x 3 x 2 = 9 kN/m
Q is taken as 1.5
2
MEd = 9 x 15 /8 = 253 kNm
Calculate shear reaction at the diaphragm edges, VEd.
VEd = 9 x 15/2= 67.5 kN
Assume 2 No. hairpins (U bars), 12 mm diameter, in each 1.2 m wide hollowcore unit.
Check shear at interface: vEdi < vRdi
gives:
vEdi = VEd/(z bi)
where
= 1
VEd = 67.5 kN at end of diaphragm
d = 0.83 h and z = 0.67 h (assuming elastic stress distribution)
Hence:
z = 0.67 x 9 = 6 m
bi = 250 50 (say) = 200 mm
vEdi =
Eurocode 2, Cl. 6.2.5

Eurocode 2, Exp.(6.24)
Eurocode 2, Figure 6.8
67.5 x 1000/(6000 x 200 ) = 0.056 MPa
rRdi is limited to 0.10 MPa (> 0.056 MPa OK)
Eurocode 2, Cl.10.9.3(12)
Check vRdi (which is unlikely to control); for this example the first and second terms are small and
may be ignored as a first estimate.
vRdi = fyd ( sin + cos ) 0.5 fcd
where
= As/Ai
= 0.5 (very smooth surface)
fyd = the design yield strength of reinforcement
As = the area of reinforcement crossing the interface
Ai = the area of the joint
= 90 for reinforcement perpendicular to the joint
= 0.6 (1 fck/250)
Eurocode 2, Cl.6.2.5 (2)
21
29/01/2009 16:48:04

Project details
Worked example 1
For this example:
As =
Ai =
Hence:
=
and:
vRdi =
=
Calculated by
RW
Job No.
CCIP-030
Checked by
OB
Sheet No.
WE 1/3
Client
TCC
Date
April 08
2 x 2 x 113 = 452 mm2

1200 x 200 = 240 000 mm2
452/240 000 = 0.00188
0.00188 x 500 x (0.5 x 1 + 0)/1.15 0.5 x 0.6(1 - 25/250) x 1 x 25/1.5
0.41 4.5 MPa
Use 2 No. hairpins (U bars) - 12 mm diameter

This check demonstrates that Exp. (6.25) is not usually a limiting control.
The design would now normally continue to calculate the tensile steel required in the edge beam to
carry the diaphragm tensile boom force, taking into account that this calculation must also
consider the other actions for the appropriate combination of actions.
3.5 Interface shear
For many beams in HCC there is an interface between concrete cast at different times. The
interface may be between precast and in-situ, two precast elements or in-situ concrete with
a construction joint. All interfaces and critical sections in the composite section must be
considered in accordance with Eurocode 2, Cl. 6.2.4 and 6.2.5 (see example in Section 3.4).
Typical interfaces are shown in the Figure 3.5, and typical calculations are presented in
worked example 2.
Figure 3.5
Typical interfaces between precast and in-situ
joints.
Interface 3
Interface 2
Interface 4
Interface 1
22
29/01/2009 16:48:05

Project details
Worked example 2
Interface shear between hollowcore slab
and edge beam
Calculated by
RW
Job No.
CCIP-030
Checked by
OB
Sheet No.
WE 2/1
Client
TCC
Date
April 08
Consider Example 13.7 in the Precast Eurocode 2: Design Manual24. Interface shear check is between
the edge beam and in-situ concrete provided in the joint (see figure). In this example the contribution
of the horizontal surface is ignored. The shear resistance of the interface between the upstand of
the precast unit and the main body below should also be checked.
Shear interface
600
175
110
200
In-situ concrete
The flange over each hollowcore is cut out and therefore the units should be temporarily propped.
1 No. H16 U-bar is placed in each void to interlock with projecting reinforcement in the edge beam
as shown.
Assume that the compression flange of the edge beam is 600 + 175 + 110 = 885 mm wide.
Check shear at interface according to Eurocode 2, Cl. 6.2.5.
fck = 35 MPa
fy
= 500 MPa
Maximum sagging moment, MEd = 267 kNm
Maximum design shear,
VEd = 223 kN
bi = 200 mm
d
= 540 mm
MEd/bd2fck = 267 x 1000000/(885 x 5402 x 35) = 0.0296
23
29/01/2009 16:48:05

Project details
Worked example 2
Interface shear between hollowcore slab
and edge beam
Calculated by
RW
Job No.
CCIP-030
Checked by
OB
Sheet No.
WE 2/2
Client
TCC
Date
April 08
From Figure B1 of the Precast Eurocode 2: Design Manual24 find value of z (alternatively find z by
calculation or with any suitable design aid):
z
= 0.97
vEdi =
where
bi
Hence:
vEdi =
vRdi
VEd /z bi
Eurocode 2, Exp (6.24)
= ratio of the longitudinal force in the new concrete and the total
longitudinal force
= width of new concrete/total flange width
= 775/885 = 0.88
= 200 mm
0.88 x 223 x 1000/(0.97 x 540 x 200) = 1.87 MPa
= c fctd + n + fyd ( sin + cos) 0.5 fcd
where
c
n
fctd
=
=
=
=
=
0.35 and = 0.6 for a smooth surface

0
90
1 x 2.2/1.5 = 1.47 MPa
0.6(1 35/250) = 0.52
Eurocode 2, Exp (6.25)
Eurocode 2, Exp (6.6N)
vRdi = 0.35 x 1.47 + 0 + x 0.6 x 500/1.15 0.5 x 0.52 x 1 x 35/1.5 (= 6.07 MPa)
vEdi vRdi 0.515 + 260.9
Hence:
(1.87 0.515)/260.9 = 0.005

Now:
= As /Ai
As,req = Ai = 0.005 x 1200 x 200 = 1200 mm2
Using 3 No. voids each containing 1 No. H16 U bar.
As,prov = 3 x 2 x 162 /4 = 1210 mm2
OK
24
29/01/2009 16:48:06
3.6 Shear and torsion

design
Shear and torsion are predominately critical at the ultimate limit state and the composite
sections can be considered to be monolithic if the interface shear calculations have been
carried out appropriately, as discussed in Section 3.4 (see Eurocode 2, Cl. 6.2.4 and 6.2.5).
The variable strut inclination method used in Eurocode 2 is based on the shear load being
applied at the top of the beam element. When it is applied near to the bottom, the load
must be carried up to the top with vertical reinforcement additional to the vertical
reinforcement required by the shear calculation. This is sometimes called hang up steel,
as its effect is to hang up the applied load to the top compression chord of the beam
(Eurocode 2, Cl. 6.2.1(9)), see Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6
Hang up steel requirement.
Beam shear strut
Slab shear strut
Hang up steel additional to

reinforcement required to carry
shear Eurocode 2, Cl 6.2.1 (9)
Slab shear strut
Types 2, 3 and 4 apply the oor permanent actions to the spine beams at the bottom of
the section and this element of the load must be carried by hang up steel. Whether the
subsequent variable actions should also be covered in this way depends on the form of
the composite connection. In any event, the load only needs to be carried up once to the
top of the truss and the extra link requirement is not onerous.
Where type 5 is used a further check is required for edge beams or where there is out-ofbalance loading on an internal beam.
The edge beam and internal spine beam with unequal loading in this form of construction
must be designed to resist the torsion set up by the eccentric loading. Both the transient
situation during construction and the ultimate limit state must be considered. The joint
between the beam and its support must also be designed to take this torsion, see Figure 3.7.
25
29/01/2009 16:48:06
Figure 3.7
Design for torsional restraint.
Centre of resistance
of column
Shear centre of beam
h1
h2
For the torsional design of the edge beam, the design torque is equal to the load multiplied
by the distance from its line of action to the shear centre of the edge element Vh1. For the
design of the temporary support system to give equilibrium, the overturning torque is
equal to the torsional force multiplied by the distance from the line of action of the force
to that of the restraining system Vh2.
3.7 Long-line prestressing

system
Many prestressed precast elements are produced by the long-line pre-tensioning system
on prestressing beds of up to 200 m in length with built-in jack heads at each end, see
Figure 3.8. The normal construction procedure is as follows:
The moulds are placed in a continuous line along the bed (the number depending on
the length of each unit) and end plates are fitted to the required dimensions of the
units to be cast.
The tendons are laid out and stressed from fixed external jack heads. They pass
through each unit as straight horizontal tendons.
The secondary reinforcement is then fixed within each mould.
The concrete is poured into each mould.
When the concrete reaches the required transfer strength (confirmed by test cubes),
the stress is gradually released from the jack heads and is transferred into the concrete
by anchorage bond.
A typical detail of the placing of moulds on the long-line system is shown in Figure 3.9.
26
29/01/2009 16:48:06
Figure 3.8
The long-line pre-tensioning system.
Gradual detensioning
mechanism
Stressed strands
Unit moulds or continuously

extruded units
Jack blocks and embedded

cantilever upright in
concrete strong floor
Figure 3.9
Typical detail of placing of moulds on the
long-line system.
Unit in mould
Strand
Mould end plate
Detail of gap between moulds
Debonding tendons
The position of the strands in the section is normally determined by the length of the unit
and the design loading at mid-span. Stress limits are set for the serviceability limit state
(for further information see Precast Eurocode 2: Design Manual24 and Post-tensioned
Concrete Floors Design Handbook25).
Since the tendons are straight the prestress is the same at the end of the units as it is at
mid-span (apart from within the transmission zone), but there is little balance from the
stresses due to permanent actions at the ends. This creates high-tension stresses at the
top of the section that will be a maximum immediately after transfer of prestress. In order
to reduce these stresses locally some of the tendons are debonded by placing tubing over
them at the end of the unit for the required length, see Figure 3.10.
It should be noted that the bottom strand should not be debonded, as it ensures that the
concrete near the end of the unit has less chance of being damaged. It is advisable to
provide two links just beyond the debonding point in the beam span to restrain anchorage
stresses. Two 10 mm diameter links, the rst at 100 mm from the debonding point and
the second 40 mm beyond that, are typically sufcient. The proximity of the links to the
bonding position ensures sufcient restraint to bursting even if the transmission zone is
less than that assumed in design in accordance with Eurocode 2.
27
29/01/2009 16:48:07
Figure 3.10
Typical detail showing the debonding of a
strand.
Typically 7 - 8 protruding links

Extra links at
debonding point
Fully bonded stressed strand
Debonded strand
Debonding is used in double tee design because it is such a simple and cost-effective
option. An alternative to debonding some of the tendons is to deect them at the ends of
the unit. This method is very seldom adopted, as it requires special features to be built into
the long-line system to take account of the vertical forces involved.
The difference between the effects of straight bonded and debonded tendons is shown in
Figure 3.11.
Figure 3.11
Comparison between straight bonded,
debonded and deected tendons.
Unit with straight bonded tendons
Unit with straight debonded tendons
Moments from quasi-permanent loading
Moments from prestress
Balance of moments
Resulting camber
28
29/01/2009 16:48:07
Prestressed units camber because of the hogging moment provided by the prestress. A pretensioned prestressed beam with no camber, unless it has a very short span or is debonded,
should be viewed with caution. Camber is equivalent to the deection of a reinforced
concrete beam; in fact for a permanent and variable action balanced by prestress, the
upwards camber would be less than the downward deection of the reinforced section.
This is because the prestressed section would be uncracked and stiffer than the cracked
reinforced beam. Thus, camber should not be a problem but should be allowed for when
setting oor levels. An estimate of camber should be obtained from the manufacturer of
the prestressed unit. It will be affected by the strength of concrete at the time of transfer.
Debonding has the advantage of reducing camber, as the debonded prestressed moment
diagram is closer to the permanent load diagram than the fully bonded one. The typical
camber of a fully bonded 16 m double tee beam carrying car park loading is 35 to 45 mm
and this can be reduced by debonding to the range of 10 to 25 mm. Debonding, however,
reduces the net prestress at the support and this reduces the design shear strength, but
for double tees this reduction is seldom a critical design issue.
3.8 Secondary effects of

prestressing and the
equivalent load method
The occasions where secondary effects (sometimes referred to as parasitic effects) need to
be considered relate to indeterminate frames and continuous beams/slabs. The most likely
example for HCC is where post-tensioned slabs are used. Section 5.6 of the Post-tensioned
Concrete Floors Design Handbook25 describes the phenomena and the use of the equivalent
load method.
3.9 Temperature effects
The deection of a oor in response to a temperature gradient can be large and this can
result in rotational movements at supports, which can produce unwanted local damage
such as cracking and spalling. This problem is particularly acute in uninsulated roofs, often
found in car parks. The following simple calculation, worked example 3, gives an idea of the
magnitude of the displacements. Further guidance can be found in Movement, Restraint and
Cracking in Concrete Structures26.
3.10 Differential shrinkage
When an in-situ screed is added onto a rst stage cast oor of either reinforced or prestressed construction, the shrinkage of the screed after its initial hydration will develop a
compressive strain in the top of the rst stage cast and will induce a downwards deection
in the span of the composite unit and, if the oor is of continuous construction, a hogging
moment at the supports. Note that these effects are of importance at the serviceability
limit state only, as at the ultimate limit state these imposed strains will have little effect.
Figure 3.12 shows how the strains are built up through the height of the composite section
for a given free differential shrinkage strain, fds. The nal curvature, , is constant across
the section. Design equations can be developed as follows:
29
29/01/2009 16:48:07
Figure 3.12
fds
The effect of differential shrinkage across a

section.
cp
i
yi,b
In-situ
ci
yp,t
Precast
Force equilibrium:
i Ei Ai = p Ep Ap
(1)
p = i Ei Ai /Ep Ap
Section equilibrium (EI = M):
(Ei Ii + Ep Ip) = i Ei Ai ( yi,b + yp,t)
(2)
Strain equilibrium:
fds = i + ci + cp + p = i + yi,b + yp,t + p
= (fds - (i + p))/(yi,b + yp,t)

= (fds - (i + i Ei Ai /Ep Ap))/(yi,b + yp,t)
Project details
Worked example 3
Upwards camber on slab due to
temperature gradient
(3)
Calculated by
RW
Job No.
CCIP-030
Checked by
OB
Sheet No.
WE 3/1
Client
TCC
Date
April 08
Calculate the upwards deflection of a 16 m span 300 mm deep simply supported floor resulting from
a temperature gradient of 20C with the upper surface being the hotter. Assume that the gradient
is linear and steady state, and that the temperature coefficient for concrete, , is 10 x 10-6.
The curvature, , from this temperature gradient is
=
20 x /300
=
20 x 10 x 10-6/300
=
0.67 x 10-6
The curvature is constant along the length of the unit.
From the second moment area theorem, the mid-span deflection:
=
x l2/8
=
0.67 x 8000 x 4000/1000000
=
21.4 mm
30
29/01/2009 16:48:07
Combining (2) and (3):

{yi,b + yp,t + (fds - (Ei Ii + Ep Ip)) (1/Ei Ai + 1/Ep Ap)/(yi,b + yp,t)} = fds
= fds /{yi,b + yp,t + (Ei Ii + Ep Ip) (1/Ei Ai + 1/Ep Ap)/(yi,b + yp,t)}
(4)
i = fds /{1 + Ei Ai /Ep Ap + (yi,b + yp,t)2 Ei Ai /(Ei Ii + Ep Ip)}
(5)
p = fds /{1 + Ep Ap /Ei Ai + (yi,b + yp,t)2 Ei Ai /(Ei Ii + Ep Ip)}
(6)
From equations (4) to (6) all the strains, stresses and forces can be determined.
Worked example 4 describes the method for determining the effect of differential
shrinkage where in-situ concrete is placed on a precast concrete T section.
Project details
Worked example 4
Calculated by
RW
Job No.
CCIP-030
Checked by
OB
Sheet No.
WE 4/1
Client
TCC
Date
April 08
Calculate the effect of differential shrinkage in a beam constructed in two stages as shown below.
The element is simply supported and 20 m span. The free differential shrinkage strain is 0.0002.
B785 mesh
1000
100
50
B283 mesh
In-situ concrete
300
2 x 2 No 7.9 super strand
Precast concrete
150
B785 fabric in in-situ concrete

B283 fabric in precast concrete flange
2 x 2 No. 7.9 mm super strand in precast rib
31
29/01/2009 16:48:08

Project details
Worked example 4
In-situ concrete
fck,in =
Ec,in,long =
=
=
Calculated by
RW
Job No.
CCIP-030
Checked by
OB
Sheet No.
WE 4/2
Client
TCC
Date
April 08
25 MPa, fcm,in = 33 MPa, creep coefficient, = 1.5

22 [fcm,in/10]0.3/(1 + )
22 x (33/10)0.3/(1 + 1.5)
12.59 GPa
Eurocode 2, Table 3.1

and Cl.3.1.4
Section properties, including the reinforcement, are as follows:

Ain
= 112 x 103 mm2
Iin
= bd3/12 = 1000 x 1003/12
= 87.5 x 106 mm4
yinbar,b = 52.1 mm
zin,b = 1680 x 103 mm3
Precast concrete
fck,p =
Ec,p,long =
=
50 MPa, fcm,p = 58 MPa, Creep coeficient, = 1

22 x (58/10)0.3/(1 + 1)
18.64 GPa
Eurocode 2, Table 3.1

and Cl.3.1.4
Section properties, including the tendons and reinforcement, are as follows:

Ap
= 101.5 x 103 mm2
Ip
= 1220 x 106 mm4
ypbar,b = 237.4 mm
ypbar,t = 112.6 mm
zp,t
= 10900 x 103 mm3
Curvature
Using expression (4) above:
Curvature:
=
1000 x 0.0002
52.1 + 112.6 + (12.59 x 87.5 x 106 + 18.64 x 1.22 x 109) x (1/(12.6 x 112 x 103) + 1/(18.6 x 101.5 x 103))
50 + 112.6
0.00058/m
Deection
Deflection from differential shrinkage
= l 2/8
= 0.00058 x 202/8
= 29 mm
32
29/01/2009 16:48:09
3.11 Designing for

construction
Designers should take into account the stability of the structure during construction:
Precast elements are heavy. Bearings must be adequate and be robust enough to
withstand normal unit fixing operations including landing and barring (see Section 6.7).
Beams must be securely fixed and have adequate safe bearing at each end to avoid
overturning, excessive deflection or collapse when the precast elements are placed.
Consideration must be given to the unequal loading when precast elements are being
placed.
Where precast elements are tilted or twisted to allow them to be placed in their final
position consideration should be given to ensuring there is sufficient clearance to
place the unit and achieving the minimum end bearing required in the final position.
Special requirements, such as special fixing techniques, temporary measures or sequencing,
should be clearly conveyed.
33
29/01/2009 16:48:09
4 Bearings and movement joints
4. Bearings and movement joints

The design of bearings and joints for hybrid concrete construction (HCC) is critical to the
serviceability and lasting integrity of the structure. Careful design can avoid problems
which lead to deterioration of joints, which ultimately compromise the whole safety of
the structure.
Where a bearing is introduced between precast elements or between precast and in-situ
elements great care is required to take account of all the forces and movements that may
be imposed on the elements connected to the bearing. In addition consideration must be
given to:
how the robustness of the structure is attained
effects of composite action
practical tolerances
temperature changes
shrinkage
differential settlement
effects of repeated changes in imposed deformations
ensuring construction meets the assumption made in design.
The decision to design a full continuity joint or one that allows some movement is critical.
The design must then follow the decision to reach a practical and lasting solution. The joint
detail must be robust and must not deteriorate with time due to the effects of movement.
Joints that are designed to be monolithic are considered in Chapter 5.
4.1 Horizontal forces at

bearings
Horizontal forces at a bearing can reduce the load carrying capacity of the supporting
member considerably by causing premature splitting or shearing. The forces may be due to
creep, shrinkage and temperature effects or may result from misalignment, lack of plumb
or other causes. Allowance should be made for these forces in designing and detailing by
the provision of:
a) bearings that allow limited movement or
b) suitable lateral reinforcement in both the supporting and supported members or
c) sufficient continuity reinforcement through the joint to resist the lateral forces.
Where type a) bearings are used then conservatively the horizontal design force should
be taken as 20 per cent of the vertical force. A more detailed assessment may show this
force can be reduced. For type b) and c) bearings the design horizontal force should be
not less than half of the design vertical force on the bearing.
Unless top and bottom continuity reinforcement is provided precast oor slabs, e.g. hollowcore
slabs, spanning more than 8 m should be supported on elastomeric bearings, e.g. neoprene.
34
29/01/2009 16:48:09
Bearings and movement joints 4
These can normally be attached to the support surface. They allow:

the forces resulting from variation of bearing surfaces to be absorbed
any small horizontal movements to be absorbed without causing cracking and
limited rotation (as a result of cyclic upward and downward deflection) of the precast
slab.
Where top and bottom continuity reinforcement is provided, to make a homogenous
joint it may be acceptable not to provide elastomeric bearings. In this case great care
must be taken in construction to ensure that the precast element is not damaged during
placing and that it can absorb the movements that take place during and after construction
without damage.
4.2 Restrained bearings
For bearings that offer signicant restraint to sliding or rotation, e.g. dry bearing on concrete
or mortar bedding, actions due to creep, shrinkage, temperature, misalignment, lack of
plumb and other things must be taken into account in the design of adjacent members.
Further guidance on creep, shrinkage and temperature effects can be found in Movement,
Restraint and Cracking in Concrete Structures26.
The effect of such actions may require transverse reinforcement in supporting and supported
members, and/or continuity reinforcement for tying elements together. They may also
inuence the design of the main reinforcement in such members. Such joints are not considered suitable for external situations or for spans greater than 8 m for internal situations.
It should be noted that it is unlikely that a dry connection without bedding material will
have a uniform contact surface and that concentrated loading will result that may cause
local cracking.
For joints with bedding material, e.g. mortar, concrete, polymers, relative movement
between the connected surfaces should be prevented during hardening of the material.
The bearing width should not be greater than 600 mm unless specic measures are taken
to obtain a uniform distribution of the bearing pressure.
In the absence of other specications, the bearing strength, fRd, of a dry connection should
not exceed 0.4 fcd and the average bearing stress between plane surfaces should not
exceed 0.3 fcd.
The bearing strength for joints with bedding material should not exceed the design strength
of the bedding material, fbed 0.85 fcd where fcd is the lower of the design strengths for
supported and supporting members.
35
29/01/2009 16:48:10
4.3 Movement joints
It is possible to deal with movement at bearings using movement joints, and care should
be given to the design and construction, as for bridge decks, to minimise the risk of
failures. In general it is recommended to seek solutions that do not require movement
joints. Figure 4.1 describes potential failure mechanisms that can occur even with a
structural topping.
Figure 4.1
Expanding material
to plug gap
Examples of potential failures at movement

joints.
Movement
If the bearing material creates large friction

forces (use neoprene or similar to avoid
this), this can lead to large tension stresses
in both the support and the precast slab
or beam.
Friction can
cause cracking
If no plug, hard material

can prevent rotation
Rotation
Rotation
If the space between the precast slab or

beam and the face of the supporting
member is not adequate for the required
movement or if in time it it lls up with
hard material, then cracking can occur.
If the effects of movement and/rotation

cause the line of action to move too close
to the edge of the support, local spalling
can occur.
Rotation can
cause spalling
4.4 Actions and restraints

4.4.1 Action effects
In addition to the effects of direct loading (imposed variable and permanent actions) the
following action effects on the elements supported by the bearing must be considered:
shrinkage (both long term and early thermal)
temperature changes (both seasonal and short term)
creep.
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4.4.2 Restraints
In addition to the above action effects the following restraints must be considered:
internal, e.g. from reinforcement, differential shrinkage
edge restraints
end restraints.
For detailed consideration of these effects and restraints refer to Movement, Restraint and
Cracking in Concrete Structures26.
When designing bearings the following details should be checked:

calculation of the bearing area
bearing layout
the detail of the reinforcement in the end of the supported member
the detail of the reinforcement in the supporting member
tolerances
construction issues especially any additional forces imposed on the bearing through
barring the units into final position, see Section 6.8.
4.6 Allowance for

anchorage of reinforcement
at supports
The design and detailing of the reinforcement at supports is critical. The supported member
has to be designed to bear safely onto the support without spalling of the end cover and
also to sustain any forces that may come from shrinkage of the oor, through shortening
of the oor, if prestressed, and from thermal, live and further dead load movements, see
also Section 4.1.
Prestressed members used for ooring are commonly pre-tensioned and the main prestressed
steel continues to the end of the member. Reinforcement in supporting and supported
members should be detailed to ensure effective anchorage, allowing for deviations, see
Figure 4.2.
di
di
ci
ai
ri
=
=
=
=
=
ci + ai with horizontal loop bars

ci + ai + ri with vertically bent bars
nominal concrete cover
a deviation (see Section 4.8)
radius of bend (see Table 4.1)
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Figure 4.2
> a1 + D a3
d2
Effect of reinforcement on bearing

dimensions.
c3
r3
r2
c2
Table 4.1
Minimum bend radii for reinforcement to
avoid damage to reinforcement.
> a 1 + D a2
d3
Bar diameter
Minimum radius of bend
16 mm
> 16 mm
3.5
4.7 Bearings that allow

limited movement
Bearings that allow limited movement, e.g. neoprene pads, not only distribute the bearing
forces over uneven supports but also allow limited rotational and longitudinal movement
of the supported member to take place. The bearing pad also denes the area of load
transfer and thus has a direct effect on the detailed design of the ends of the supporting
and supported members.
4.7.1 Design of the bearing

area
In the absence of other specications, the bearing strength, fRd = fbed 0.85 fcd where fbed is
the design strength of the bearing material may be used.
4.7.2 Bearing layout
The layout of a bearing is critical to its successful execution. The concrete surfaces must be
separated in areas where load transfer is not intended and must be bedded appropriately
where load transfer is required. To ensure that spalling does not take place in the contact
area at the end of the supported and supporting concrete, the provision of sufcient bearing
length must be provided. This should allow for constructional tolerances and ensure the
overlap of reinforcement between the supporting and supported concrete. The required
allowances are shown in the Figure 4.3 and are described in Eurocode 2, Cl. 10.9.5.2. These
will lead to the design of minimum bearing shelf and nib sizes.
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Figure 4.3
> Da2 + Da3
Critical dimensions for bearings.
b1
a3 + Da3
a1
a1
a2 + Da2
The nominal length, a, of a simple bearing may be calculated as:

a = a1 + a2 + a3 + (a22 + a32)
where
a1
FEd
b1
fRd
a2
a3
a2
a3
ln
Table 4.2
Minimum value of a1 (mm).
= net bearing length with regard to bearing stress = FEd /(b1fRd) but not less
than the values in Table 4.2
= design value of the support reaction
= net bearing width
= design value of the bearing strength
= 0.85fcd
= distance assumed ineffective beyond outer end of supporting member
(see Table 4.3)
= distance assumed ineffective beyond outer end of supporting member
(see Table 4.4)
= allowance for distance between supporting members (see Table 4.5)
= allowance for deviation of the length of the supported member
= ln /2500
= length of member in mm
Relative bearing stress, Eda/fcd
0.15
0.15 to 0.4
> 0.4
Line supports (oors and roofs)
25
30
40
Ribbed oors and purlins
55
70
80
Concentrated supports (beams)
90
110
140
Key:
a Ed is the design bearing stress
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Table 4.3
Distance a2 (mm) assumed ineffective from
outer end of supporting member.
Relative bearing stress, Eda/fcd
0.15
0.15 to 0.4
> 0.4
5
10
10
15
15
25
10
20
15
25
25
35
Reinforced concrete C30/37

Line
Concentrated
Reinforced concrete < C30/37
Line
Concentrated
Key
a Ed is the design bearing stress
Table 4.4
Distance a3 (mm) assumed ineffective from
outer end of supported member.
Table 4.5
Allowance for deviations for the clear distance
between the face of the supports.
Detailing of reinforcement
Type of support
Line
Concentrated
Continuous bars over support

(restrained or not)
Straight bars, horizontal loops,

close to end of member
15, but not less than end cover
Tendons or straight bars

exposed at end of member
15
Vertical loop reinforcement
15
End cover + inner radius of bend
Support material
a2
Precast concrete
10 l /1200 30 mm
Cast in-situ concrete
15 l /1200 + 5 40 mm
Note:
l is clear distance between supports in mm
An example calculation is shown in worked example 5.
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29/01/2009 16:48:11

Project details
Worked example 5
Bearing of a hollowcore unit
Calculated by
RW
Job No.
CCIP-030
Checked by
OB
Sheet No.
WE 5/1
Client
TCC
Date
April 08
A 1.2 m wide hollowcore slab seated on an in-situ concrete nib, treated as a non-isolated member.
The length of hollowcore unit is 9 m. The in-situ concrete beam is class C35/45 concrete.
Actions
Self weight
Variable load
Partitions
Finishes
=
=
=
=
3.33 kN/m2
4 kN/m2
1 kN/m2
0.7 kN/m2
Bearing stress
FEd = 9 x 1.2 x {1.35 (3.33 + 0.7) + 1.5(4 + 1)}/2 = 69.9 kN
Assume a 30 mm wide neoprene bearing.
Ed = 69.9 x 1000/(30 x 1200) = 1.94 MPa
Ed/fcd = 1.94/(0.85 x 35/1.5) = 0.098
Geometry
Minimum value of a1 from Table 4.1 for a line support is 25 mm.
Hence:
a1
= 30 mm OK
a2 = 5 mm
a3 = 5 mm
a2 = 15 mm
a3 = 9000/2500 = 4 mm say 5 mm
The reinforcement in the in-situ concrete nib is assumed to be 20 mm vertically bent with a
nominal cover of 20 mm.
d2 = c2 + a2 + r2
= 20 + 15 + 3.5 x 20 = 105 mm
a2 + a2 d2
a2 + a2 = 105 mm
Table 4.2
Table 4.3
Table 4.4
Allowance for clearance at end of unit

a2 + a3 15 + 4 mm = 19 mm say 20 mm
The bearing stress should also be checked for the hollowcore unit.
20
H20 bar
10 30
105
20
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Figure 4.4
Typical methods to avoid spalling of bearing
corners.
Chamfer option
Lowered support area option
Spalling of the support is avoided if a large chamfer is provided on the outer corner or
alternatively a local part of the bearing shelf is lowered, see Figure 4.4.
This and the compressed thickness of any bedding material in the bearing must be sufcient
to avoid contact, taking into account any long-term movements, deection, hogging and
if the oor is laid to a fall for any reason, the difference in angle of the oor softs at its
end and that of the bearer beam. Neoprene is recommended as a suitable material for
bearings but other materials may be used (see also PCI Design Handbook27).
In an HCC situation, the bearing may be in a different state when it carries construction
actions and when it is fully constructed and carries superimposed permanent actions and
variable actions. These interactions should be considered and very soft bearing materials
may be inappropriate if the nal objective is to have a fully continuous connection.
4.8 Connections between

precast oors and in-situ
concrete beams
Type 3 and 4 systems that use precast oors with in-situ beams do not always have a
direct bearing since the in-situ concrete is often cast against the precast unit. The oor is
propped and the formwork for the edge beam is xed. The steel protruding from the oor
units is incorporated into the reinforcement of the edge beam that is then cast. The continuity steel must be fully anchored in both the in-situ and precast concrete. Consideration
should be given to the possibility of tension occurring in the bottom steel at the support.
This can be caused by temperature and shrinkage effects. The design of the interface for
shear requires the provision of hang-up steel as the shear load in the oor is concentrated
near to the bottom of the section. This is described in Eurocode 2, Cl. 6.2.1 (9) and is also
shown in Figure 3.6.
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Structural elements and connections 5
5. Structural elements and connections

5.1 Twin wall construction
(type 1)
Twin wall panels comprise two skins of precast concrete, connected by steel trusses,
which hold the precast skins apart at a constant spacing to produce a wall of a particular
thickness. Figure 5.1 shows a typical view of a twin wall panel system.
Figure 5.1
Typical example of a twin wall panel.
The panels are supplied to site, erected and then lled with in-situ concrete to form a
solid concrete wall. The trusses, therefore, also act to hold the skins together against the
pressure exerted by the in-situ concrete before this has cured. A typical layout is shown in
Figure 5.2. The precast skins function as permanent formwork.
The precast skins contain the main horizontal and vertical reinforcement for the wall, in
the form of a cross-sectional area of fabric or bars, which can be specied by the designer.
However, starter bars and continuity reinforcement must be provided within the in-situ
concrete.
Figure 5.2
Simple layout of a twin wall system.
The precast skins are

connected and spaced
by steel lattice
Main horizontal and

vertical reinforcement
for the wall is fitted
within the precast skins
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5 Structural elements and connections
The twin wall system is often combined with a precast concrete permanent shuttering
system, e.g. lattice girder slabs. This allows the minimum use of temporary formwork on
site. The wall system is ideally combined with a precast lattice or composite slab oor, as
the in-situ element of both the wall and oor can be combined to produce a monolithic
structure.
5.1.1 Manufacturing process
The precast skin on one side of the panel is cast horizontally on a steel mould, with the
trusses projecting. After curing, the assembly is rotated so that the trusses face down and
can be cast into the pour for the precast skin on the other side, see Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3
Precasting sequence for twin wall
manufacture.
a) One side of panel cast with outer face down with trusses projecting upwards
b) Assembly then turned over and the second side of panel cast with outer face down
Fabric reinforcement, which can be specied by the designer, is cast into each precast
skin, see Figure 5.4. A 60 mm thick precast skin could accommodate, for example:
25 mm cover to external face (or as appropriate to meet durability bond and fire
requirements)
16 mm vertical bar
8 mm horizontal bar
10 mm cover to internal face (whilst not required for durability in the permanent
condition, some cover here is advisable).
Clearly, walls that require larger bar sizes to achieve required levels of reinforcement, or
walls in exposed conditions, will in turn need thicker precast skins to achieve required covers.
Overall panel thickness

The nal wall thickness can range typically from 200 to 350 mm in total width, although
thicker walls are possible. A typical 250 mm panel thickness may comprise:
60 mm precast skin
130 mm gap for in-situ concrete, starter bars, continuity reinforcement
60 mm precast skin.
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Figure 5.4
Twin wall connection with a lattice girder slab.
Precast concrete
Lattice reinforcement
In-situ concrete
Vertical reinforcement
Slab reinforcement
In-situ concrete
Lap length
Tie reinforcement
With two layers of reinforcement an overall wall thickness less than 250 mm is difcult
to achieve. This is because the precast skin thickness is typically 50-70 mm each side
(plus tolerance), and the thickness of the in-situ concrete in between must accommodate
starter and continuity reinforcement with sufcient space for the concrete to ow around
the bars, see Figure 5.5. With one layer of reinforcement it is possible to reduce the overall
section thickness to 200 mm. It is worth noting that, due to the manufacturing process,
tolerances on the inside faces of the precast skin are easily controlled and can reduce the
space available for in-situ concrete or starter bars by 10-15 mm each side. Tolerance for
the hybrid panel to be erected over the starters is a related issue and it is advisable to use a
single row of starters, rather than one row each side as for a traditional in-situ wall.
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Figure 5.5
The available space for vertical continuity
reinforcement is restricted.
Photo: Hanson Concrete Products
Overall panel sizes

Typically the maximum panel dimensions are 10 m x 3.5 m as shown in Figure 5.6. These
dimensions are often limited by the capacity of the lifting equipment, transportation or
size of moulds. The minimum dimension of a panel is typically 1.20 m.
Figure 5.6
Typical twin wall maximum panel dimensions.
10 m max.
3.5 m max.
3.5 m max.
10 m max.
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5.1.2 Planning implications
A key impact of introducing twin wall panels, as with many prefabricated forms of
construction, is to increase the amount of coordination required early in the programme.
To assist in this planning it is advised that the points below are considered.
Which walls are twin walls?

Agreement on the extent of twin walls is likely to involve architect, client, contractor, and
structural and services engineers. Until fully dened, this decision may have an impact on
the design programme an issue that should be communicated to the proposer of the
system (often the contractor).
Manufacturers requirements and their impact on co-ordination

Often the twin wall manufacturer will require the following to be fully dened before
commencing manufacture:
dimensioned CAD wall elevations showing all walls to be manufactured
locations of all cast-ins (e.g. junction boxes, conduit)
locations and sizes of all holes and cut-outs (e.g. for services, drainage, builders work,
windows, downstand beams)
reinforcement to be cast into the precast skins
locations and details of any bend-out bars required
information showing which side of the panel is to be propped (to permit the prop
attachments to be cast in).
To produce CAD elevations showing this level of detail, the design of the services must be
well progressed (and any builders work holes assumptions agreed and recorded); the
architect must have frozen the wall layout; all suspended and ground slab levels, soft
levels and upstands/downstands must be fully dened and frozen; and the contractor
must have dened a pour sequence so that the side to be propped can be identied. The
designer should allow for the additional time required to coordinate the work.
Detailing continuity rebar at joints

The catalogues of the twin wall manufacturer often show a number of typical joint details
where fabric or loose bars are used, within the in-situ concrete, to provide reinforcement
continuity. It is important to realise that the designer is responsible for detailing and
scheduling such bars despite what may be implied in the catalogues.
Checking of fabrication drawings

It is important that the designer checks the key panel layout drawings. The twin wall
manufacturer produces shop drawings for each panel. They are likely to be presented to
the designer just as the project begins on site. A plan for checking these should be set up
in advance to avoid the conuence of site queries with panel drawing checking creating
possible resourcing difculties at a key project stage.
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5.1.3 Site erection and lling
The panels are typically propped on one side only, using typically two pushpull props to
achieve verticality. This requires a cast base slab on at least one side of the wall. If panels
are being erected before the whole slab is cast, coordination with the contractors pour
sequence will be required. Where no slab is adjacent, e.g. walls inside lift shafts, there
should be a clear method statement on how these panels will be safely erected.
The methods of xing the continuity reinforcement, particularly if the walls are acting as
shear walls, should be clearly stated. The contractor should provide a method statement
for the following:
At panel base level, how the panel is fitted over the projecting reinforcement in the
lower slab taking account of the accepted tolerances. Figure 5.7 indicates other points
that should be considered.
At top of panel, how the vertical continuity reinforcement is fixed. One method may
be to tie horizontal fixing bars onto the trusses (say two each side) and tie the vertical
projecting bars onto those. The alternative proposal of pushing them into the wet in-situ
concrete is not recommended. A template for the vertical bars should be considered to
ensure that the next lift of wall panel will fit over them correctly.
For the fabric reinforcement at joints between adjacent panels at the same level, how
this is held in position within the pour (see Figure 5.8).
Figure 5.7
Typical issues to consider in the layout design.
Decide which side props
should be positioned
Decide from which level

the wall should spring
Consider tolerances
for starter bars
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Figure 5.8
Use of U-bars or links recommended
to ensure reinforcement remains
in correct position during concreting
Plan view showing horizontal continuity

reinforcement.
Distance to 1st truss

is typically 340 mm
Check sufficient lap length

with reinforcement in skin
As the precast skins take up a fair proportion of the overall width of the wall, the gap
between them is often very narrow in comparison to their height. This may make it difcult
to remove all the air when concreting (blowing out) and the contractor should provide
specic proposals for this. Due to the very low volume of in-situ concrete required to ll
the walls on site, the contractors preference may be to erect a large number of wall panels
at one level, before arranging a concrete pour to ll them. As the precast skins are functioning
as permanent formwork, resisting the pressure of the wet in-situ concrete, the wall manufacturers catalogue may have rate of rise limits typically less than 1 m/hr. Coupled with
the low ll volume, this leads to a relatively slow lling process on site, and one that the
operatives may be tempted to speed up! The operatives should be made aware of and
respect the wall manufacturers rate of rise limits. The panels are typically erected on
chocks to leave a gap at the base of around 30 mm. This is the principal means of checking
that the in-situ concrete reaches the base of the pour. Timbers acting as grout checks are
placed along each side at the base of the panel.
Precast lattice girder slab units

Figure 5.9 shows a typical section of a composite oor using precast lattice girder units.
The lattice girder is cast into (usually class C40/50) concrete reinforced with high-yield
reinforcement. The width of the precast slab is typically 2.4 m with a depth of 50 mm or
75 mm. They are used for spans of up to 10 m (larger spans are possible with careful
planning).
Figure 5.9
Section showing typical lattice girder oor.
In-situ
concrete
Lattice
Precast
concrete
slab
Main steel
Distribution steel
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Figure 5.10
Typical details of a lattice girder.
Top bar 8 mm to 14 mm dia.
Diagonal bar 4.5 mm to 7 mm dia.

Bottom bar typically 5 mm dia.
The design of the lattice girder is dependant on the thickness of the composite oor, nal
loading and propping system. Typical details of a lattice girder are shown in Figure 5.10.
Figure 5.10 shows a typical layout of a 2.4 m wide unit containing four sets of lattice girders.
Propping to support the self-weight and in-situ concrete can be reduced or eliminated by
increasing the stiffness of the slabs through increasing the diameter of the reinforcement to
the top of the lattices and/or reducing the spacing of the lattices. Unpropped spans of up
to 5 m can be achieved depending upon the design loads and the overall depth of the slab.
Temporary propping is required where the end bearing is small. An example of this is at
end supports where the slab unit is seated on just one leaf of the wall.
Normally the minimum cover to the reinforcement will be 20 mm; however, the cover to
the reinforcement can be adjusted to meet the specic bond, durability and re resistance
requirements for individual contracts.
5.1.4 Design of panels
Design moments
Design moments about the minor axis of a wall should be considered even where central
bars are placed in the joint, as these do not represent a hinge.
Flexural, shear and axial design

When checking the strength of a section of a wall more than a full lap length from a joint
the full width of section may be included. Otherwise just the in-situ part should be considered.
If the whole section is in compression, it is reasonable to assume that the full section can
provide axial resistance.
Lap lengths
At the top and bottom of the wall there will be a lap between the main vertical
reinforcement and the vertical continuity reinforcement, see Figure 5.4. When the
distance between these bars is greater than 4 or 50 mm the lap length should be
increased by a length equal to the space between the bars (Eurocode 2, Cl. 8.7.2(3)).
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Minor axis bending

If the decision to use a single row of starters has been adopted, minor axis bending on such
walls should be checked. If signicant, the decision should be revisited with potential
impacts on wall thickness, as noted above.
Horizontal joint between panels stacked one above the other (no slab
adjacent)
Horizontal joints commonly occur, for example, in lift shaft walls, or in walls adjacent to
risers, stairs, or double-height spaces. At the panel joint level, effective design to resist
minor axis buckling moments would tend towards the use of two rows of vertical continuity
reinforcement (one layer on each face) within the in-situ portion of the wall. Due to the
position of the continuity bar within the in-situ portion, and the possible tolerance and
positional control issues, a realistic effective depth should be used in assessing the moment
capacity of the wall at this point, see Figure 5.11.
Figure 5.11
Detail at an unrestrained horizontal panel

joint in compression.
The tendency to buckle

under compression at an
unrestrained horizontal
joint, is resisted by the
vertical continuity
reinforcement, acting at
a reduced lever arm.
5.1.5 Concrete and nishes
Concrete mix
The nature of the in-situ concrete mix used to ll the panels on site should be considered.
As the gap between the precast skins may be as little as 100 mm for a 250 mm wall, and
starters and continuity reinforcement may protrude into this gap, using a vibrator poker
may be difcult or impossible. The use of self-compacting concrete should be considered.
A smaller aggregate size, for example 10 mm, may also be appropriate.
Surface nish
Typically, the use of steel moulds gives the external faces of the panels a smooth nish.
The nish quality is suitable to receive a plaster nish or, on request, wallpaper. It should be
noted, however, that the nish is not architectural concrete as colour is not consistent
or easily specied.
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5.1.6 Detailing
Vertical joints between adjacent panels at same level

At junctions between adjacent panels and at corner junctions, horizontal continuity
reinforcement is recommended within the in-situ portion. Detailing this reinforcement in
the form of fabric or prefabricated cages is likely to be the easiest way of xing it within the
pour. As noted above, the designer should be responsible for detailing this reinforcement.
It should be noted that the presence of the trusses at a typical distance of 340 mm from
the ends of each panel effectively constrains the volume in which continuity reinforcement
can be provided. If the forces applied to the wall are such that they cause signicant shear
or tensile forces to develop at the vertical panel joints, the suitability of twin wall panels
as a design solution may need to be revisited.
Interface with reinforced concrete ground slab.

It is important to obtain the contractors pour sequence for the ground slab at locations
where the ground slab steps (changes level) this will often dene the panel base level.
Agree with the contractor whether the panel will sit on the higher-level slab, or on the
lower-level slab with the higher-level slab poured up against the wall. Also agree details
at the edge of slabs or at lift pits. Agree from which side the panels are to be propped. It is
likely that the twin wall panels will need to be installed over projecting starter bars cast into
the foundations. As well as the use of a template and the consideration for using a single
row of starters, as noted above, the starters will need to coordinate with the horizontal
continuity reinforcement provided at locations of vertical joints between panels. This
means ve or six layers of reinforcement locally overlapping within the gap between the
panels a potential congestion issue, see Figure 5.12.
Figure 5.12
Horizontal continuity reinforcement to t
with twin wall reinforcement.
Horizontal continuity reinforcement

lowered into position after placing
twin walls. This must be detailed to
miss the wall trusses
5.2 Precast columns, edge

beams and in-situ slabs
(type 2)
The type 2 system uses precast columns and edge beams, often with a prestressed in-situ
oor slab. The complex xing of steel and anchorages in the edge strips is more safely
and accurately carried out in the precast concrete factory. The use of precast concrete
columns speeds up the time between the casting of the oor plates. The precast edge
strip is supported on the same shutter system that is used for the oor.
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5.2.1 Column to oor joint
The column to oor joint in this form of construction is assumed to be semi-monolithic,

i.e. the in-situ concrete is cast up to the surface of the column or a fully grouted connection
is made.
It may be desirable that levelling devices, for example nuts and wedges, having no load
bearing function in the completed structure should be slackened, released or removed as
necessary. Where this is necessary, the details should be such that inspection (to ensure
that this has been done) can be carried out without undue difculty.
The design of the vertical continuity or tying reinforcement requires careful consideration.
Three examples are shown in Figure 5.13.
Where a central dowel bar, as shown in Figure 5.13, is also acting as a vertical tie, the load
on the grouted connection between the slab and the dowel bar can be signicant. The
designer should ensure that the detail can carry this load either by design or through testing.
Bearing under the precast column

In the absence of more accurate information (derived from a comprehensive programme of
suitable tests), the area of concrete that should be considered in calculating the strength of
the joint should not be greater than 90 per cent of the area of column assumed to be in
contact with the joint, unless specic means are taken to ensure that no voids exist in the
grout. The strength of the concrete in the precast column may be taken as fcd (= 0.85fck/1.5).
The area of any bar passing through the joint should be deducted from the bearing area. The
design force of such a bar may be deducted from the applied force on the bearing when
calculating the capacity of the concrete provided that the bar has sufcient anchorage
beyond the joint.
Grouting
The contractor should provide a method statement for the grouting work. This should
ensure that no pockets of air are trapped in the ducts and that the interface between the
base of the column and support is fully grouted. Trials may be necessary to demonstrate
the method.
Maximum compression through oor

For axial load with moment transfer Eurocode 2, Cl. 6.7 limits the compression within the
slab. Exp. (6.63) is modied to:
FRdu = Ac0,eff fcd (Ac1/Ac0,eff) 3.0 fcd Ac0,eff
where
Ac0,eff
Ac0
fcd
Ac1
h
b1
d1
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0.9 x Ac0
area of precast column
design strength of the slab
(h/2 + b1) (h/2 + d1)
depth of slab
breadth of the precast column
depth of the precast column
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a) Column shoe
b) Column bar coupler
Hole grouted before

placing column
Grouting ring
Bars welded to dowel

table and column
reinforcement
c) Central dowel bar
Figure 5.13
Typical column oor connections.
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Where moment is transmitted through the joint Ac0,eff should be reduced to 0.9 x the
area of the stress block shown in Figure 5.14, where Ac0,eff = 0.9 b1 x 2(d1/2 - e).
Figure 5.14
CL of column
Stress block in slab where moment is

transmitted from column.
d1
e = M/N
CL of compression
block
fcd
2 x (d1/2 - e)
5.2.2 Vertical tie
For class 2B and 3 buildings (risk group 2B and 3 in Scotland) the vertical tie must be
designed to take the full oor load in tension under accidental loading conditions. The
partial factors for the accidental combination of actions are equal to 1 (see BS EN 1990,
and UK National Annex, Table NA.A1.3), see worked example 6.
If a central dowel bar system is considered for such a oor, i.e. span > 7 m, it should be
effectively continuous throughout the height of the building. Full tension mechanical
couplers should be used where joints are required.
5.3 Biaxial voided slabs
Figure 5.15 shows a typical section of a composite oor using precast lattice girder units with
spherical void fomers (biaxial voided slabs). The lattice girder and the void former cages
are cast into a (usually class C40/50) concrete panel containing reinforcement in two
directions. The width of the precast slab is typically 2.4 m with a depth of 50 mm or 70 mm.
Normally the minimum cover to the reinforcement will be 20 mm; however, the cover to
the reinforcement can be adjusted to meet the specic bond durability and re resistance
requirements for individual projects.
Figure 5.15
Typical layout of biaxial voided slab.
Photo: Cobiax Technologies Ltd
55
29/01/2009 16:48:22

Project details
Worked example 6
Vertical tie
Calculated by
RW
Job No.
CCIP-030
Checked by
OB
Sheet No.
WE 6/1
Client
TCC
Date
April 08
Consider a 9 m x 9 m flat slab floor 300 mm thick with imposed variable load of 3 kN/m2 and
finishes of 1 kN/m2.
Actions
The total design force in vertical tie
FEd
= Gk + Ad
= 9 x 9 x {(25 x 0.3 + 1.0) + (0.5 x 4) = 851 kN.
Eurocode, Table NA.A1.3
Resistance
Using a column shoe system: 4 No 25 mm bars will provide a resistance of
FRd
= s fyk As
= 1.0 x 500 x 252 x 4 x /4/1000 = 981 kN
FRd
> FEd OK
Use 4 No 25 mm bars
5.3.1 Slab geometry
Initial sizing can be determined from manufacturers literature. The manufacturer literature
will also advise the size of the spheres available, the spacing requirements and the general
conguration of the slab.
5.3.2 Flexural design
The benet of the reduced self-weight should be taken into account in the design. The
design may assume a at slab model, which has been demonstrated as appropriate through
testing of the slabs. A check should be carried out to ensure that the concrete compression
zone remains outside of the depth of spherical void formers. Where this is not the case, as
in heavily loaded slabs, the manufacturers will be able to offer appropriate guidance on
determining the permissible compression zone that can be used in the calculation of the
exural strength.
5.3.3 Shear design
Testing has been carried out to determine the shear strength of this type of slab, alongside a
theoretical assessment of the reduction in the shear plane due to the inclusion of the voids.
The manufacturers recommend that shear strength of a solid slab of the same depth should
be reduced by a factor of between 0.55 and 0.6 to obtain the design shear resistance for
the voided slab, see Figure 5.16.
For punching shear it is recommended that the void formers are left out where the design
shear stress exceeds the reduced shear resistance of a voided slab, see Figure 5.16. Punching
shear checks may then be carried out on the solid slab areas around the columns.
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29/01/2009 16:48:23
Figure 5.16
Typical layout with nal reinforcement in
place.
Photo: Cobiax Technologies Ltd
5.3.4 Deection control
Manufacturers have carried out testing to determine the reduced stiffness of the slabs due
to the voids. Conservatively, the stiffness of the voided slab may be taken as 0.87 times
the stiffness of a solid slab, although in some congurations the factor may be increased
to 0.96. The manufacturers have data available to take advantage of these situations.
When using a nite element analysis, the stiffness of the slab (by adjusting the modulus
elasticity) can be reduced accordingly. The use of the span-to-effective depth rules of
Eurocode 2 is not valid for this form of construction since it is not clear how the slab
stiffness is incorporated in the manufacturers design expressions.
5.3.5 General considerations
Splice bars are used across the panel joints so that the slab may be designed as a continuous
member. Figure 5.16 shows a typical layout including the nal reinforcement.
Buoyancy of voids
Whilst the concrete is being place and vibrated, the buoyancy force can reach the displaced
weight. The void formers are held in place by:
firm tying of the void former to the lower and upper reinforcement
casting of concrete in several stages (normally two, but three may be required where
the voids are larger than 360 mm).
Slab edges
Voids are not normally provided near slab edges to ensure a robust and continuous edge
detail.
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29/01/2009 16:48:24
5.4 Prestressed hollowcore

units
Prestressed hollowcore units are produced by an extrusion or slipform process with a

typical width of 1200 mm, in lengths of up to 200 m. Each length is prestressed before
casting. After curing, the units are sawn to the required length. Figure 5.17 shows a typical
production layout.
It should be noted that where the only reinforcement in the units is the prestressing
strands, as is common, it makes the support zone particularly vulnerable since this is
where the maximum stresses due to bearing, shear and anchorage occur. The design
should be in accordance with Eurocode 2.
Figure 5.17
Typical hollowcore unit production.
Hollowcore units have lateral edges provided with a longitudinal prole in order to make
a shear key for transfer of vertical shear through joints between contiguous elements. For
diaphragm action these joints are designed to resist horizontal shear.
Hollowcore units are often specied from manufacturers tables rather than designed from
rst principles. These tables are based on assumed loading, support and reinforcement
details, and where the actual situation varies from that assumed in the tables, e.g. the
existence of concentrated loads or different re rating, detailed calculations should be
made to verify such units are appropriate.
BS EN 11683 describes the requirements and the basic performance criteria and species
minimum values where appropriate. It covers terminology, performance criteria, tolerances,
relevant physical properties, special test methods and special aspects of transport and
erection. Reference should also be made to Precast Prestressed Hollowcore Floors28.
An example of the design of a hollowcore unit is given in Precast Eurocode 2: Worked
Examples29.
5.4.1 Anchorage of
prestressing tendons
Resistance at the end of the hollowcore unit relies on the interaction of shear and bond,
therefore it is very important to understand the end prestressing conditions of hollowcore
units. Figure 5.18 shows how the stress in the prestressing wires or strands and the moment
of resistance, builds up from the end of a unit and further guidance is given in Eurocode 2,
Cl. 8.10.2.2.
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29/01/2009 16:48:29
5.4.2 Transmission length
The transmission length, lpt, for the prestressing wires or strands is that length required to
transmit the full prestress, p. lpt is dened in Eurocode 2, Cl. 8.10.2.3 where pt1 and lpt1
are the values at transfer and pt2 and lpt2 are the values after all losses (as shown in
Figure 5.18). The ultimate design strength of the tendon requires further anchorage length.
The slope of the line between pt2 and pd is less than that for the transmission length, lpt2,
because the tendon reduces in size as it is stressed. The reverse is true within the transmission
length over which there is a wedging effect. One reason for assuming a linear build-up of
stress is because any exural stress in this region will tend to reduce the section size and
nullify the wedge effects.
Figure 5.18
Build-up of stress in prestressing wires or
strands from end of unit.
Tendon stress
pd
pt1
pt2
Distance from
end of unit
I pt1
I pt2
I bpd
5.4.3 Cracking length
The cracking length, lcr, is the distance from the end of the unit to the point where the
bottom bre stress resulting from all actions (bending, prestress and horizontal forces at
the bearings) equals fctd. Figure 5.18 shows the components of actions and the net effect on
the bottom bre stress. Note that if lcr is less than lpt2, the prestress is reduced.
Figure 5.19 indicates the results from the example given in the Precast Eurocode 2: Worked
Examples29.
The following points are of particular note:
Consider all action effects to determine where the unit is likely to crack.
Where dry or mortar bearings are used large horizontal forces may arise from
temperature and shrinkage effects.
In this example the horizontal force at the bearing may cause cracking close to the end
of the unit, before lcr is reached, see Figure 5.19(d).
If cracking does occur close to the support, the shear resistance is likely to be exceeded.
59
29/01/2009 16:48:30
Figure 5.19
Build-up of bottom bre stress in concrete
from end of unit.
CL
of unit
CL
of unit
Support
Bottom
fibre
stress
Bottom
fibre
stress
fb,m = Mx/Zb
Support
a) Stress due to flexure
fb,P = P/Ac + Pe/Zb
b) Stress due to prestress
CL
of unit
Support
Bottom
fibre
stress
fb,H = H/Ac + Hyb/Zb

c) Stress due to horizontal force at support
Bottom
fibre
stress
Possible overstress
near end of unit
Compression
CL
of unit
0
fctd
Tension
l cr
fb,Net = fb, M + fb,P + fb,H

d) Net bottom fibre stress showing cracking length, lcr
5.4.4 Total anchorage length
The total anchorage length, lbpd, is the distance from the end of the unit to the point
beyond which the full design resistance of the wires or strands can be obtained, as shown
in Figure 5.18.
5.4.5 Tendon slip at ends of

units
When the prestress is transferred from the anchor blocks to the hollowcore units, there is
anchorage bond along the full length of the strand, apart from the transmission length at
each end of the prestressing line. The concrete is then cut into the required lengths and at
each end a further transmission length is introduced. Although expressions have been
developed to determine the relationship between the end slip of the strands and the
transmission length, it has been shown27 that, for hollowcore units that have been sawn,
there is no simple relationship between transmission length and initial slip at these positions.
This is discussed further in Section 6.6.
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29/01/2009 16:48:30
Shear tension
crack
Anchorage
slip
Horizontal splitting cracks
Large crack
close to
support
b) Shear tension failure
a) Anchorage bond failure
c) Horizontal splitting cracks
Figure 5.20
Types of end failure.
5.4.6 Types of end failure
5.4.7 Anchorage bond failure
Figure 5.20 shows the three typical types of end failure that may occur. It should be
noted that types a) and b) can interact, one reducing the resistance of the other.
Anchorage bond failure, see Figure 5.20a, may occur due to cracking close to the support
which does not allow the full anchorage resistance to develop and strands start to slip.
This causes the crack to grow until the unit fails. The most common cause of anchorage
failure is when the end of the unit is subject to movement relative to its bearing. This may
be the result of the effects of one or more of the following:
shrinkage
temperature changes
humidity changes
vertical loading.
It is important that the designer considers each of these possible effects. This is especially
important for units with spans greater than 8 m. Reference should be made to
Movement, Restraint and Cracking in Concrete Structures26.
5.4.8 Shear resistance
Cracked sections
The cracked shear resistance should be checked at positions likely to be cracked at the
ultimate limit state. The position at which this check should be carried out is at a distance
lcr from the end of the unit, see Section 5.4.3. The shear tension resistance is calculated in
accordance with Eurocode 2, Exp (6.2a and b) together with UK National Annex:
VRd,c = [0.12k(100l fck)1/3 + 0.15cp]bwd
with a minimum of
VRd,c = (0.035k3/2 fck1/2 + 0.15cp)bwd
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29/01/2009 16:48:31
where
k
l
cp
= 1 + (200/d)0.5 2.0
= Asl /bwd 0.02 (normally = 0 since the distance to the end of the unit
< lbpd + d)
= NEd/Ac < 0.2fcd (NEd should be taken as p times the prestress force)
Uncracked sections
Shear tension failure, see Figure 5.20, occurs when the tension in the webs of the slab
becomes too high causing a sudden failure. For a circular core section the critical section
for a shear tension failure is likely to be at h/2 from the inner face of the support, see
Figure 5.21. For oval core shapes the critical section is likely to be closer to the bottom of
the section.
Figure 5.21
Critical section for shear tension failure.
Critical position
For circular core shapes = h /2

For oval core shapes
say h /3
The shear tension resistance is calculated in accordance with Eurocode 2, Exp (6.4):
VRd,c = I bw/S {(fctd)2 + lcp fctd }0.5
where
I
bw
S
l
lx
lpt2
cp
=
=
=
=
=
second moment of area

width of the cross-section at the centroidal axis
first moment of area above and about the centroidal axis
lx/lpt2 1.0
distance of the section considered from the starting point of the transmission
length
= upper bound value of the transmission length of the prestressing element
according to Exp (8.18) of Eurocode 2
= concrete compressive stress at the centroidal axis due to prestress (this
should include p = 0.9)
For cross-sections where the width varies over the height, the maximum principal stress may
occur on an axis other than the centroidal axis. In such cases the minimum value of the
shear resistance should be found by calculating VRd,c at various axes in the cross-section.
(Note: At the time of writing a revision to this expression was being considered by the
Eurocode 2 Committee in discussion with the Committee for BS EN 1168.)
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29/01/2009 16:48:31
5.4.9 Further design checks
BS EN 1168, Precast concrete products Hollowcore slabs3 sets out further design checks
that are required:
Prevention of horizontal splitting cracks (Cl. 4.3.3.2.1)
Combined shear and torsion (Cl. 4.3.3.2.2)
Shear capacity of longitudinal joints (Cl. 4.3.3.2.3)
Punching shear capacity (Cl. 4.3.3.2.4)
Transverse bending caused by concentrated loads (Cl. 4.3.3.2.5)
Additional torsion where one long edge cannot deflect (Cl. 4.3.3.2.6)
It is also critical that the requirments for bearings, see Section 4, are fully satised,
otherwise there is a danger of deterioration of the supporting nibs and ends of the
hollowcore units that could lead to a shear and anchorage failure of the hollowcore units.
5.4.10 Lateral distribution of

vertical loads
5.4.11 Multi-span without

structural topping
Floors are not always uniformly loaded; they often are required to carry point loads and
line loads from partitions to supporting beams. BS EN 1168, Appendix C, Transverse Load
Distribution, charts factors that can be used to determine the loads on units adjacent to
the loaded unit. These charts are for use with units in oors with no or one free edge. They
apply to units without structural topping and are therefore conservative for units with
structural topping. BS EN 1168, Cl. 4.3.3.2 provides a method of assessing transverse
tensile stresses in the hollowcore units that are un-reinforced in the transverse direction.
Longitudinal tie bars

Hollowcore units should be connected to the supports or to the adjacent oor bay by means
of longitudinal tie bars. Tie arrangements should realise the structural integrity and meet
the requirements with regard to:
diaphragm action
transverse distribution of vertical loads
differential settlements
restrained deformation
robustness (in accordance with Section 3.2).
The longitudinal tie bars should be equally distributed and their spacing should not normally
exceed 0.6 m at edge supports and 1.2 m at intermediate supports.
The ties pass through grouted longitudinal joints between units, see Figure 5.22, provided
that they are anchored into the members supporting those units (see also section 3.1), or
in the concreted cores of the units, see Figure 5.23; in either case it important that the
bars are xed in the correct position, as shown. If the latter method is used, note that it is
essential that, after removing the top ange, the open core is thoroughly cleaned to allow
good bonding of the new and old concrete.
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29/01/2009 16:48:32
Figure 5.22
Placing tie bars between hollowcore units.
h/2
Limits to the
placing of tie
bar
2,
25 mm
2,
25 mm
Limits to the
placing of tie
bar
40 mm
a) With grouting key at top
b) With grouting key at bottom
Figure 5.23
Placing tie bars in hollowcore unit.
h/2
Normal limits to
placing of tie bar
The yield load of the tie bars anchored in any core of a unit or between units should not
exceed 80 kN and the total yield load per unit should not exceed 160 kN. If the yield load
for a tie bar between units is greater than 30 kN, hooked bars should be used. In such cases
the anchorage length should not be less than 75, as shown in Figure 5.24. Otherwise
straight bars may be used with a minimum anchorage length of 100.
Figure 5.24
Minimum length of tie bar between units.
h/2
75 lcr
The anchorage length of a tie bar should not be less than lcr (see Section 5.4.3). The anchorage
length should normally be sufcient to anchor the yield load of the tie bar (see also Precast
Prestressed Hollowcore Floors28). In order to prevent progressive collapse the anchorage
length should be increased by lb in accordance with Table 5.1 (see worked example 7).
Table 5.1
Additional anchorage length, lb, for ribbed tie
bars with regard to design against progressive
collapse.
Concrete grade
C20/25
C30/37
Grout
13
10
Concrete
11
64
29/01/2009 16:48:32

Project details
Worked example 7
Anchorage length of longitudinal tie bar
Consider the use of 20 mm size straight bars with C30/37 grout.
lcr
= 1080 + 10 x 20 = 1280 mm
Calculated by
RW
Job No.
CCIP-030
Checked by
OB
Sheet No.
WE 7/1
Client
TCC
Date
April 08
For example 10 of
Precast Eurocode 2:
Worked Examples29
Minimum length of 10 = 10 x 20 = 200 mm.

Use anchorage length = 1280 mm
Where further strengthening of the support zone is required the tie bars should be anchored
to transfer their yield load at any cracked section within the critical support zone. In such
situations the tie bar should be placed above the mid-height of the hollowcore unit to
provide moment capacity and should be anchored with a hook. An additional anchorage
length, ladd, should be provided to ensure the shear transfer between the in-situ concrete
or grout and the hollowcore unit.
ladd = Fst/fctu
where
Fst
fct
u
= tensile capacity of the tie arrangement in one core or joint

= tensile strength of the in-situ concrete or grout
= perimeter is of the core or 2h for anchorage in joints (h is height of the
hollowcore unit)
Alternatively, straight bars may be used. In this case the anchorage length should be
increased to lcr + lbd (see Eurocode 2, Cl. 8.4.4) (+lb) for anchorage in concreted cores
and to lcr + 100 for anchorage in grouted joints.
Connections to walls
If the wall supports more than three oors, it is advisable to provide hollowcore units with
slanted ends and for the ties to be anchored in the concrete cores (not between units) as
shown in Figure 5.25. It is important that the reinforcement is detailed to interlock as shown.
If the wall supports less than three oors, it will normally be satisfactory for the units to
have a square cut, but the reinforcement details should be as shown in Figure 5.25. Details
that do not provide a mechanical link should not be used.
65
29/01/2009 16:48:33
a) Edge support
b) Intermediate support
Figure 5.25
Connections to walls.
In-situ concrete
In-situ
concrete
a) Edge support
b) Internal support
Figure 5.26
Connections to beams.
Connections to beams
Typical connections to beams are shown in Figure 5.26.
Connections to ledge beams

The continuity tie reinforcement should interlock with the reinforcement of the supporting
beam. A typical detail is shown in Figure 5.27. The ange width of the supporting ledge
beam should be limited to the continuous solid section at the ends of the hollowcore
units or conned to the depth of their top anges.
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29/01/2009 16:48:33
Figure 5.27
Transverse tie bars
Typical detail for connections to ledge beam.
/b (+D/b) /cr
Figure 5.28
Typical detail showing the tie reinforcement
within the structural screed.
Tie reinforcement within structural screed
Tie reinforcement within hollowcores
Tension lap length
a) For Class 2A structures
b) For Class 2B and over structures
Figure 5.29
Tying reinforcement within hollowcores
Typical detail showing connection of tying

reinforcement to an edge beam.
Tension lap length
a) For Class 2A structures
5.4.12 Multi-span with

structural screed
b) For Class 2B structures
Figure 5.28 shows a typical detail where the tie/exural reinforcement is placed within
the structural screed.
Where the structural screed is used to provide the tie and exural continuity reinforcement it should be adequately tied to the perimeter ties. Figure 5.29 shows a typical detail
for this.
5.4.13 Dimensions
The permitted deviations are specied in BS EN 1168, which are complementary to those
given in Eurocode 2. BS EN 1168 provides further restrictions with respect to cover based
on the geometry of the hollowcore units. The following are extracts from that standard.
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29/01/2009 16:48:33
5.4.14 Tolerances for

construction purposes
5.4.15 Minimum concrete

cover and axis distances of
prestressing steel
The maximum deviations, unless declared by the manufacturer, shall satisfy the following:
slab length
25 mm
slab width
5 mm
slab width for longitudinally sawn slabs
25 mm
The minimum cover cmin to the nearest concrete surface and to the nearest edge of the
core, as stated in BS EN 1168 shall be:
for the exposed face, the one determined in accordance with Eurocode 2, Cl. 4.4.1.2;
for preventing longitudinal cracking due to bursting or splitting and in the absence of
specific calculations and/or tests as follows:
when the nominal centre to centre distance of the strands 3: cmin = 1.5;
when the nominal centre to centre distance of the strands < 2.5: cmin = 2.5;
cmin may be derived by linear interpolation between the values of above
where is the strand diameter (mm). In the case of different diameters of strand, the
average value shall be used for .
5.5 Double tee beams
a) Without structural screed
Double tee beams are ribbed units, usually with two ribs in each 2.4 m wide unit. Other
widths can be provided. It is also possible to obtain an inverted trough unit with the ribs at
each unit edge. The double tee is the lightest precast unit for spans in the 9 to 20 m range
thus requiring a lighter support structure than hollowcore, for example, see Figure 5.30.
Alternatives to double tees exist in the form of multi-rib units, usually with three ribs.
b) With structural screed
Figure 5.30
Typical double tee units.
68
29/01/2009 16:48:34
The shape of the of the double tee unit is particularly suitable and economical for prestressing because of the high position of the neutral axis, which maximises the lever arm,
and because the ratio of the top and bottom bre modulus is similar to the concrete to
steel modular ratio.
Double tee units can be procured in a variety of depths, from 300 to 800 mm and even
beyond, but the most common unit is 600 mm deep as this conveniently carries ofce
loading to 12 m and car park loading to 16 m. The most common application of double
tee units is in car park structures. The top ange is usually 50 or 60 mm deep and the ribs
taper from a minimum of 140 mm at the base, widening towards the underside of the top
table, the taper of 1 in 20 each side allowing for easy lifting out of a xed mould. There are
variations to dimensions as some manufacturers have xed moulds set for the full depth,
e.g. 800 mm, and t pallets inside to make units of less depth; thus the shallower the unit is,
the wider the bottom of the web. It is advisable to check what dimensions are available from
the manufacturers at the time of design, although these variations are not usually critical.
In order to achieve maximum economy, grids should be at 2.4 m modules, 7.2 m being the
most common. Specially shaped units, to cover irregular grid areas, narrow or tapering
units, units with splayed ends and notched units to t round columns and others, can be
supplied.
Double tee units are normally designed by the precast manufacturer and a typical example
of this is given in the Precast Eurocode 2: Worked Examples29.
BS EN 13224, Precast Concrete Products Ribbed Floor Elements5 provides the specication
for materials, production, properties, requirements and methods of testing for ribbed oor
elements. This includes a section on permitted deviations and minimum dimensions.
5.5.1 Self-stressing moulds
5.5.2 Welded joints
A less common system for manufacturing double tees is by using self-stressing moulds.
These can incorporate deected strands (see Taylor30).
Welding is commonly used in double tee construction as tests and experience show that
the welded connection between anges is the only method of connection that is positive,
taking account of differential camber, and that gives excellent long-term performance
with respect to controlling cracking at the ange joints in car park construction from the
rolling loads (see Figure 5.31).
In car parks it is common for the weld plates and the welded cross-bar to be in stainless
steel with the anchor bars beneath the concrete surface in mild steel. Manufacturers have
procedures for ensuring the stainless to mild steel welds are made correctly, and account
for the higher temperatures required with stainless steel. This can result in more expansion
of surface mounted plates and spalling on site.
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29/01/2009 16:48:34
Figure 5.31
Typical double tee connection details.
100 x 40 shear connector

with 25 bar in welded
connection
100 x 100 steel plate
anchored into double tee unit
(The plate should be welded
to the anchorage bar)
Where welding is permitted it should be the responsibility of an erection subcontractor

and carried out before the structure, including any areas immediately below, is released
for access by other trades. Thus safety issues with respect to personnel (arc eye) and re
in debris beneath are controlled.
It is essential to ensure that the erection subcontractor is experienced in welding work,
that modern gas shielded weld procedures are used by trained and tested welders and
that site procedures take account of welding hazards with respect to shielding from arcs
and in the removal of any ammable material from the workplace.
Weld inspection procedures should be agreed with the welder. End connectors are critical
and should all be de-slagged and inspected. The number of ange connectors usually
allows inspection to be on an agreed statistical basis.
5.5.3 Structural topping
Double tee secondary reinforcement usually consists of end cages, which commonly protrude from the top surface of the unit to bond into the structural topping, and a special
light fabric in the top table (ange), sometimes held in place by ve or seven stressed
wires. To assist shear ow from the rib to ange at the ends, it is also usual to provide
some transverse steel in the ange at the end, see Figure 5.32.
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29/01/2009 16:48:34
Steel end plate with

internal anchor for
tie to support
May protrude into

structural topping
Lifter position decided

by supplier
Transverse bars for

shear flow with flange
U-bars to close links

at end of web.
Upper strand layer

may be debonded
Link cage nominally

10 mm at 50, 100 &
200 ctrs in end 2d of
unit to aid anchorage
of strands
Lower strand layer

should never be
debonded
End U-bar or anchored

angle to restrain spall
potential at end of rib
Figure 5.32
Typical double tee end detail.
Where the designer has designed the double tee oor as a slab in accordance with Eurocode 2,
Cl. 6.2.1 (4) minimum shear reinforcement is not required when VEd VRd,c. Apart from the
main stressed strands, double tee beams often only have reinforcement in the form of a
light fabric in the top ange to control shrinkage and transportation stresses and a light
end cage in the web to control transfer transmission zone stresses.
Structural concrete screed with fabric reinforcement is often provided for the nal structure.
This is also used to augment the welded connections between units. The lateral shear connectors, which should be welded, provide lateral continuity between the double tee units
and can spread concentrated loads from one unit to another. The fabric size is dened by
the need for transverse ties (they augment the welded shear connection tie capacity) and
in some cases for load distribution of point loads on the oor to adjacent units.
5.5.4 Transverse distribution

of concentrated loads
Floors are often required to carry point loads and line loads from partitions to supporting
beams. Eurocode 2, Cl. 10.9.3 (5) states that transverse distribution of loads should be
based upon analysis or tests. The designer should check any test report carefully to ensure
that it covers the specic design situation. It is not recommended that differences between
the deection of units are removed by jacking and then welding the shear keys. Any shear
forces resulting from such an operation or any other load variation should be considered
in the design of the connections.
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It is recommended that the width of slab assumed to contribute to the support of concentrated loads (including partitions in the direction of the span) should not exceed the width
of three precast units and joints, plus the width of the loaded area, or extend more than a
quarter of the span on either side of the loaded area. In some forms of construction, for
example long span wide units, these limits may be inappropriate and more detailed considerations should be made. Where there is a reinforced structural topping the width of
four precast units and joints may be allowed to contribute. Elliott23 gives further information.
Double tee oors can be designed either to carry line partition loads by providing extra
strength in the unit beneath or by a 2D elastic analysis. The double tee deck can be taken
as being comprised of a two-way beam grillage with the beam stiffness in one direction
and the ange stiffness from the full ange depth in the other, even where the anges
between adjacent double tees meet.
Double tee beams can be provided with additional reinforcement, for example links and
additional longitudinal steel for more than the normal one hour of re resistance, shear
reinforcement for exceptionally heavily loaded cases and top steel for cantilever ends.
5.5.5 Tying requirements
Typical end and side connections are shown in Figure 5.33; these connections can be part
of the tying strategy of the complete design.
Free standing double tee beams with end and side shear connectors should always be put on
elastomeric bearings. A mortar bed may only be used if sufcient reinforcement is provided
through the joint to ensure that it behaves monolithically as shown in Figure 5.33, see
also Section 4.1. The welded connection in Figure 5.33a is formed from two surface plates
with anchoring reinforcement welded to it cast into and anchoring around the beam
longitudinal steel, and in the double tee rib anchoring to the end cage. A surface plate is
then placed on top and welded down with llet welds. This anchorage can be used as part
of the transverse tying of the structure.
Figure 5.33
Typical double tee connection detail.
End of web
End connector with
welded tie bar
End of flange
Structural
topping
Double tee
a) Standard double tee support

with welded connection
b) Support of double tee with full continuity.

Note: Temporary support of beam may be required
72
29/01/2009 16:48:35
Double tees cast into in-situ edge beams should have protruding steel as a tie and this
steel should be taken far enough into the double tee to ensure that it is fully lapped with
the stressed reinforcement.
5.5.6 Half joints
To create half joints the ends of double tee units may be scarfed, as shown in Figure 5.34.
Ends should not be scarfed to more than two-thirds of their depth, for example a 600 mm
deep unit may be scarfed to 400 mm. Scarng allows the edge beams to still support the
double tee in the temporary situation and be no deeper than the double tee itself. The scarf
may also be extended so as to provide a convenient path for services between double tee
ribs. Figure 5.34 shows typical reinforcement in a scarfed end. Debonding should never
be applied to the bottom strands in the rib or to the strands immediately above a scarf.
Figure 5.34
Double tee with scarfed end.
Strut and tie (1)
Strut and tie (2)
Reinforcement and anchorage provided for struts and tie layouts 1 and 2
Strand must be
present and must
not be debonded
Chamfer allows inclined tie to

be in optimum position
Strand must not be debonded

Strand must not be debonded
Only additional reinforcement for the mechanism of strut and tie is shown.
This figure is to be read with Figure 5.32
5.5.7 Billet support of double

tee units
A variant of the half joint support is to use a billet protruding from the rib at the end of
the double tee at a high level, as shown conceptually in Figure 5.35.
This has the advantage that a nibbed bearer beam is not required and that the bearer beam
does not need hang up steel. A disadvantage is that the bearer beam has no restraint to
rotation from the bearing force of the double tee at its soft. This lack of restraint should
be considered in the temporary condition, when there may be out-of-balance moments
on the bearer beam and in the permanent condition for edge beams, or beams supporting
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29/01/2009 16:48:36
Figure 5.35
Support of double unit using billet connection.
Tie
Strut
Double tee
Tie
The tension in the vertical tie will be about

double the value of the compression forces
oor spans of varying length on each side. Where there is a permanent torsion applied to
the beam, the connection to the supporting column should be capable of providing torsional xity. This should not be a problem if the bearer beam and column are in-situ concrete,
but this would be an important design consideration if the bearer beams are precast.
The billet assembly can be purchased as a proprietary item. The designer should ensure
that the tting is adequate, meets the specication and is suitable for use in the UK.
Galvanised ttings can have corrosion problems in chloride bearing environments so
expert advice should be sought before the ttings are used in swimming pool roofs, car
parks and exposed coastal locations.
Finally, the tting has to be incorporated into the double tee in such a way that it interacts
with the other reinforcement in the unit to develop the strut and tie action, conceptually
illustrated in Figure 5.35. Internal tie forces required for robustness may also have to be
carried by the tting. These may not have been considered in the development of the
tting, particularly if it was manufactured overseas where the traditions of tying structures
may not be the same as in the UK.
5.5.8 Transportation of long

double tee beams
5.6 Stairs
Two beams are usually supplied in a load and should be secured in such a way that holdingdown straps do not bear on the top ange edges. The site access must be rm without
irregularity. Careless handling and the loading of the top anges with site construction
material can crack the top ange of a unit, typically at the ends at the interface between
the ange and web. Such cracking is unsightly rather than hazardous in the long term and
the manufacturer can be consulted to suggest repair procedures that should be carried
out before the structural topping is cast.
Precast concrete stairs are produced to be incorporated within many forms of

construction. This section considers their use within in-situ and precast concrete frames.
Their use has become common, especially within design and build contracts, where the
speed of construction is a benet.
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29/01/2009 16:48:36
It should be noted that stairights are the primary means of escape if a building is subject
to re or explosion and thus the robustness of the structure is vital.
BS EN 14843, Precast Concrete Products Stairs8 provides the specication for materials,
production, properties, requirements and methods of testing for precast stairs. This includes
a section on production tolerances and minimum dimensions. It also describes terms and
denitions that are used. With regard to detailing it requires the technical documentation
to include the construction data, such as the dimensions, the tolerances, the layout of
reinforcement, the concrete cover, the expected transient and nal support conditions, and
lifting conditions. In particular, the technical documentation must include the maximum
acceptable gap between components when erected to ensure the design overlap of the
reinforcement is achieved, see Eurocode 2, Cl. 10.9.4.7.
When considering the use of any proprietary system it is essential to consider:
how the stairflight is adequately tied to the adjacent parts of the structure
sequence of construction
temporary works involved
chain of responsibility in achieving the final structure (often the temporary actions, say
due to props, are the critical design condition).
The following procedure and points should be followed.
The working drawings should include complete propping instructions related to the
cube strength of the in-situ concrete (in any event a minimum of four floors should be
propped).
The sequence of construction and grouting-up instructions (if required) should be stated
on the drawings. The method of levelling should be determined and agreed with the
contractor and the method stated on the drawing.
The waist dimension should not be less than 100 mm.
For a precast stair flight on an in-situ landing nib section the precast flight should be
positioned first before the in-situ landing is cast up against it.
5.6.1 Single stair ights
Figure 5.36 shows the main features of a typical single stair ight.
Figure 5.36
Typical single stair ight.
Tread
Going
Riser
Waist
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29/01/2009 16:48:36
Production tolerances
The tolerances are given in BS EN 13369, Common Rules for Precast Concrete Products2
and BS EN 148438, table 1, see Table 5.2. Unless stricter tolerances are given in the
project specication these should apply.
Table 5.2
Tolerances for stairs.
Target dimension of the cross-section in the direction La

to be checked
(mm)
L 150 mm
+10
L 400 mm
-5
15
cb
(mm)
5
+15
-10
Key:
a The difference between two consecutive risers must not exceed 6 mm.
b The minimum concrete cover dened in BS EN 14843, Cl. 4.3.7 must take into account the depth of any concrete removed by a nishing
process. The positioning of reinforcement shall ensure that the minimum cover dened in BS EN 14843, Cl. 4.3.7 is achieved.
Minimum dimensions
The minimum dimensions given in Table 5.3 should apply.
Table 5.3
Minimum dimensions for stairs.
Dimension
Minimum dimension (mm)
Thickness of a step or landing
45a
Thickness of a wall
80
Thickness of a parapet
60
Wall thickness of a hollow element
45
Plan dimension of a column
120
Key:
a Special care should be taken to ensure the correct position of the reinforcement
5.6.2 Top and bottom

supports with in-situ
connections
Where precast stair ights are used supported on in-situ landings, the landings should be
cast against the precast ight. This avoids the problems of tolerances where precast ights
are placed on in-situ landings previously cast. Temporary propping will also be required for
the precast stairs, see Figure 5.37. Figure 5.38 shows alternative preferred arrangements
of the reinforcement at the joints.
Figure 5.37
Temporary support of precast stairs.
In-situ concrete
In-situ concrete
Precast stair flight

Precast stair flight
Temporary 2 way
braced props
Temporary 2-way
braced props
Note: It is important that the temporary braced props are supported by a permanent structure.
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29/01/2009 16:48:37
Screed
H12 bar
Screed
H12 bar
a) Connection with dowel bar only

H12 bar
Screed
b) Connection with hanging and dowel bar
Figure 5.38
Preferred arrangements of reinforcement for
connection with in-situ concrete.

supports with precast
concrete
Layout
Figure 5.39 shows the preferred dimensions for the detailing of the top joint between a
precast stair ight and a precast support.
The design of the bearings shall be in accordance with Eurocode 2, Cl. 10.9.5 and due
allowance shall be made for erection tolerances. For the application of this rule, two
classes of stair nibs are dened:
Class A: The stair nib is manufactured with the design end cover in accordance with
BS EN 14843, Cl. 4.3.1.1.
Class B: The stair nib is similar to Class A but with reduced end cover. In this case the full
concrete cover is achieved on site with a non shrink mortar. The result shall be in accordance
with Eurocode 2, Section 4.
Recommended bearing type

The recommended bearing type for precast stairs to precast concrete supports is a 10 mm
thick mortar bedding.
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29/01/2009 16:48:37
90
15
10
90
15
100 min
100 min
15
90
a) Landing with sloping interface
10
100 min
90
15
15
90
90 min
10
100 min
15
b) Landing with square interface
90
c) Wall with square interface
Figure 5.39
Preferred dimensions for top joint between
stairight and precast support.
Design and supervision considerations

The following should be considered during the design and construction process:
an allowance for a very generous impact factor on self-weight (say 2 or 3) of the
precast flight
checking the consequence if the support is assumed to be at the edge of the in-situ nib
(or designing seating layer to even out the loading)
failure mode in shear and hanging tension behind the nib
the construction procedure and temporary propping loads are properly understood
ensuring that the concrete reaches the required strength
no shims are included
the reinforcement is checked prior to concreting.
Lapped horizontal connection

Figure 5.40 shows a preferred layout of reinforcement. This may not be the easiest way
to construct an acceptable cage but ensures that the dimensions and the positioning of
the loop and link reinforcement is correct.
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29/01/2009 16:48:37
Tie reinforcement in structural topping

15
375
Tie reinforcement in structural topping
15
375
Figure 5.40
Preferred layout of reinforcement for precast
joints.
Figure 5.41
Dimensions to allow for dowel hole.
120
35
Screed
40
70
120
Figure 5.42
Reinforcement arrangement for dowel
connection.
375
15
15
Screed
375
Dowel connection
To provide sufcient room for a dowel hole the dimensions of the nib need to be as shown
in Figure 5.41.
Figure 5.42 shows the preferred layout of reinforcement for dowel connections, and
worked example 8 shows a typical calculation.
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29/01/2009 16:48:38

Project details
Worked example 8
Dowel bar for connection of precast stairs
Calculated by
RW
Job No.
CCIP-030
Checked by
OB
Sheet No.
WE 8/1
Client
TCC
Date
April 08
Consider a 1.5 m wide stair flight spanning 4 m, with a vertical spacing between precast units of 10 mm
and using a 20 mm diameter bar for the dowel. The tying force, FEd required should be at least the
permanent action of the stair flight.
Actions
Assume average vertical thickness of stair flight is (150 + 100)2 = 350 mm
Self weight of stair flight
FEd
= 25 x 0.35 x 1.5 x 4 = 52.5 kN
Resistance
It can be shown that the maximum dowel force, FRd, is
FRd
= b2.(fcd.fyd).{(1 + 2) - }
Asfyd/3 (shear resistance of the dowel)
where
= 3(e/b) x (fcd/fyd)
e = equal to half the vertical spacing between the units
Hence:
e = 10/2 = 5 mm
= 3 x (5/20) x {(0.85 x 40/1.5)/(500/1.15)} = 0.171
and
FRd = 202 x (0.85 x 40/1.5 x 500/1.15) x {(1 + 0.1712) 0.171}/1000 = 33.5 kN
( x 202/4) x (500/1.15)/(3 x 1000) = 78 kN
FRd = 33.5 kN
No reqd = 52.5/33.5 = 1.57
Use 2 No. 20 mm dia. dowel bars

supports using steel angles
Steel angles are used to allow the stair ight to rest directly onto walls or oor units, see
Figure 5.43.
Figure 5.43
Support using steel angles.
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29/01/2009 16:48:38
Full strength weld to

reinforcement to angle.
Lap with structural
reinforcement.
Structural topping
Structural screed
Structural
reinforcement
Structural
reinforcement
In-situ structure
Full strength weld of reinforcement to angle.

Lap with structural reinforcement.
Figure 5.44
Bottom and top support details using steel
angles.
The angle provides the bearing onto the supporting structure but often does not have any
joint continuity reinforcement. The designer should ensure that the design of the precast
unit incorporating such a steel angle is adequate for the particular situation and provides
an adequate tie to the structure. One method of achieving this is to weld reinforcement to
the steel angle and anchor it to the structure through the screed. Typical top and bottom
details are shown in Figure 5.44.
The tension forces transmitted from the angle to the reinforcement within the precast
unit in the top joint requires links welded to the bottom of the top angle. These should be
designed to resist the forces from the angle with the force of the support at the worst
possible position, i.e. when the joint between units is the widest permitted by the tolerances.
The stability of the staircase before the screed has been cast is not normally considered
by the manufacturer. It is essential to ensure that any temporary supports are provided
and clearly identied in the construction sequence. One example is to provide a positive
tie between the ight and the landing by reinforcement welded to the bearing angle (at
the precast factory) to lap with the fabric in the structural topping.
5.6.5 Stairs with integral

landings
Stair ights can be provided with an upper or lower integral landing as shown in Figure 5.45.
It is important that an insert (typically 50 mm) is provided on the top surface of the
landing. This allows the top nish to be laid uniformly over the whole of the landing
surface, avoiding any steps, due to construction and installation tolerances. In order to
establish an adequate tie to the supporting structure the reinforcement projecting from
the precast unit should interlock with that of the support.
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29/01/2009 16:48:38
Figure 5.45
Stairs with integral landings.
Bar inserted to lap with

wall reinforcement
50 mm recess for
finish surface
Temporary 2 way
braced props
Two horizontal bars

inserted within
U bar to lap with
wall reinforcement
In-situ wall
a) Stair flight with integral lower landing
50 mm recess for
finish surface
Bar inserted to lap with

wall reinforcement
Two horizontal bars inserted
within U bar to lap with
wall reinforcement
In-situ wall
Temporary 2 way
braced props
b) Stair flight with integral upper landing
5.7 Corbels, nibs and half

joints
Corbels, nibs and half joints are common to many forms of hybrid concrete construction.
The correct position of and cover to the reinforcement is critical to the performance of
this type of element. The design should carefully specify the requirements through the
layout and reinforcement detail drawings.
Corbels should be designed using strut and tie models when 0.4hc ac hc or as cantilevers
when ac > hc, see Figure 5.46 for denitions of hc and ac. Unless special provision is made
to limit the horizontal forces on the support, a minimum horizontal force of HEd should be
combined with the vertical force FEd. Reference should be made to Section 4.1 concerning
the value of HEd.
5.7.1 Design by strut and tie

model
Corbels, nibs and half joints are examples where non-linear strain distribution exists. For
such situations design using strut and tie models is appropriate. Eurocode 2, Cl. 6.5 provides
advice and stress limitations for the struts and nodes.
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29/01/2009 16:48:39
Figure 5.46
Layout of strut and tie for a typical corbel.
FEd
ac
HEd
aH
Ftd
ac
z0
hc
Strut and tie model for a corbel

Figure 5.46 shows the layout of the strut and tie layout for a corbel.
The following procedure may be adopted to check the strength of the corbel:
The stress in the strut of width x should be limited to Rd,max = 0.34fck(1-(fck /250)),
see Eurocode 2, Exp (6.56). The value of x effects the angle of the strut and hence the
force in the strut.
The position of the top of the strut should be determined by the resolution of FEd and
HEd, and the depth to Ftd (aH), as shown in Figure 5.46.
The angle and width of strut may be found by iteration or by use of the charts given in
Figure 5.36 of the Manual for the Design of Concrete Building Structures to Eurocode 231.
It is recommended that z0 should not exceed 0.75d.
The bearing stress under the load should not exceed 0.48 fck(1- (fck /250)), see Eurocode 2, Exp (6.61).
Check the tie force, Ftd = Ftd + HEd where Ftd is the horizontal component of the strut
force caused by FEd.
The total area of secondary links should be at least 0.5 area required to resist Ftd, see
worked example 9.
83
29/01/2009 16:48:39

Project details
Worked example 9
Corbel design
Calculated by
RW
Job No.
CCIP-030
Checked by
OB
Sheet No.
WE 9/1
Client
TCC
Date
April 08
Design ultimate load FEd = 300 kN, fck = 40 MPa, distance to the centre of the tension reinforcement
is assumed to be 45 mm. The width of the corbel is 300 mm, other details are as shown below.
300 kN
bc = 300
175
160
60 kN
Ftd
45
g
a b
605
Z0
67.64
605
650
Z
400
300
x/2
x = 120
a) Chosen solution
b) Geometry of solution
Actions
HEd
0.2 FEd = 0.2 x 300 = 60 kN
y
z
z0/d
=
=
=
=
=
=
175 + 60/300 x 45 = 184 mm

(1842 + 6052) = 632.4 mm
sin -1 (120/(2 x 632.4)) = 5.44
tan -1 (184/605) = 16.92
90 5.44 16.92 = 67.6
(184 tan 67.6)/605 = 0.73 < 0.75 OK
Geometry
Strut design
Maximum stress in the strut is:
Rd,max = 0.34 fck(1-(fck 250)) = 0.34 x 40 x (1 40/250) = 11.4 MPa
For an angle of strut to the horizontal of 67.6 and strut force is:
FEd
= 300/sin 67.6 = 325 kN
Hence the stress:
Ed = 326 x 1000/(120 x 300) = 9.1 MPa
Rd,max > Ed OK
Note: Further iteration could be carried out to maximise the strut efficiency.
84
29/01/2009 16:48:40

Project details
Worked example 9
Corbel design
Calculated by
RW
Job No.
CCIP-030
Checked by
OB
Sheet No.
WE 9/2
Client
TCC
Date
April 08
Reinforcement
The tension force in the reinforcement:
Ftd
= Ftd + HEd = 300 cot 67.6 + 60 = 183 kN
Area of reinforcement required:
As,req = 183 x 1000/(500/1.15) = 421 mm2
Try H20 bars:
No. reqd = 421/( x 202/4) = 1.34
Use 2 H20 bars
Area of secondary links required = 421/2 = 211 mm2
Try H8 links:
No. reqd = 211/(82 x /4) = 5.2
Use 5 H8 links
See the figure below for layout of reinforcement in accordance with The Standard Method of
Detailing Structural Concrete32.
2 H20 bars
H32 bar
5 No
H8 links
Strut and tie model for nibs

Where a nib is connected to the bottom of a beam, Figure 5.47 shows the arrangement
of strut and ties for a given arrangement of reinforcement.
The angle of the strut should be determined by the position of the centre of the bottom
corner bar of the beam, up to the point of intersection of the resultant of the applied
forces and the centre of the tension bar in the nib.
It should be noted that the reaction, Ft2d in the link bar is FEd (zb + ac)/ zb. The value of zb
may be taken as 0.8 db. Note this force is in addition to any shear force in the beam link.
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29/01/2009 16:48:40
Figure 5.47
Nib connected to bottom of beam.
db
Zb
ac
F t2d
F Ed
HEd
F t1d
Zn
Strut and tie model for half joints
Figure 5.48
Layout of strut and ties for a typical half joint.
Figure 5.48 shows the arrangement of struts and ties for a typical half joint. The addition
of a diagonal bar is not considered essential but does provide a more direct route for the
forces and better crack control (see also PD 668721 and The Standard Method of Detailing
Structural Concrete32).
Full depth links to resist total
reaction equally spaced
Tension anchorage
hh
Distance between edge of bearing

and inside of bar to be a minimum
of the bar diameter or 0.75 x cover,
whichever is greater
Cranked bars improve crack control

a) Section
Tension lap
Horizontal U bar with
standard mandrel size
b) Plan
Nominal links at 150
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29/01/2009 16:48:41
Construction issues 6
6. Construction issues
6.1 Method of construction
The performance of an HCC structure may be affected signicantly by the construction

method. In order to achieve consistency between design and construction of structures it is
important for the designer to include a method statement as part of the project specication
indicating the assumptions regarding construction. This will bring clarity to the project
and set a benchmark for pricing. The contractor is, of course, free to submit an alternative
price based on different assumptions, if any, from the original design. In this process, the
performance criteria agreed with the client should not be compromised.
Although precast elements generally require less propping than in-situ elements, it is
important to note that the forces in the props are also generally higher and therefore
more care is required when considering the temporary works.
Static equilibrium during construction

BS EN 1991-1-6 Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures Part 1-6: General Actions Actions
during Execution33 and BS 5975, Code of Practice for Formwork34 provide information on
the design of temporary works. The designer should also consider transient situations, for
example the effect of temporary overturning forces during construction. BS EN 1990,
Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design22, Table A1.2(A) describes the load factors that should
be used. Figure 6.1 shows the single arrangement that includes both equilibrium (EQU)
and structural resistance (STR).
Figure 6.1
Temporary loading during construction.
Overturning 1.35* G k,f + 1.5 Qk, c
Resisting 1.15* G k,b
Qk,c Construction
Resistance
beam
G k,f floor
G k,b
Check that using a factor of 1.0 for both favourable and unfavourable
does not give a more unfavourable effect
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29/01/2009 16:48:41
6 Construction issues
For type 5 form of construction (see Figure 2.1) the in-situ concrete is used to knit the
precast oor and beams together. The support of the precast oor should be designed as a
bearing in the temporary case and, even though the bearing will eventually be part of an
integral system, it will benet from neoprene pads beneath the oor elements. The outer
edge of the supporting beam should include a chamfer to eliminate spalling when the
oor is loaded onto the precast beam and the full load comes onto the combined system.
The chamfer also gives a visually clean edge to the joint between the precast and in-situ
concrete if the precast unit is ribbed a double tee for example. The support and restraint
of the beam onto the column should also be considered in the temporary situation, as
this connection may not be fully made before the in-situ composite concrete is placed.
For construction types 3 and 4, see Figure 2.1, the precast oor is supported on some
form of propped system before the in-situ edge beam is poured. The props should be
designed for the construction loading and a means to gradually release the supported load
onto the composite oor should be devised with back propping if necessary to support
the oors above.
The deection of the shuttering of the in-situ edge beam during casting should be considered.
If the oor and edge beam shuttering are supported from separate propping systems
during the pouring of the in-situ concrete the support struts of the in-situ area will take
up load and may shorten slightly. The oor is on a different set of props and will not
shorten as no extra load is applied to it. This can result in cracking of the top of the oor
near to the support as the moment from the wet concrete is applied. To avoid this risk
entirely, the same support system should be used for the oor and edge beam shutter,
see Figure 6.2.
A neat lower end to an embedded oor unit can be achieved by forming a small groove
in the in-situ concrete. This allows the edge of the in-situ to ll properly, avoids the
likelihood of spalling and masks any slight difference in the soft level, see Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.2
Support for connection.
a) Separate support systems can cause cracking in precast unit.
b) Common support of precast floor and insitu beam.
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29/01/2009 16:48:42
Figure 6.3
In-situ/precast joint showing groove detail.
Construction joint
Groove detail
6.2 Composite action

between precast units and
in-situ structural topping
The preparation of the base is of paramount importance. The surface of the precast units
should be left rough during production and contained shot blasting equipment (which will
avoid damaging the unit) used to prepare the surface, unless it can be shown that there
will be adequate bond. All loose debris should be removed. Where required, the joints
between the units should be grouted at least one day before the screed is placed.
6.3 Specially shaped

standard units
Hollowcore units are manufactured to a 1200 mm module and double tees are normally to
a 2400 mm module. It is possible to introduce narrow units into a layout or units tapered
in plan if the building layout requires it. In the case of hollowcore, these are cut after manufacture, but double tees are cast to the required dimensions. In such cases, the manufacturer
will be able to advise on how to detail the special units so that they are sufciently robust
to be delivered and incorporated into the building successfully and to ensure that exposed
softs look acceptable. In the case of long span units, for example, it may be preferable
to take up a required taper in the last two units rather than have the last unit tapering
excessively. Double tees can also be cast as single tees allowing a greater taper in plan
than can be provided in a double tee unit, see Figure 6.4.
6.4 Long and short units

adjacent to each other
In situations where long and short units are side by side, for example where lift and stair
cores shorten spans, differential cambers can produce difculties. This is particularly the
case with long span double tees, for example in car parks. A clear span double tee car park
unit may have a camber of 30 mm whereas the unit next to it, spanning from a common
bearing position at one end to a ramp or stair core, may be 12 m long and have a camber
of 10 mm. This difference in level is usually accommodated in practice by bearing the
non-common end of the shorter span at a higher level than the long span unit, as shown
in Figure 6.5. The designer should consult with the manufacturer to obtain an estimate of
these cambers and mark the drawings accordingly.
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29/01/2009 16:48:42
Figure 6.4
Specially shaped standard units.
Key
Web
beneath
Figure 6.5
Long and short unit adjacent to each other.
30 mm camber
15 mm camber
Outer supports at same level
Inner supports set approx. 15 mm

higher to reduce camber step
between long and shorter unit
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6.5 Differences of camber

in double tees
In some countries, it is considered good practice to jack double tee anges at mid-span to
even out camber differences. This is sometimes carried out by casting loops of reinforcement
that protrude from the anges, vertically at mid-span, which are then used as purchase
points for a crowbar or jack. While the built-in stresses from this process do not affect the
ultimate strength of the structural system because of plasticity at the ultimate limit state, it
is not recommended, as it can induce local cracking in the anges, see also Section 5.5.4.
6.6 Method of de-tensioning

double tee units
Double tee units should always be de-tensioned using release jacks that release all of the
tendons simultaneously and gradually. This is standard practice in the UK, but not throughout
the world. Engineers should be aware of the different practices and ensure that gradual
release is specied and carried out. Otherwise bond checks should be carried out.
6.7 Checking strand or wire

pull-in for hollowcore units
Hollowcore units are almost unique in that they are manufactured in a continuous length
and are sawn to the required length only after the concrete has reached the appropriate
strength. The de-tensioning process only de-tensions the strands at each end gradually
whereas at the saw cuts a gradual release of tendon stress is not possible. The integrity of
the anchorage bond of the tendons can be checked by examining the pull-in of the strands
at the ends of the unit. Assuming that the anchorage length is in the order of 1000 mm
and that the build-up of strain is linear in that length, as stated in Eurocode 2, a pull-in
design value of 2 mm can be calculated. However, this does not allow for the thickness of
the saw-cut and in practice the measured pull-in is normally less than 1 mm. Manufacturers
should check pull-in on units routinely and reject any with excessive pull-ins.
6.8 Placing hollowcore

units into the correct
position
On site, hollowcore units are often lifted into their nal position using clamp lifting devices
that clamp onto the sides of the unit near to each end. The clamp arms are of such a width
that a unit cannot be placed exactly next to an already erected adjoining unit; thus, when
the lifting device is removed, the unit has to be moved laterally to close up the gap. This
is often accomplished by moving the unit, or barring it with a crowbar. While this may
not cause damage to a short span light unit, there is a risk of breaking a corner of a long
span unit.
Manufacturers recognise that barring of long span and heavy units is not good practice and
provide other means of lifting hollowcore units for this situation, e.g. L shaped lifting
arms or lifting loops cast into the hollowcore units. Lifting loops should be used for the
last unit that has to t into an exact space. If lifting clamps are used, the unit would have
to be placed at an angle, resting on the edge of the previously placed unit, while the clamps
are removed and then barred until it drops into place.
Guidance on the safe practice of barring is given in Code of Practice: For the Safe Erection
of Precast Concrete Flooring and Associated Components35.
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6.9 Production tolerances
Table 6.1
Permitted deviations of cross-section.
Production tolerances are specied in BS EN 13369, Common Rules for Precast Concrete
Products2, Cl. 4.3.1.1. For crosssectional dimensions L, the permitted deviation is L, and
for position of reinforcing steel, prestressing steel and for the design cover c the permitted
deviation is c. The permitted deviations of cross-sections for structural elements are
reproduced in Table 6.1.
Target dimension of the cross-section in the direction
to be checked
L
(mm)
c
(mm)
L 150 mm
+ 10
-5
L = 400 mm
15
+ 15
- 10
L 2500 mm
30
+ 30
- 10
Notes:
1. Linear interpolation may be used for intermediate values.
2. L and the positive values of c (upper permitted deviation) are given to ensure that deviations in cross-sectional dimensions and in position
of the reinforcement do not exceed values covered by the relevant safety factors in the Eurocodes.
3. The negative values of c (lower permitted deviation) are given for durability purposes.
4. In particular, functional specicities of the products may require tighter tolerances.
5. The given values may be modied by product standards.
The upper permitted deviation for the location of the reinforcement may be determined as
the mean value of the bars or strands in a cross-section over 1 m in width, e.g. slabs and
walls.
The design cover c of the reinforcement shall be at least the minimum cover, cmin, plus
the permitted deviation , cdev, or the producers guaranteed deviation, whichever is lower.
For principal dimensions other than cross-sectional dimensions:
L = (10 + L/1000) 40 mm
where
L is the target size of the linear measure expressed in millimetres
Other types of tolerances may be given by product standards together with the values of
the related permitted deviations, e.g. camber of beams. These values will not include the
deformation effects of any applied load or of prestressing. In the verication of the measured
deviations, such deviations shall be taken into account by computing their value for the
test situation, including all the relevant time-related effects.
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Special structures - case studies 7
7. Special structures - case studies

This chapter describes two projects that relied upon hybrid concrete construction to
realise an architectural requirement: Lloyds of London36, 1986, and Bracken House37, 1992.
Both these buildings were constructed within a traditional contract procedure led by the
architect. The design engineers and contractors found solutions to ensure that the architects
intent was achieved with the most suitable use of materials. This required very close
cooperation between engineer and architect, with a particular contribution from the
specialist precaster. The input of the contractor to the design solution was small on these
projects.
One of the most important themes common to both projects related to the design of the
structural joints. These were designed either to be:
made of in-situ concrete that connected precast elements to in-situ elements or other
precast elements, allowing for reasonably large construction tolerances or
made with close tolerance templates that ensured that great care had to be taken to
construct them correctly.
7.1 Lloyds of London
In 1977 the Committee of Lloyds decided to redevelop their site located either side of
Lime Street, London. Architects Richard Rogers & Partners, with Ove Arup & Partners as
structural and service engineers, won a competition by dening a design strategy rather
than a building. The key points were that it:
allowed for maximum flexibility of use
gave continuity of trading and preserved the Lloyds tradition
did not rely exclusively on providing a new Room as quickly as possible but gave
Lloyds a means of maintaining expansion of business in the short term. The Room is
the heart of Lloyds and is where the underwriters work.
Two important architectural features included in the design brief were:
to show the columns cleanly throughout their height both on the external face and
within the atrium as shown in Figure 7.1.
to show an exposed soffit of diagrid beams at 1.8 m centres.
The resulting design produced a rectangular ring oor with a central atrium. The span of
the oor was 16.2 m (9 x 1.8 m) with a oor-to-oor height of 4.5 m. The oor depth was
1500 mm of which 1150 mm was structural. Prestressed in-situ beams span between
external columns and those at the atrium as shown in Figure 7.2. Further prestressed
beams were required in the corner areas of the building and precast concrete was used for
the column brackets, bearing yokes and stub columns.
7.1.1 Achieving a clean column

appearance
The design included in-situ columns with precast brackets to support the oors, see
Figure 7.3a and 7.3b.
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7 Special structures - case studies
Figure 7.1a
Figure 7.1b
Lloyds of London redevelopment, external view.
Lloyds of London redevelopment, internal view.
Photo: Copyright Arup
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29/01/2009 16:48:43
Precast yoke
Structural topping
Prestressed inverted U beam
Stub column
Steel permanent formwork panels
Precast bracket
Figure 7.2
Layout of the oor components.
Tolerance pocket with

steel inserts
Precast yoke
Stainless steel
flange
Dip groove
Precast
bracket
Steel plate with

shear studs under
In-situ node
Steel dowel
Figure 7.3a left

Precast concrete bracket connection.
Schematic layout of brackets.
Waterproofing detail
Figure 7.3b above

Prefabricated bracing
Elastomeric bearings
Precast concrete bracket connection.

Precast bracket and yoke.
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7.1.2 Precast brackets
The design of the bearing had to full a number of functions:

to carry the vertical load from the floor while allowing for relative rotation as the floor
and bracket deflected, see Figure 7.4a
to transmit the wind and stability forces from the main building into the bracing
system via the bracket, see Figure 7.4b
to restrain the bracket from rotating in plan because this provided stability restraint to
the column at each level, see Figure 7.4c
to allow construction tolerance.
Figure 7.4
Design of bearings.
a) Bearing allowing rotation between filter

and bracket
b) Bearing restrains column
c) Bearing transmits shear from building

into bracing
It was decided that all the forces should be carried on the top face of the bracket. The
vertical loads were transmitted through elastomeric bearings. The bearing was bonded to
a plate that was screwed down on an epoxy levelling bed and so could be replaced if
necessary. The horizontal forces were transmitted through four steel dowels. The load on
the dowels was too great to transmit directly into the concrete, so steel bearing-plates
were cast into the top surface of the bracket with welded shear studs projecting down to
transmit horizontal load into the brackets, see Figure 7.3a.
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Connection of precast bearing to column

The way the bracket was connected to the column was one of the key points in its design.
It was essential that this provided a straightforward construction operation, and the details
had to have a proper architectural quality. The solution chosen was to make the bracket an
extension of a ring that would be formwork for the column at that point. The ring would
identify the bracket on the column, visually, and express the connection. The main bracket
reinforcement passed into the column zone within the ring where it turned up and down,
while the ring itself contained nominal reinforcement.
The ring gave two possible sequences of construction:
The bracket could be placed on the column formwork and the columns and the bracket
filled together.
The column could be cast first up to the soffit of the bracket, then the bracket placed
and concreted.
The second solution was chosen because it was thought that it would be too difcult to
hold the ve tonne bracket and column form in place with sufcient accuracy, since this
took place outside the slab. The details of the bracket and column prole were worked out
with the contractor to give grout tight joints while having the necessary visual articulation.
The top of the column was slightly tapered to draw the bracket into the correct position
on a sealing strip.
Because the brackets and some of the columns were heavily reinforced, great care had to
be taken in the design and detailing to ensure that there was no clash. The fact that the
columns were circular made the problem worse. The steel was detailed and xed, with
templates, to precise dimensions that gave a clearance of a few millimetres. As is often
the case with such a sensitive and potentially disruptive detail, so much care was taken
that all went well.
7.1.3 Connection of precast

bearing to in-situ prestressed
inverted U-beams
A precast yoke was designed to transmit the loads from the in-situ prestressed beam to
the precast bracket, see Figure 7.3b. The bearing and pockets in the precast bearing were
designed to allow the elastic shortening of the prestressed U-beams to take place before
grouting the precast yoke. However, the action of prestressing relieved the props of some of
the load of the beam grid and transferred it to the bracket. This applied a moment to the
column that caused an inward horizontal displacement. It was found to be better to grout
the dowels before prestressing, which restrained the column against this displacement. The
columns were pre-cambered outwards to allow for the prestress shortening of the U-beam.
When a oor was cast it was propped down through two levels to limit the amount of load
applied to the bracket and hence rotation.
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7.1.4 Stability
The main building contains none of the usual lift, stair and riser cores that can be used for
stability, as these were provided through the satellite towers. A form of bracing between
some of the columns was chosen, see Figure 7.5.
Where the bracing was required extra connections were built into the precast brackets.
Floor grid construction

The oor-to-oor height is 4.5 m, of which 1.5 m is the oor itself. Both the structure and
the services are exposed, with no false ceilings. Air is supplied through the raised oor and
extracted at high level through the light ttings. The return air is taken out through ducts
at stub column level. The permanent formwork panels were made of proled metal sheets
welded to pressed channels, see Figure 7.6. The channels were lipped on the underside to
support the anchors for service hangers in the zone of the stub columns. A typical section
through the oor is shown in Figure 7.7.
Figure 7.5
T5
Main building stability system.

T3
T4
T6
T2
T1
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29/01/2009 16:48:50
Figure 7.6
Permanent formwork panel with acoustic trays.
Figure 7.7
Typical section through oor.
Structural slab
Floor finish
50
300
100
60
Stub columns
440
Permanent formwork
& acoustic insulation
1500
550
Diagrid beams
300
1800
The subcontractor developed a formwork system to produce the diagrid beams, see
Figure 7.8. Their design was based on folded and welded steel frames with ply faces.
Neoprene gaskets were built into the metal sections that also formed rebates at joint lines.
The components were xed together with bolts and wedges with adjustment for tolerance.
The reinforcement cages were supported on purpose-made plastic cradles bolted down to
the soft form. These ensured accurate cover, and the threaded insert could be used later to
restrain the top of partitions. This formwork was excellent; it gave a rst-class nish and could
be put together and taken apart very quickly. It was the key to success of this subcontract.
99
29/01/2009 16:48:51
Figure 7.8
Diagrid beam formwork system.
7.1.5 Points of interest
This was a bespoke building and although time of construction was of the essence, the
budget was generous.
The interaction between client, architect and engineer was crucial and favoured the
traditional form of contract.
Much time and effort was spent to provide the most suitable form of construction and
materials, but the contractor provided very little input to the development.
The subcontractor developed a very efficient formwork system.
Precast and in-situ concretes were used appropriately to ensure maximum benefit to
the aesthetics, speed of construction and accuracy of construction.
Considerable effort and money was spent on setting up mock-ups and prototypes to
identify the most appropriate form of construction.
Where it was made clear that great accuracy was required in construction it was
achieved without fuss.
7.2 Bracken House
Bracken house is on Cannon Street close to St Pauls Cathedral, London. In 1986 Obayashi
appointed Michael Hopkins as architect and Ove Arup as structural and service engineers to
redevelop a building designed by Sir Albert Richardson. When this was listed it was decided
to retain the two wings of the building and rebuild the centre block. From an engineering
point of view one of the main features of the design was the integration of the structure
and services in the centre block and the way this linked to the construction of the facade.
The design was based on the principle of a wheel in which circumferential primary services
routes around the outside of the building and inside the atrium connect to radial secondary
routes running between radial beams, see Figure 7.9.
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29/01/2009 16:48:53
Figure 7.9
Combined structure and services concept.
The concept wheel
Structural organisation
Ceiling
extract
Supply
Floor services supply
between structure
Extract
The outer circumferential route is supplied from risers located in the cores between the
wings and the centre block. The inner circumferential ring connects to air exhaust risers
contained within quadrant shaped columns in the corners of the atrium, see Figure 7.10.
For speed of construction the beams were precast, whereas the columns were cast in-situ
because their construction had no time penalty. Alternating in-situ and precast permitted a
very simple connection detail; the beam swelled out at the column position and a pocket was
left out at this point: the column reinforcement passed through the pocket (see Figure 7.11),
which was concreted up before casting the next lift of column. The beams are 650 mm
deep and span 12 m from a column at the atrium to a column that is set back 4.2 m from
the facade, and then continue with a reduced depth of 350 mm on to a support at the
facade. In each of the quadrant corners, eight radial beams are supported on a continuous
corbel that springs from the quadrant columns. There are no circumferential beams. The
structural slab is in-situ concrete placed on metal decking permanent formwork between
the precast beams.
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29/01/2009 16:48:55
Above: Figure 7.10
Radial beams and quadrant-shaped column at

atrium corner.
Above right: Figure 7.11
Column beam connection.

The soft of the slab is above the soft of the beam and this zone is used for false ceiling,
sprinklers, lighting, and the extract air plenum, see Figure 7.12. The zone above the 150 mm
slab is used for the oor-based air supply, electrical power and communications. The raised
oor is 300 mm above the beam.
Figure 7.13 shows the oor layout during construction.
Figure 7.12
Typical section through oor zone.
Floor finish
Air supply, electrical services and communications
300
950
150
650
250
False ceiling
Lighting, sprinkers and air extraction
Precast concrete radial beams
In-situ concrete slab on metal decking
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29/01/2009 16:48:55
Figure 7.13
Floor layout during construction.
7.2.1 Points of interest
Apart from the plan of the site and the retention of the wings, the most important factor
governing the design was the St Pauls height rule, which restricted the height of the
building to that of the wings to avoid obstructing the view of the cathedral. To fit six
floors within the superstructure height available, while maintaining the clear heights
and raised floor depth required of a modern City office, the depth of the floor zone had
to be as small as possible. The result is a 12 m clear span, with a 950 mm overall, which
provides a clear zone of 300 mm for telecommunications and small power.
By placing the slab towards the middle of the beams the benefit of T-beam action is
lost, but it is this, combined with the radial interleaving of structure and services, that
leads to the minimum possible depth of the structural and services zone. The financial
benefit of the extra floor that this allowed far outweighed the reduction in structural
efficiency.
Similar to the Lloyds contract, the interaction between client, architect and engineer
was crucial and favoured the traditional form of contract.
Precast and in-situ concretes were used appropriately to ensure maximum benefit to
the aesthetics, speed of construction and accuracy of construction. Metal decking
permanent formwork for the slab was chosen for its simplicity and ease of construction.
As the structural slab was in the middle of the floor zone, the metal decking was hidden
by the false ceiling.
There was a strong belief that the joints between precast concrete units should be in
in-situ concrete and that the architecture should reflect this principle.
103
29/01/2009 16:48:59
References
References
1
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 1992-1-1, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structuresPart 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings, BSI, 2005.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 13369, Common rules for precast concrete products,
BSI, 2004.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 1168, Precast concrete products - Hollowcore slabs,

BSI, 2005.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 13747, Precast concrete products - Floor plates for
oor systems, BSI, 2005.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 13224, Precast concrete products - Ribbed oor

elements, BSI, 2004.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 13225, Precast concrete products Linear structural

elements, BSI, 2004.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 14992, Precast concrete products Wall elements:

Production properties and performances, BSI, 2007.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 14843, Precast concrete products Stairs, BSI, 2006.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 13670, Execution of concrete structures, BSI, due 2008.
10
GOODCHILD, C. and Glass, J. Best practice guidance for hybrid concrete construction. The Concrete
Centre, 2002, Ref. TCC/03/09.
11
THE CONCRETE CENTRE. Hybrid concrete construction. The Concrete Centre, 2005, Ref. TCC/03/010.
12
THE CONCRETE CENTRE. Precast concrete in buildings. The Concrete Centre, 2007, Ref. TCC/03/031.
13
THE CONCRETE CENTRE. Concrete framed buildings. The Concrete Centre, 2006, Ref. TCC/03/024.
14
GOODCHILD, C.H. Economic concrete frame elements. The Concrete Centre, 2008, Ref. CCIP-025.
15
WILFORD, M. and YOUNG, P. A design guide for footfall induced vibration of structures. The Concrete
Centre, 2006, Ref CCIP-016.
16
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS 8204, Screeds, bases and in-situ oorings, BSI, 2003.
17
DEPARTMENT FOR COMMUNITIES AND LOCAL GOVERNEMENT, Building regulations (England

and Wales) Approved document A (2004). DCLG, revised 2006.
18
THE BUILDING REGULATIONS 2000 (Amended), Statutory Instrument 2000 No 2531 Building
and Buildings, The Stationery Ofce, 2000.
19
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 1991-1-7, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures Part 1-7:

General actions Accidental actions, BSI, 2006.
20
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, UK National Annex to Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures

Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings, BSI, 2005.
21
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, PD 6687: Background paper to the UK national annexes to

BS EN 1992-1, BSI, 2006.
22
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 1990, Eurocode: Basis of structural design, BSI, 2002.
23
ELLIOTT, K S. Multi storey precast concrete framed structures. Blackwell Science, 1995.
24
NARAYANAN, R. Precast Eurocode 2: Design manual. British Precast, 2007.
25
CONCRETE SOCIETY. Technical Report 43: Post-tensioned concrete oors design handbook, second
edition. CS, 2005.
26
CONCRETE SOCIETY. Technical Report 67: Movement, restraint and cracking in concrete structures.
CS, 2008.
27
MARTIN, L. and PERRY, C. PCI design handbook, sixth edition. Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, 2004.
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References
28
INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION FOR PRESTRESSING. FIP Recommendations: Precast prestressed

hollowcore oors. Thomas Telford, 1988.
29
NARAYANAN, R. Precast Eurocode 2: Worked examples. British Precast, 2008.
30
TAYLOR, H. Strand deection systems in pretensioned, prestressed concrete. The Structural

Engineer, Vol. 70, No. 5, March 1992.
31
INSTITUTION OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS. Manual for the design of concrete building structures
to Eurocode 2. IStructE, 2006.
32
INSTITUTION OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS/CONCRETE SOCIETY. The Standard Method of

Detailing Structural Concrete, third edition. IStructE, 2006.
33
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 1991-1-6, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures Part 1-6:

General actions Actions during execution, BSI, 2005.
34
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS 5975, Code of practice for formwork, BSI 1996.
35
PRECAST FLOORING FEDERATION. Code of practice: For the safe erection of precast concrete
ooring and associated components. PFF, 2007.
36
RICE, P. and THORNTON, J. Lloyds redevelopment. The Structural Engineer, Vol. 64, No. 10,
October 1986.
37
UNKNOWN. Inside job: Bracken House. Architects Journal, 27 May 1992, pp. 2637. Anon.
105
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29/01/2009 16:49:02
29/01/2009 16:49:02
29/01/2009 16:49:02
29/01/2009 16:49:02
29/01/2009 16:49:02
29/01/2009 16:49:02
29/01/2009 16:49:02
Type 1
in-situ concrete
Type 2
oor slab
Type 4
oor units
Type 5
beams and oor units
Type 3
beams
Acknowledgements
The authors would particularly like to thank the following people for their support in the development of this
design guide:
Tony Jones
Ian Feltham
Arup
Arup
The contributions and comments from the Concrete Society Design Group and also from the following
people are gratefully acknowledged:
John Stehle
Graham Hardwick
Peter Kelly
Alex Davie
David Appleton
Kevin Laney
Norman Brown
Type 6

Please note this diagram is a repeat of Figure 2.1, page 8.
Laing ORourke
John Doyle Construction Ltd
Bison Concrete Products Ltd
Consultant
Hanson Concrete Products
Strongforce Engineering Plc
British Precast Concrete Federation Ltd

Tel: +44 (0)1276 606800 Fax: +44 (0)1276 606801
CCIP-030
ISBN 978-1-904482-55-0
Price Group P
The Concrete Centre
Tel: +44 (0)7004 607777
Printed by Information Press Ltd, Eynsham, UK
Hybrid cov-.indd 2
29/01/2009 16:43:54
UDC
624.072.33:624.012.3/.4
CCIP-030
CI/Sfb
Bearings, interface details, consideration of movement, composite

action, robustness and the effects of prestressing are all explained in
this guide and design examples are included where appropriate. The
importance of overall responsibility and construction aspects are also
described.
Design of Hybrid
Concrete Buildings
A guide to the design of buildings combining in-situ
and precast concrete
R. Whittle MA (Cantab) CEng MICE

H. Taylor FREng, BSc, PhD, CEng, FICE, FIStructE
Robin Whittle has extensive knowledge and experience of designing

all types of concrete buildings. He regular contributes to concrete
industry publications and is a consultant to Arup. He was a member
of the project team which drafted Eurocode 2.
Howard Taylor has extensive knowledge and experience of
designing precast concrete elements and buildings, including
developing alternative production methods. He is a past president
of the Institution of Structural Engineers and is currently chairman
of the British Standards Institution Building and civil engineering
structures Technical Committee B/525.
CCIP-030
ISBN 978-1-904482-55-0
Price Group P
R. Whittle MA (Cantab) CEng MICE H. Taylor FREng, BSc, PhD, CEng, FICE, FIStructE

engineer with essential guidance for the design of structures
that combine precast and in-situ concrete in a hybrid
concrete structure. It introduces the options available for
hybrid concrete structures, and goes on to explain the key
considerations in the design of this type of structure.
The Concrete Centre

Tel: +44 (0)1276 606 800
Hybrid cov-.indd 1
29/01/2009 16:43:37
CCIP-032
CI/Sfb
UDC
69.056.5
Residential Cellular Concrete Buildings
Guidance is provided on selecting an appropriate solution, sizing

the structure and carrying out detailed design. Detailing issues are
covered, some of which should be considered at the early stages of a
project to achieve an efcient building conguration.
A guide for the design and specication of concrete buildings

using tunnel form, crosswall or twinwall systems
O.Brooker BEng CEng MICE MIStructE

R.Hennessy BEng(Hons) CEng MICE MIStructE
Owen Brooker is senior structural engineer for The Concrete Centre

where he promotes efcient concrete design through guidance
documents, presentations and the national helpline. A consultant
by background, he is also author of a number of guides on the
application of Eurocode 2.
Richard Hennessy is structures knowledge manager working in the
structures discipline development group of Buro Happold. Richard
is a structural engineer and was able to bring his rst-hand project
experience and also Buro Happolds collective experience of the
tunnel form technique to this publication.
CCIP-032
Published September 2008
ISBN 978-1-904482-46-8
Price Group P

engineer with essential guidance for designing cellular-type
structures. It is written for the structural engineer who has
knowledge of building structures in general but who has
limited or no experience of cellular structures. This guide
highlights areas that require close coordination between the
structural and services engineers and the architect.
Residential Cellular
Concrete Buildings
The Concrete Centre

Tel: +44 (0)1276 606 800
Conc cellular build cov-v2.indd 1
04/09/2008 10:01:37
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the input, comments and advice from the following people:
Mike Brown
Hussein Chatur
Peter Dunnion
Kim Elliott
Graham Hardwick
Peter Kelly
Andrew Sims
Roy Spurgeon
George Tootell
Rod Webster
Precast Cellular Structures Limited

Outinord International Limited
Malling Products Limited
The University of Nottingham
John Doyle Construction Limited
Bison Concrete Products Limited
Outinord International Limited
Bell and Webster Concrete Limited
PCE Limited
Concrete Innovation and Design

Tel: +44 (0)1276 606800 Fax: +44 (0)1276 606801
CCIP-032
ISBN 978-1-904482-46-8
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The Concrete Centre
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Printed by Alden HenDi, Witney, UK.
04/09/2008 10:02:34
Residential cellular concrete buildings
Contents
1.
Introduction
1.1 What are cellular structures?
1.2 Why cellular structures?
1.3 What options are available?
3
3
4
4
2.
Cellular concrete construction

2.1 Maximising the benets
2.2 Balconies
2.3 Bathroom pods
2.4 Early coordination of services
2.5 Servicing routes
2.6 Screeds and toppings
2.7 Cladding
2.8 Internal walls
2.9 Stability
2.10 Ground insulation
2.11 Airtightness
2.12 Movement joints
2.13 Coordination of design
7
7
10
10
11
12
13
17
17
17
18
18
18
18
3.
Performance of concrete in buildings

3.1 Fire resistance
3.2 Acoustics
3.3 Thermal mass
19
19
20
25
4.
Structural support
4.1 Foundations
4.2 Transfer structures
4.3 Options for transfer structures
4.4 Robustness
26
26
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26
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Cellular Buildings.indd 1
09/09/2008 11:54:39
5.
Crosswall construction
5.1 Site
5.2 Initial sizing
5.3 Structural support at openings
5.4 Concrete
5.5 Finishes
5.6 Screeds
5.7 Design details
5.8 Construction
5.9 Tolerances
5.10 Robustness
31
31
31
33
34
34
35
35
38
39
41
6.
Tunnel form construction

6.1 Site
6.2 Initial sizing
6.3 Concrete placing and curing
6.4 Finishes
6.5 Design checks required
6.6 Design
6.7 Construction
6.8 Robustness
6.9 Health and safety
6.10 Alternatives to tunnel form
45
45
45
48
48
49
49
50
53
53
53
7.
Twinwall
7.1 Site
7.2 Initial sizing
7.3 Concrete
7.4 Finishes
7.5 Design details
7.6 Construction
7.7 Tolerances
7.8 Robustness
54
54
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56
56
56
58
59
60
Appendix A. Volumetric precast concrete prison cells

Appendix B. Crosswall worked example
Appendix C. Tunnel form worked example
References
61
63
66
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09/09/2008 11:55:17
Introduction 1
1. Introduction
Concrete cellular structures are used extensively for residential buildings. In concept they
are structurally simple but they require attention to detail to realise the benets of ease
of construction and economy.
This guide is written for the structural engineer who has knowledge of building structures
in general but who has limited or no experience of designing concrete cellular structures.
It highlights areas that require close coordination between the structural and services
engineers, the architect and importantly the system supplier.
It also provides guidance on selecting an appropriate solution, sizing the structure and
carrying out detailed design. Detailing considerations are explained, some of which have
to be considered at the early stages of a project to achieve an efcient building
conguration.
1.1 What are cellular

structures?
Imagine some boxes, stacked upon one another, to gain a good impression of a cellular
building (see Figure 1.1). Each box can be considered to be a cell with walls, a soft and a
oor. The term cellular structures refers to cellular buildings where the walls of the cells are
structural elements.
Figure 1.1
Example of a cellular building.
Photo: Outinord International Ltd
09/09/2008 11:55:18
1 Introduction
Cellular buildings are particularly efcient for residential sectors such as:
apartments
hotels
student residences
key-worker accommodation
prisons
military barracks.
1.2 Why cellular

structures?
Where the building use leads to clearly dened, permanent walls, cellular structures are
very efcient. In addition to carrying the vertical and horizontal loads the concrete walls
can meet the following requirements:
provision of fire resistance and compartmentation
provision of acoustic separation
concealed electrical services distribution
minimal finishes to walls
thermal mass, which can be used as part of a fabric energy storage (FES) design.
In addition, the systems in this guidance document have been rened to provide the
following benets:
fast construction
thin structural zone because the floors span on to line supports (150 to 250 mm
depending on floor span)
party walls as slim as 150 mm (depending on the solution adopted).
1.3 What options are

available?
There are three main systems of concrete construction available for cellular structures:
tunnel form, crosswall and twinwall. With all these systems the early involvement of the
specialist manufacturer or supplier will bring benets in the form of expert advice and
experience. They will be able to maximise the efciency, productivity, buildability and
cost-effectiveness of their systems for your project. The various systems are all described
below and further expanded in subsequent chapters.
An alternative system available for prisons comprises four individual cells cast as one
volumetric unit complete with all furniture, sanitary ware and services. This is a specialist
product, for which all the design and detailing is undertaken by the supplier. Further
information is provided in Appendix A.
1.3.1 Tunnel form
Tunnel form is a formwork system used to form cellular structures from in-situ concrete
(see Figure 1.2).
The system consists of inverted L-shaped half tunnel forms which, when tted together,
form the full tunnel. The system also incorporates gable-end platforms and stripping
platforms for circulation and to strike the formwork. The cellular structure is formed by
09/09/2008 11:55:20
Introduction 1
pouring the walls and slab monolithically. The system uses a 24-hour cycle. The formwork
from the previous days pour is struck rst thing in the morning, as soon as the minimum
concrete strength has been reached. The forms are then lifted into position for the next
pour, the reinforcement xed and the concrete poured that same day.
Figure 1.2
Figure 1.3
Tunnel form project, University of East Anglia.
High-rise tunnel form project,

Paramount, Atlanta.
Photo: Grant Smith Photography
Photo: Outinord International Limited
Tunnel form buildings have been built up to 44-storeys high (see Figure 1.3), but the
system is often used for low-rise housing as well. It is widely used across mainland Europe
and in other parts of the world.
1.3.2 Crosswall
Strictly, all forms of cellular construction could be referred to as crosswall; however, in

recent years the term has been used specically to refer to precast concrete crosswall and
for ease of reference this meaning has been adopted in this design guide.
Crosswall is a modern and effective method of construction that employs factory precast
concrete components (see Figure 1.4). Each component is custom designed and manufactured to suit the specic project. Load-bearing walls across the building provide the means
of primary vertical support and lateral stability, with longitudinal stability achieved by
external wall panels or diaphragm action taking the load to the lift cores or stair shafts.
Structures up to and including 16 storeys have been completed in the UK using crosswall
construction. Projects up to 48 storeys high have been built in mainland Europe (see
Figure 1.5).
The construction method incorporates a series of horizontal and vertical ties, designed
to comply with the Building Regulations, which specify that a building should not be
09/09/2008 11:55:21
1 Introduction
Right: Figure 1.4
Typical crosswall project, University of

East London.
Photo: Bell and Webster Concrete Limited
Far right: Figure 1.5
High-rise crosswall project, Strijkijzer,

the Netherlands.
susceptible to progressive collapse. The precast units, which are designed for ease of
construction, t together with the minimum of joints to enable rapid sealing. Units are
temporarily propped and then stitched together using a series of hidden joints that are
grouted as the works progress.
1.3.3 Twinwall
Twinwall construction is a combination of precast and in-situ concrete construction. Each

wall panel consists of two skins of precast reinforced concrete which are temporarily held
in position by lattice girder reinforcement. The concrete skins are effectively permanent
formwork, with the benet that they are used structurally in the nal condition (see
Figure 1.6). The weight of a panel the same size as a fully precast panel is therefore reduced,
permitting the use of larger panels or smaller cranes.
The wall panels are placed in position using similar methods to the crosswall elements.
For the oors, lattice girder slabs are generally used. These have a thin precast concrete
soft often called the biscuit, which includes the bottom reinforcement and acts as
permanent formwork. Once the walls and oor units are positioned, reinforcement for
the slab and to tie the walls and slabs together is xed. In-situ concrete is then poured
into the void in the twinwall panels and on top of the biscuit of the lattice girder slabs.
Figure 1.6
Typical twinwall project.
Photo: John Doyle Construction Limited
09/09/2008 11:55:34
Cellular concrete construction 2
2. Cellular concrete construction

2.1 Maximising the benets
This section outlines how to maximise the benets of concrete cellular structures and
highlights some of the typical considerations that arise during design and construction.
Early discussions with the system suppliers and their continued input during development
will enable the benets to be maximised.
2.1.1 Speed of construction

and buildability
Speed of construction and tight construction programmes are primary considerations in

most building projects. Understanding the manufacturing and construction processes is
essential to producing a structure that is simple to fabricate and erect. Tunnel form, crosswall and twinwall offer signicant advantages for speed of construction and their main
benets include:
Systemised construction gives certainty to construction works, enabling a regular rhythm
in the construction cycle.
Systemised construction reduces labour dependencies.
Careful planning results in the majority of party walls being integral to the final structure
with minimal need for infill partitions.
The cellular concrete walls do not require a full coat of plaster. Good workmanship can
also avoid the need for a plaster skim coat, hence less follow-on trades (especially wet
trades) compared to columns with infill walls.
Flush walls and ceiling are possible due to lack of columns. Electrical service distribution
can be built into the structure.
High construction tolerance enables use of prefabricated faade units, fit-out units and
flooring.
Repetition of the elements reduces costs, and even complex panels can be costeffective if the moulds are reused a sufficient number of times (see Figure 2.1).
Figure 2.1
Repetition can make complex projects costefcient.
Photos: Bison Concrete Products Limited
2.1.2 Robust structure
The continuous cellular walls and oors are inherently robust and can easily meet the
requirements for design against disproportionate collapse with appropriate reinforcement
detailing. This is easily achievable with tunnel form and twinwall construction due to the
use of in-situ concrete. Precast crosswall construction can also achieve this level of
robustness if attention is paid to the detailing and construction of the joints between panels.
09/09/2008 11:55:39
2 Cellular concrete construction
2.1.3 Hard-wearing quality

nishes
Cellular methods will almost certainly use good-quality facing to the formwork, giving
high-quality smooth nishes. The quality of nish can be good enough to accept direct
nishes, although often it is desirable to prepare the surface at worst a skim coat is all
that is required.
The surface is very hard-wearing, reducing maintenance, especially compared with stud
walls. This also gives signicantly improved security for party walls for luxury apartments
or secure accommodation.
2.1.4 Fire
Concrete has its own inherent re resistance which is present during all construction phases,
and is achieved without the application of additional treatments and is maintenance free.
As concrete is non-combustible and has a slow rate of heat transfer, it is therefore suitable
as a separating material as well as maintaining its structural resistance during a re. In a
cellular structure the use of concrete walls and oors is ideal for providing compartmentation where required to comply with the Building Regulations. Further details are given
in section 3.1.
2.1.5 Acoustic performance
The use of solid concrete walls and oors gives an inherent acoustic performance. High
levels of performance are achieved with tunnel form because of the monolithic nature of
in-situ concrete. Precast crosswall and twinwall construction can also achieve high performance through correct detailing and construction of the joints between panels. Further
details are given in section 3.2.
2.1.6 Constraints to layouts
Efcient cellular construction requires the principal load-bearing walls to be aligned

vertically between oors. The locations of these walls are usually governed by the need
for solid party walls between apartments or between bedrooms in a hotel (see Figure 2.2).
Party walls that are not vertically aligned will not be part of the load-bearing structure.
However, they can still be formed using the same cellular construction techniques to give
acoustic, re and security benets.
There are sometimes exceptions. Solid load-bearing walls can be used for internal walls in
large apartments, either to reduce the oor span, or to allow a consistent grid determined
by other constraints. Similarly, the cellular units for a hotel unit could be constructed as a
double room width which is then subdivided with a studwork or masonry party wall.
As with all forms of construction, repetition gives signicant savings in time and material
cost. Repetition and systemisation need not be aesthetically dull. Complex layouts can be
achieved through careful use of three or four modules in varied combinations. However,
developing highly varied layouts without regard to buildability will result in high labour
costs and material wastage, regardless of the technique or material used.
09/09/2008 11:55:41
Bathroom
area
Corridor
Services riser
a) Linear arrangement
b) Circular arrangement
c) Arrangement around a core
d) Curved arrangement
Figure 2.2
Typical layouts for cellular structures.
The site location and layout will inuence the form of construction chosen. Tunnel form
construction requires the formwork to be moved out horizontally from the building
before moving along the building or lifted to the oor above. The tunnel form elements
can be split down into a number of smaller units where space is restricted or where there
is limited crane capacity. Maximum efciency is achieved using single units for an entire
cell.
09/09/2008 11:55:41
Crosswall construction requires space for deliveries and unloading of the units. Suitable
cranage is also required and this can be in the form of tower cranes for high-rise construction
or mobile cranes for low-rise construction. Both types of crane will require detailed planning to ensure that all the necessary lifting operations can be performed. The precast
units used in crosswall construction can be relatively heavy and therefore the crane may
need a higher capacity than for other forms of construction.
2.2 Balconies
Cantilevered balconies can be incorporated into the design for most of the systems. This
is simplest to achieve with two-way spanning oors such as with tunnel form and lattice
girder oors, which provide a backspan to the cantilever. Precast solid slabs also provide a
backspan but the length is limited to the panel width and this may restrict the cantilever
length.
2.3 Bathroom pods
Bathroom pods are commonly used in this type of building and their use has implications
for the design. Bathroom pods are preassembled and self-contained (see Figure 2.3). They
include all the bathroom furniture, services and nishes. All that is required on site is to
put them in position and to connect the services.
Figure 2.3
Typical bathroom pods.
Photos:Outinord International Limited
& Buchan Concrete Solutions
To make efcient use of service risers, bathroom pods are usually located back to back
around the service riser. This usually results in four pods concentrated around one area of
the slab. This may occur at the walls (supports) or mid-span if alternate walls have been
omitted. This later option should be given careful consideration at design stage because
there will be a concentrated load as a result of the weight of the bathroom pods.
10
09/09/2008 11:55:42
In crosswall and twinwall construction, it is possible with coordinated deliveries to place

the pods directly onto the oor units while the cell is open, before the next oor slab is
placed to close the cellular unit.
In tunnel form construction, the formwork is in place on the working oor and it is therefore only possible to place the pods once the formwork has been struck. Hence the pods
are lifted to a loading platform and manoeuvred into position (usually with a winch). This
is the same installation method as for conventional concrete structures.
Various materials can be used for the structure of the pods including precast concrete,
cold-formed steel and composite materials. They usually have a oor complete with
nishes but increasingly are supplied without a oor. Where the pod is provided with a
oor it introduces a conict in that, ideally, the nished oor surface of the pod should
match the surface level of the surrounding oor. In some situations it is acceptable to
have a step from the general oor level into the bathroom.
For tunnel form construction the recess can be formed in the slab below the position of
the pod to maintain a level access. The method for precast structures is to use a thinner
oor unit for the span under the pod, and to place a screed over the remaining area of the
thinner unit to bring the adjacent oor up to the same level as the pod oor.
The pods are also the heaviest load on the oor slab (see Table 2.1), so the thickness of the
slab beneath the pod will govern the design. Therefore the minimum thickness of the
supporting slab is usually 150 mm.
Table 2.1
Typical loads from bathroom pods.
Type of bathroom pod
Typical loading (kN/m2)
Lightweight steel frame
2 to 3
Composite materials
3 to 4
Precast concrete
5 to 8
Notes
1. The weight of bathroom ttings has been ignored (can be considered to be imposed loads).
2. An appropriate wall nish has been assumed to the external faces of the pod.
3. No allowance has been made for heavy nishes such as wall and oor tiles.
2.4 Early coordination of

services
The early coordination of services is key to achieving an efcient design:

The services in a residential building are widely distributed every unit requires plumbing,
heating and lighting. This is in contrast to other uses for buildings where the plumbing
is located in discrete areas.
The residential sector requires each unit to have independent, metered supplies.
Horizontal services distribution is only possible along corridors, as opposed to the
flexibility of a commercial project with a suspended ceiling.
Every unit has vertical distribution of waste pipes which have to be coordinated with
the structural frame.
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09/09/2008 11:55:46
Right Figure 2.4a)

Electrical services distribution cast into wall.
Photo: Outinord International Ltd
Above Figure 2.4b)

Detail showing electrical services distribution
cast into wall.
Photo: Buro Happold
As well as the need to coordinate, as noted above, this form of construction also enables
the rst x for services to be incorporated within the concrete construction (see Figure
2.4a & b). This is more durable and aesthetically pleasing compared to surface-mounted
distribution.
This does require a different approach to procurement. An earlier start to detailed design
and setting out of the services is required. Hence the mechanical and electrical engineering
contractor should be engaged sufciently early in the project to allow embedded services
to be detailed before work on the structure starts on site.
This also allows the opening sizes to be sufcient for the needs of the project without being
made unnecessarily large to allow for all eventualities. Overly large openings increase costs
in terms of structure, reproong the openings, and the resulting loss of usable oor area.
2.5 Servicing routes
For most cellular structures the water and waste services will be distributed vertically to
each unit or pair of units. A vertical riser is usually located in the bathroom area in the
corner adjacent to the corridor (for maintenance access) and an adjoining unit. A key
decision to be made early on is whether to have a riser for each room or for there to be
one riser for each pair of rooms (see Figure 2.5).
Having one riser for each room has a number of advantages:
The wall dividing the units is taken through to the corridor and avoids flanking noise.
The wall provides a vertical support adjacent to the corridor, simplifying the floor
structure.
Plan layouts are more flexible: the bathrooms do not need to be located back to back.
However, providing one riser for a pair of units also has advantages:
There are less risers required: one supply pipe can service two units, hence the cost of
services is reduced.
The floor area required for servicing the building is reduced.
Less fire resistance is required.
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09/09/2008 11:55:47
Figure 2.5
Alternative arrangements for services risers.
Non-structural walls
Services riser
Structural concrete wall
Non-structural walls
Services riser
Structural concrete wall
Typically, both solutions will be adopted to service a varied oor layout. For example, the
suites in the prime corner location on a hotel oor plan will have a single riser, while pairs
of standard rooms with back-to-back bathroom pods will share a riser.
2.6 Screeds and toppings

2.6.1 Specifying a screed
Specifying the correct depth and type of screed starts early in the design process. Ideally,
the use of a screed should be avoided by nishing in-situ concrete so that it is suitable to
receive the ooring.
Levelling screeds are likely to be used with solid precast units whereas it is more likely
that a structural topping (wearing screed) will be used with hollowcore units and lattice
girder slabs. With hollowcore oors the screed may form part of the design against disproportionate collapse and may also be part of the composite oor. In lattice girder oors,
the structural topping (wearing screed) will always act compositely with the precast
concrete and it is more appropriate to consider the cast-in-situ portion of the slab as
structural concrete. In tunnel form construction the requirement for a screed is usually
avoided, but smoothing compounds using latex or synthetic polymer may be required
prior to laying the oor nishes.
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09/09/2008 11:55:50
The screeds can be either a traditional cementsand screed or more recently developed
proprietary pumpable self-smoothing screeds. The appropriate uses for these different
types of screeds are explained below.
2.6.2 Denitions
There are particular denitions which it is important to understand when specifying screeds.
The latest versions of Parts 1, 2 and 7 of BS 82041,2,3 adopt the European denitions which
can cause some confusion. The denitions are given below with clarications where
necessary.
Screed Types
Denitions
Bonded
Screed laid onto a mechanically prepared substrate with the intention of

maximising potential bond.
Cementsand screed
Screed consisting of a screed material containing sand up to a 4 mm

maximum aggregate size.
Fine concrete screed
Screed consisting of a concrete in which the maximum aggregate size is 10

mm.
Levelling screed
Screed suitably nished to obtain a dened level and to receive the nal
ooring. It does not contribute to the structural performance of the oor.
Pumpable self-smoothing
screed
Screed that is mixed to a uid consistency, that can be transported by pump

to the area where it is to be laid and which will ow sufciently (with or
without some agitation of the wet material) to give the required accuracy of
level and surface regularity. It should be noted that pumpable selfsmoothing screeds are often known as self-levelling screeds.
Unbonded
Screed intentionally separated from the substrate by the use of a membrane.
Wearing screed
Screed that serves as ooring. This term was formally known as high-strength
concrete topping. It is also used to refer to structural toppings as well as
wearing surfaces.
2.6.3 Which type of screed?

Cementsand screeds
These are traditional screeds and are suitable for all applications, provided they are specied
correctly. The biggest drawback is the drying time; BS 82034 estimates the drying time for
a sandcement screed as one day for each millimetre of screed thickness up to 50 mm
thick. Further guidance on drying times can be found in the code.
Calcium sulfate pumpable self-smoothing screeds

These screeds can be laid as bonded or unbonded. They can be laid in much larger areas
than cementsand screeds, at a rate of around 1000 m2/day. However, they must not be
used with reinforcement because the calcium sulfate is corrosive to steel in damp conditions.
They are also generally not suitable for use in damp conditions or where wetting can
occur. These screeds are all proprietary products and therefore vary from one supplier to
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09/09/2008 11:55:51
another; the guidance given here is therefore generic and the manufacturer should be
consulted before specifying. If they are intended to be used as a wearing screed (structural
topping) then the manufacturer should be consulted.
2.6.4 Thickness of levelling

screed
Bonded cementsand screed

Recommendations for levelling screeds are given in BS 8204 Part 11, which recommends
that the minimum thickness of a bonded levelling screed should be 25 mm. To accommodate possible deviations in the nished levels of the structural concrete, the specied thickness should normally be 40 mm (with a tolerance of 15 mm); this ensures a minimum
screed thickness of 25 mm. However, CIRIA report 1845 recommends that a tolerance of
10 mm be adopted with a nominal depth of 35 mm. This minimises the risk of debonding,
but it should be noted that the tolerances specied for the top surface of the base concrete
should be compatible.
Where the bonded screed needs to be greater than 40 mm the following options are
available to reduce the risk of debonding:
Use modified screed or additives to reduce the shrinkage potential.
Use fine concrete screed, which reduces the shrinkage potential; this has been used
successfully up to 75 mm.
Bonded calcium sulfate pumpable self-smoothing screed

Recommendations for pumpable self-smoothing screeds are given in BS 8204 Part 73, which
recommends the minimum thickness of a bonded screed should be 25 mm. Manufacturers
quote maximum thicknesses of up to 80 mm and therefore there are less restrictions on
the overall thickness. A nominal depth of 40 mm with a tolerance of 15 mm can be
comfortably specied.
Unbonded cementsand screed

The screed thickness should not be less than 50 mm, therefore to allow for deviations in
the nished levels the specied design thickness should be a minimum of 65 mm for a
tolerance of 15 mm.
Unbonded calcium sulfate pumpable self-smoothing screed

The screed thickness should not be less than 30 mm, therefore to allow for deviations in
the nished levels the specied design thickness should be a minimum of 45 mm for a
tolerance of 15 mm.
2.6.5 Thickness of wearing

screed (structural topping)
Bonded screed
Recommendations for wearing screeds are given in BS 8204 Part 22, which recommends
the minimum thickness of a bonded wearing screed should be 20 mm (in contrast to the
25 mm given for a levelling screed in Part 1). To accommodate possible deviations in the
nished levels of the structural concrete, the recommended thickness is 40 mm. However,
the guidance in CIRIA Report 1845 recommends that a tolerance of 10 mm is adopted
15
09/09/2008 11:55:51
with a nominal depth of 30 mm. The specication for the base concrete surface should be
compatible. In some circumstances the design thickness will have to be increased above
40 mm, but it should be noted that there is an increased risk of debonding.
For hollowcore units, which often have an upwards camber, especially for longer spans, a
nominal thickness of 75 mm, rather than 40 mm, should be specied. The risk of debonding
is mitigated because it is usual to use a concrete of class C25/30 or above and mesh reinforcement. Using concrete rather than sandcement screed reduces the shrinkage potential
and the reinforcement in particular controls the drying shrinkage. This should ensure there is
sufcient depth at mid-span (i.e. the point of maximum camber) to allow for lapping the
reinforcement while still maintaining cover to both surfaces. Even so, loose bars or mesh
reinforcement with ying ends may be required to allow lapping of the reinforcement
near the point of maximum camber.
Unbonded screed
The wearing screed should be at least 100 mm thick, but to minimise the risk of curling,
consideration should be given to increasing the depth to 150 mm.
2.6.6 Other design criteria for

screeds
Other criteria may have an impact on the design including:

slip, abrasion and impact resistance
type of traffic on the floor
levels and flatness
appearance and maintenance
type of flooring to be used or applied
drying out moisture in screed
location of movement joints.
There is insufcient space to give any further details here, but BS 82041,2,3 and CIRIA
report 1845 give ample guidance and should be referred to.
2.6.7 Base preparation
For all types of bonded screeds (both sandcement screeds and calcium sulfate screed)
preparation of the base is of paramount importance. The structural concrete base should
be at least class C28/35 concrete with a minimum cement content of 300kg/m3.
For precast units the surface of the units should be left rough during production and should
be thoroughly washed and cleaned, for example by wire brushing, to remove all adhering
dirt. Where required, the joints between the units should be grouted at least one day before
the screed is placed. Where the levelling screed is designed to act compositely with the
units and additional preparation of the units is required, contained shot-blasting equipment
should be used to avoid damaging the units.
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09/09/2008 11:55:52
Where any bonded screed is required over in-situ concrete then all contamination and
laitance on the base concrete should be entirely removed by suitable mechanised
equipment to expose cleanly the course aggregate. All loose debris and dirt should be
removed preferably by vacuuming.
2.7 Cladding
With tunnel form construction the ends of each cell are open, with no structure. The
cladding system therefore requires some form of support. This is the same situation as for
any other framed building and the same cladding systems are available. The gable ends of
tunnel form are solid concrete walls and therefore the cladding can be xed directly to it.
For twinwall and crosswall construction it is more usual to close the end of each cell with
a precast panel. These panels can be plain concrete and when they have been placed, the
cladding can be xed directly to them. Alternatively, the cladding material can be prexed
to the precast concrete in the factory and the completed panel is then brought to site.
There are many materials that can be xed to the cladding panel including bricks, brickslips, tiles and stone facings such as granite, limestone and slate. Alternatively, sandwich
panels can be used, where insulation is xed between two concrete layers. This avoids the
requirement to place insulation within the building footprint, thus saving internal space
and removing an additional trade. Further information can be found in Precast Concrete
for Buildings6.
2.8 Internal walls
2.9 Stability
Corridor walls and dividing walls between rooms are usually constructed using concrete
block walls or dry lining. It is particularly important to consider the detailing of the
corridor walls to avoid anking noise.
In general, cellular structures are good at resisting lateral loads. The number of structural
walls make these types of structure very stiff. However, there are occasions when the
stability design requires further consideration. Examples are as follows:
Where lateral loads act perpendicular to the walls in tunnel form construction, or in
crosswall/twinwall construction where there are no structural panels at the ends of
each cell.
Where shear walls are placed around the lifts and/or stairs, the floor must act as a
diaphragm. If precast floor units are used, they should be adequately tied together.
Further guidance can be found in Multi-storey Precast Concrete Framed Buildings7.
For taller buildings using precast wall panels the bearing interface between the panels
should be checked. Further guidance can be found in Multi-storey Precast Concrete
Framed Buildings7.
Temporary stability has not been considered explicitly in this document but should be
considered during construction. The designer should make the contractor aware of the
permanent stability system and request method statements demonstrating temporary
stability.
17
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2.10 Ground insulation
Residential structures may require insulation to the ground oor to meet the requirements
of Approved Document L8. The amount of oor insulation required is dependent upon the size,
shape and the ratio between the perimeter and area (P/A) of the building footprint. A competent person should determine whether a specic project requires ground-oor insulation.
Where insulation is required it can be accommodated with both suspended and groundbearing slabs. In both cases the insulation can either be placed beneath or above the slab.
Where insulation is required beneath a ground-bearing slab, there are insulation products
available to transfer the loads from the slab to the ground without crushing.
2.11 Airtightness
Approved Document L8 requires pre-completion pressure testing. Failing these tests

means a time-consuming process of inspecting joints and interfaces, resealing where
necessary. All the systems in this publication have at softs and simple edge details which
are easy to seal, and consequently have a low risk of failure.
2.12 Movement joints
For structures over 30 m in length movement joints may be necessary. It is not within the
scope of this publication to provide guidance on this subject; however, detailed advice
can be found in Movement, Restraint and Cracking in Concrete Structures9.
2.13 Coordination of design
The system supplier will often undertake the design of the system components but there
should be one engineer who takes overall responsibility for the structural design. This
engineer should understand the principles of the design of the system and ensure it is
compatible with the design for other parts of the structure, even where some or all of the
design and details of those parts and components are made by others.
When the specialist system supplier is appointed, the roles and responsibilities of the
designers should be clearly set out, especially when the specialist is taking signicant
design responsibilities.
18
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Performance of concrete in buildings 3
3. Performance of concrete in buildings

3.1 Fire resistance
Table 3.1
Minimum dimensions and axis distances for
reinforced concrete slabs.
Standard re resistance
As noted in section 2.1.4, concrete is inherently re resistant. The design standards for
concrete provide guidance to enable the designer to ensure suitable performance in res
of varying duration.
Eurocode 2, Part 12: Structural re design10 gives a choice of advanced, simplied or
tabular methods for determining the re resistance. The simplest method to use is the
tabular method and a summary of the appropriate tables are presented here in Tables 3.1
and 3.2. The term axis distance is explained in Figure 3.1.
Minimum dimensions (mm)

One-way spanning slaba,b
Two-way spanning slaba,b,c,d

ly/lx 1.5e
1.5 <ly/lx 2e
REI 60
hs =
a =
80
20
80
10f
80
15f
REI 90
hs =
a =
100
30
100
15f
100
20
REI 120
hs =
a =
120
40
120
20
120
25
REI 240
hs =
a =
175
65
175
40
175
50
Notes
1. This table is taken from BS EN 1992-1-2 Tables 5.8 to 5.11. For at slabs refer to Chapter 7.
2. The table is valid only if the detailing requirements (see note 3) are observed and in normal temperature
design redistribution of bending moments does not exceed 15%.
3. For re resistance of R90 and above, for a distance of 0.3leff from the centre line of each intermediate
support, the area of top reinforcement should not be less than the following:
As,req(x) = As,req(0) (1 2.5(x/leff))
where:
x
is the distance of the section being considered from the centre line of the support.
As,req(0) is the area of reinforcement required for normal temperature design.
As,req(x) is the minimum area of reinforcement required at the section being considered but not less
than that required for normal temperature design.
leff
is the greater of the effective lengths of the two adjacent spans.
4. There are three standard re exposure conditions that need to be satised:
R Mechanical resistance for load bearing
E Integrity of separation
I Insulation
5. The ribs in a one-way spanning ribbed slab can be treated as beams and reference can be made to Chapter 4,
Beams. The topping can be treated as a two-way slab where 1.5 < ly/lx 2.
Key
a. The slab thickness hs is the sum of the slab thickness and the thickness of any non-combustible ooring.
b. For continuous solid slabs a minimum negative reinforcemebt As 0.005 Ac should be provided over
intermediate supports if:
1) cold-worked reinforcement is used, or
2) there is no xity over the end supports in a two-span slab, or
3) where transverse redistribution of load effects cannot be achieved.
c. In two-way slabs the axis refers to the lower layer of reinforcement.
d. The term two-way slabs relates to slabs supported at all four edges. If this is not the case, they should be
treated as one-way spanning slabs.
e. lx and ly are the spans of a two-way slab (two directions at right angles) where ly is the longer span.
f. Normally the requirements of BS EN 1992-1-1 will determine the cover.
Figure 3.1
Section through structural member, showing
nominal axis distances a and asd.
hb
a
asd
b
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3 Performance of concrete in buildings
Table 3.2
Minimum reinforced concrete wall dimensions
and axis distance for load-bearing for re
resistance.
Standard re
resistance
Minimum dimensions (mm)

Wall thickness/axis distance, a, of the main bars
Wall exposed on one side
( = 0.7)
Wall exposed on two sides

( = 0.7)
REI 60
130/10a
140/10a
REI 90
140/25
170/25
REI 120
160/35
220/35
REI 240
270/60
350/60
Notes
1. The table is taken from BS EN 1992-1-2 Table 5.4.
2. is the ratio of the design axial load under re conditions to the design resistance of the column at normal room temperature conditions.
may conservatively be taken as 0.7.
Key
a Normally the requirements of BS EN 1992-1-1 will determine the cover.
3.2 Acoustics
The predominant uses for cellular structures are residential, and therefore the requirements
of Approved Document E (AD E)11 apply in England and Wales. There are two approaches
to compliance with AD E: either by using Robust Details or through Pre-completion
testing. Robust Details only apply to purpose-built dwelling houses and ats. Buildings
incorporating rooms for residential purposes (hotels, student accommodation etc.) are
subject to pre-completion testing.
3.2.1 Robust Details
Robust Details are sets of construction specications which, if applied to specic purposebuilt houses and ats, and if constructed with care, will meet the level of sound insulation as
specied in the performance tables of Approved Document E. Robust Details aim to
provide a consistent level of performance with an in-built safety margin, at least 5dB
better than the AD E requirements.
Each separating wall or oor Robust Detail includes the required junction detailing, ceiling
and oor treatments and general guidance notes. The details and guidance given must be
strictly followed for approval to be given.
The complete set of Robust Details is presented in the Robust Details handbook12, published
by Robust Details Limited, which manages its use, monitors existing performance and
approves new details. In order to avoid the need for pre-completion testing, every dwelling
using Robust Details must be registered with Robust Details Limited and a plot fee paid.
3.2.2 Pre-completion testing

(PCT)
Where a plot is not registered with Robust Details Limited or is not for purpose-built
dwelling houses and ats (i.e. hotels, student accommodation etc.), pre-completion
testing is required. The performance standards are given in Table 3.3, where it should be
noted that there is a higher standard for walls in dwelling houses and ats than for rooms
for residential purposes.
20
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Table 3.3
Airborne sound
insulation
DnT,w + Ctr
Performance standards for separating walls

and oors.
Impact sound
insulation
LnT,w
Purpose-built dwelling houses and ats

Walls
45dB
Floors and stairs
45dB
62dB
Purpose-built rooms for residential purposes

Walls
43dB
Floors and stairs
45dB
62dB
Sections 2 and 3 of AD E provide examples of construction types which, if built correctly,

should achieve the performance standards set out in Table 3.3 for purpose-built dwelling
houses and ats. Details of junctions between separating walls and oors are also given in
AD E.
3.2.3 Acoustic properties of

concrete
Concretes inherent qualities make it good for acoustic performance. It is a good sound
insulator, even when the source of the sound is impact on the concrete itself. A number
of results from pre-completion testing are given in Table 3.4 for concrete oors with a
variety of nishes. Table 3.5 gives test results for walls, again with a variety of nishes.
These results give an indication as to the level of sound resistance that can be achieved.
Table 3.4
Results from pre-completion testing of
concrete oors.
Finish
Structure
Finish
Airborne
result
Impact
result
None
175 mm in-situ concrete
12.5 mm Soundshield board 125 mm channel
52 >45 Pass
60 62 Pass
Bonded carpet
200 mm precast concrete
Artex plaster
47 > 45 Pass
34 62 Pass
50 mm screed bonded 6 mm carpet
Painted
57 > 45 Pass
39 62 Pass
Bonded 5 mm carpet
15 mm polystyrene on aluminium grids
59 > 45 Pass
42 62 Pass
65 mm screed on resilient layer
200 mm precast hollowcore concrete
12.5 mm plasterboard on channel support
50 > 45 Pass
Tiled nish with resilient backing
250 mm in-situ concrete slab
Metal framing system, 15 mm plasterboard

with 13 downlighters
55 > 45 Pass
55 62 Pass
Note
This table is based on data from test results available on The Concrete Centre website, www.concretecentre.com. New data are being added as and when available.
Table 3.5
Results from pre-completion testing of
concrete walls.
Finish
Structure
Finish
Airborne
result
2 mm plaster skim
2 mm plaster skim
47 45 Pass
None
None
48 45 Pass
Paint nish
150 mm solid precast concrete
Paint nish
45 45 Pass
Two layers of 12.5 mm plasterboard supported by

channel system with 70 mm Isowool in cavity
150 mm precast concrete
12.5 mm plasterboard on 38 mm 25 mm battens
51 45 Pass
Note
This table is based on data from test results available on The Concrete Centre website, www.concretecentre.com. New data are being added as and when available.
21
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3.2.4 Typical details
Floors
There are three robust details for oors that are relevant to cellular concrete structures.
Detail E-FC-2 (see Figure 3.2) is suitable for in-situ concrete slabs and requires a 200 mm
thick concrete oor slab and 40 mm of screed or 250 mm of concrete oor slab and no
screed. This detail can be combined with a drywall separating wall (ref. E-WS-2). Where
an alternative wall specication is used PCT should be a carried out on the wall.
Figure 3.2
Robust Detail for in-situ solid slab (E-FC-2).
Floating floor *
250 mm (min) in-situ

concrete floor slab, or
200 mm (min) in-situ
concrete floor slab and
40 mm (min) bonded
screed *
Ceiling treatment *
12
* See Robust Details handbook for full details
Two separating oors (E-FC-1 and E-FC-4) use precast concrete units. For both options the
units should be 150 mm thick and have a mass of 300 kg/m2. This means that a minimum
150 mm solid unit can be used or a minimum 200 mm hollowcore unit can be used
(depending on the supplier). All the options require additional oor and ceiling treatments;
further details can be found in the Robust Details handbook.
These details are quite onerous and, if tested, are almost certain to pass the performance
standards and probably by some margin providing they are well constructed. The examples
given in AD E may also be referred to. These give examples for in-situ and precast concrete
oors. Floor type 1.1C (see Figure 3.4) can be used for in-situ concrete, with or without a
permanent shuttering (so it is suitable for twinwall options). The minimum mass per unit
area is 365 kg/m2, so a 160 mm thick slab can be used. It must be combined with a soft
oor covering (i.e. carpet) or better (see AD E) and plasterboard ceiling with either timber
battens or proprietary resilient channels. Hollowcore units spanning perpendicular to the
wall have been used and have achieved positive test results.
22
09/09/2008 11:55:56
Figure 3.3
Robust Details for precast concrete oors slab
(E-FC-1 and E-FC-4).
Floating floor *
40 mm (min) bonded
screed *
150 mm (min) precast

concrete floor plank
(minimum 300 kg/m2)
Ceiling treatment
65 mm (min) cement-sand screed
Proprietary resilient
layer *
150 mm (min) precast

concrete floor plank
(minimum 300 kg/m2)
Ceiling treatment *
12
* See Robust Details handbook for full details
Right: Figure 3.4
Floor type 1.1C (Approved Document E).

Floor type 1.2B (Approved Document E).
Separating floor type 1.1C

carried through
Screed
Timber batten
Precast
concrete
Fill gap between head

of wall and underside
of floor
23
09/09/2008 11:55:57
Floor type 1.2B (see Figure 3.5) is suitable for precast concrete oors; again the minimum
mass is 365 kg/m2. A minimum of 160 mm solid slab or a minimum of 200 mm
hollowcore slab with a 50 mm bonded screed will be suitable. A regulating oor screed
should be used; the joints must be fully grouted and soft oor covering (i.e. carpet) or
better used (see AD A). The ceiling treatment should be plasterboard on proprietary
resilient bars with absorbent material.
The above examples are not prescriptive and the performance requirements can be met
with alternative details with advice from acoustic specialists.
Walls
Although there are Robust Details using concrete blocks, there are no Robust Details for solid
concrete walls. The only example detail available is wall type 1.2 in AD E (see Figure 3.6).
The requirements for this detail are a minimum mass of 415 kg/m2 and plaster on both
room faces. A 180 mm wall with 2 mm skim coat of plaster on each face should achieve a
density of 415 kg/m2 and is usually the minimum used for houses and ats, where the
airborne sound insulation requirement is 45dB. Walls between rooms for residential
purposes have a lower requirement of 43dB and therefore a narrower wall could be
justied if necessary. Indeed a series of tests on 150 mm-thick walls with just a paint
nish had the following results: 43, 44, 45 and 50dB.
Figure 3.6
180
Wall type 1.2 (Approved Document E).
In-situ concrete
Wall finishes
Other considerations
Where it is required to form recesses in the walls (e.g. for electrical sockets) they should
be offset to minimise the passage of sound.
An important part of meeting the performance requirements is the junctions between
elements and good detailing in these locations is required. Both the Robust Details handbook and AD E give guidance. In particular, anking noise should be minimised. While an
element may be a good sound insulator, noise may still be transmitted via other routes
such as through junctions between elements, through services risers, through corridors
linking rooms or through the cladding. All these potential routes should be considered
and addressed in the detailing.
24
09/09/2008 11:55:59
3.2.5 Sound transmission via

stairs
Whatever the material used for stairs, they can transmit impact sounds to the adjacent
dwelling. Therefore, staircases should be isolated from the adjacent rooms and supported
on elastomeric bearings or similar.
3.3 Thermal mass
Concrete has a high thermal mass, which makes it ideal to use as part of a fabric energy
storage (FES) system. FES utilises the thermal mass of concrete to absorb internal heat
gains during a summers day to help prevent overheating and providing a more stable
internal temperature. Night cooling purges the accumulated heat from the slab, preparing
it for the next day. FES can be used on its own or as part of a mixed-mode system to reduce
the energy requirements. The important requirement is to expose the walls and soft of
the slab, or at least allow the air from the room to ow in contact with the concrete. This
impacts on the structural solution and should be considered at the early stages of a
project. Thermal mass can also be used to maintain warmth in a building during the
winter, particularly if part of a passive solar design system.
Further guidance can be found in Thermal Mass13,Thermal Mass for Housing14 and
Utilisation of Thermal Mass in Non-residential Buildings15.
25
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4 Structural support
4. Structural support
4.1 Foundations
There are two foundation congurations which generally occur for cellular frames.
Cellular structures can be supported by transfer structures above open-plan areas (i.e. a
hotel accommodation above with public areas on lower oors), which result in
concentrated loads in columns. Foundations are likely to be pile caps or large pads
located under the columns.
Where the cellular structure continues to the foundation level, the options are wide strip
footings or piled ground beams. Here the ground beam acts as a pile cap, i.e. the
interface between the piles and the wall. It is worth examining several piled options.
Using many, smaller piles means using a smaller ground beam with short spans between
each pile. Using fewer, larger piles requires the introduction of pile caps (or a very wide
ground beam) and signicant spanning of the wall between piles. Where there are few
piles, the wall and ground beam design is similar to a transfer structure.
4.2 Transfer structures
A transfer structure occurs where the load-bearing walls stop before they reach the foundations and the load path needs to be supported at discrete column or beam locations.
This can be an expensive part of the structural frame and care is needed to ensure that
efciency savings of the cellular construction are retained. A complex transfer structure
to support cellular construction could prove less efcient than using a conventional at
slab and column solution. This is where high-quality engineering can result in signicant
savings for a client, or even enable unviable schemes to become commercially viable.
Common situations requiring transfer structures are:
hotel rooms above column-free function rooms
mixed-used developments with residential units above open-plan offices or shops
residential developments with basement car parking.
4.3 Options for transfer

structures
There are a number of transfer beam options that can be used. The choice will depend on
constraints placed upon the design. Clearly, completely column-free spaces require
heavier transfer structures than for layouts that can include intermediate columns.
4.3.1 Option 1: Transfer beam
This is a tried and trusted method and should be familiar to all reinforced concrete
designers (see Figure 4.1). The beam could span from one side of the building to the other,
or have intermediate supports. The latter will produce a smaller beam.
26
09/09/2008 11:56:00
Structural support 4
Figure 4.1
Transfer beam under wall.
First floor
Transfer beam
Ground to first-floor column
4.3.2 Option 2: Lowest level

of wall acts as transfer beam
Where the columns can be placed near to the ends of wall panels, or where an interstitial
plant zone would not need a corridor opening, the resulting solid panel can act as a storey
deep transfer beam, sometimes with a thicker section. The wall acts as a deep beam to
spread the loads from above to the supporting columns (see Figure 4.2). There are particular
Figure 4.2
Lowest level of wall used as transfer beam.
Wall acts as
transfer beam
First floor
Ground to first-floor column
27
09/09/2008 11:56:01
design considerations to consider in this option, as listed below:

At 200 mm or less the deep beam will be particularly narrow, therefore the layout of
the reinforcement should be considered at the early stages to ensure that the required
reinforcement can be fitted within the element.
Eurocode 216 includes some particular rules for the design of deep beams which should
be followed.
There will be some load from the adjacent floor that is carried at the lowest part of the
beam and which may require additional link reinforcement (often referred to as hangup steel) to resist the tension forces this imposes at the bottom of the beam.
The bearing area at the supports will be small and consequently the local stresses will
be high and should be considered in more detail.
The construction sequence is important and should be clearly conveyed to other members
of the team, especially the contractors.
The additional reinforcement will slow down the first lift of the construction using
tunnel form. However, overall it is probably less time-consuming than constructing a
transfer beam before starting the tunnel form construction.
With crosswall, this method is only practical when one panel can span between the supports; even then careful consideration as to how the lower floor is supported is required.
It is unlikely that this method can be used with twinwall construction due to the fact
that there is insufficient space for the flexure reinforcement.
4.3.3 Option 3: Strut and tie

design
The third option is to use the strut and tie design method to reduce the depth and/or width
of the transfer beam. This technique is not widely used in the UK, but Eurocode 216 offers
more guidance than was provided in BS 811017. It is outside the scope of this guide to
explain the principles and application of this method.
The gures below show how the strut and tie method could be used in a variety of situations
to produce an economic design. However, many buildings do not have lintels across the
corridors due to low ceiling height or services distribution along the corridor ceiling void;
a lintel or beam is critical for adopting this stability concept.
Figure 4.3 shows lintel beams across the corridor together with a strong transfer beam. In
many cases this can provide the required lateral stability.
Figure 4.4 shows no lintel beams and no transfer beam. The pinned struts across the
corridor result in a mechanism, hence stability cores are required. Checks are also required
to ensure the strut action has a valid load path; for example, vertical service risers often
punch through the strut load path.
Figure 4.5 shows the consequences of offset openings. In these cases, the out-of-balance
forces require an additional column and/or stability cores.
28
09/09/2008 11:56:02
Structural support 4
Figure 4.3
Vierendeel action
above openings
Transfer structure using strut and tie with

beam under wall.
Compression in wall
evenly distributed
to beam
Tension in beam
Below: Figure 4.4
Design using strut and tie to minimise transfer

structure.
Compression in columns
Below right: Figure 4.5
Transfer structure inuence of door

openings.
Significant vierendeel
action above openings
Structure above openings

acts as prop/tie, i.e. pinned
Balanced
compression
forces
Low compression
in narrow width
High compression
in narrow width
Strut
Poor lateral stability

requires strong cores
Strong couple to
provide lateral
stability
Tie
29
09/09/2008 11:56:03
4.4 Robustness
Where a column or wall is supported at its lowest level by an element other than a foundation, alternative load paths should be provided in the event of the accidental loss of
this element. In in-situ reinforced concrete the reinforcement can generally be used to tie
the structure together. Where ties are not or cannot be provided, either:
the vertical member should be demonstrated for non-removability. Non-removability
may be assumed if the element and its connections are capable of withstanding a design
action at a limit state of 34 kN/m2 in any direction over the projected area of the
member together with the reactions from attached components, which themselves
are subject to a loading of 34 kN/m2. These reactions may be limited to the maximum
reaction that can be transmitted; or
each element should be considered to be removed one at a time and an alternative
load path demonstrated.
Further guidance on designing the ties for crosswall construction is given in section 5.10.
30
09/09/2008 11:56:04
Crosswall construction 5
5. Crosswall construction
5.1 Site
The site layout, location and boundary conditions may impact on the design and construction of a crosswall project. The particular design considerations to consider for a crosswall
project are arrangements for unloading the units. It is far more efcient to use a just in
time delivery system, where the units are lifted from the lorry into their nal position. In
this case an unloading area that can be used throughout the working day is required.
The location and size of the crane are also important considerations, especially as precast
units tend to require a crane with a higher lifting capacity. In particular the need to oversail
beyond the site, especially public highways or railways (note that Network Rail will not allow
oversailing) may well inuence the crane location or perhaps even the structural solution.
5.2 Initial sizing
The preliminary sizes given in this section are focused on strength requirements; other
requirements such as acoustics (see section 3.2) may also determine the minimum requirements. Manufacture, transportation and placing of the units impose limits on the maximum
sizes (see section 5.8). More detailed worked examples are provided in Appendix B.
5.2.1 Slabs
The initial sizing of solid concrete oors and hollowcore can be undertaken using the data
in Figures 5.1 and 5.2. Solid units can be cast up to 3.6 m wide and generally span 2.5 to
4.0 m. Hollowcore units are cast 1.2 m wide and can span up to 16 m.
Key
350
Characteristic
imposed load
1.5 kN/m2
(2= 0.3)
2.5 kN/m2
(2= 0.3)
5.0 kN/m2
(2= 0.6)
7.5 kN/m2
(2= 0.6)
300
Slab depth (m)
Figure 5.1
Initial sizing of hollowcore oor
units, non-composite.
250
200
150
100
5
10
11
12
13
14
Span (m)
Design assumptions
Reinforcement
fpk = 1770 N/mm2, stressed to 70%.
Loads
A superimposed dead load (SDL) of 1.50 kN/m2 (for nishes, services, etc.) is
included. BS EN 199018, Expressions (6.10a) and (6.10b) have been used.
Concrete
Grade C45/55, density 25 kN/m3, 20 mm gravel aggregate.
Fire and durability Fire resistance 1 hour; exposure class XC1.
31
09/09/2008 11:56:04
5 Crosswall construction
Figure 5.2
Initial sizing of solid oor units, one-way
spanning
200
Key
1.5 kN/m2
(2= 0.3)
2.5 kN/m2
(2= 0.3)
5.0 kN/m2
(2= 0.6)
Slab depth (mm)
Characteristic
imposed load
150
7.5 kN/m2
(2= 0.6)
100
2.0
Single span, m 2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Span (m)
4.0
4.5
5.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
120
134
149
Overall slab depth, mm

IL = 1.5 kN/m2
115
115
115
115
IL = 2.5 kN/m
115
115
115
115
127
142
158
IL = 5.0 kN/m3
115
115
115
126
141
159
175
IL = 7.5 kN/m2
115
115
119
135
153
170
190
Reinforcement, kg/m (kg/m)

IL = 1.5 kN/m2
3 (29)
3 (28)
4 (31)
4 (35)
6 (50)
7 (55)
7 (50)
IL = 2.5 kN/m2
3 (29)
3 (29)
4 (33)
5 (46)
6 (47)
7 (52)
8 (54)
IL = 5.0 kN/m3
3 (30)
4 (34)
5 (40)
6 (47)
7 (53)
8 (53)
11 (62)
IL = 7.5 kN/m2
4 (32)
5 (40)
6 (50)
7 (55)
8 (54)
10 (60)
11 (57)
Design assumptions
Reinforcement
fyk = 500 N/mm2.
Cover
cnom = 20 mm; c dev = 0 mm.
Loads
included. BS EN 199018 , Expressions (6.10a) and (6.10b) have been used.
Concrete
5.2.2 Walls
Generally the walls are sized to be as narrow as possible to increase the net oor area. There
may be occasions, such as in tall buildings where there are high compressive loads, or
adjacent to long oor spans where there are high bending moments due to the notional
eccentricity of the wall, when a thicker wall is required.
Each precast manufacturer will have their own minimum wall thickness that they are prepared to use and this will usually be in the range 150 to 175 mm. Where the walls are party
walls a thickness of 180 mm is generally used, for acoustic reasons. These thicknesses are
all for walls with two layers of mesh reinforcement.
32
09/09/2008 11:56:06
Where a wall element has a lot of openings or the openings are close to the end of the wall
then care should be taken to ensure that the unit has sufcient strength during lifting
operations.
5.3 Structural support at

openings
Generally, the precast oor units will span onto the precast walls, but there will be occasions
when there are openings in the walls and an alternative structural support is required. One
method is to design the precast oor units to span in two directions; more usually steel
sections are used to support the ends of the units. A variety of options are shown in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3
Structural support at openings (e.g. spanning
corridors).
Concrete or grout infill
Precast unit
Precast unit
Concrete or grout infill
Precast unit
a) Two-way spanning precast units
Steel channel section precast

to concrete unit
c) Integral steel channels
b) Precast units supported by UB or UC steel section
Grout
Precast unit
Steel angle section
d) Precast units supported on back-to-back angles
Grout
Precast unit
Steel T-section
e) Precast units supported on inverted T-section
33
09/09/2008 11:56:07
5.4 Concrete
To make efcient use of the moulds, it is important to strike the elements in the factory as
quickly as possible. For this reason precast concrete manufacturers prefer to use higherstrength concrete than is generally used for in-situ concrete. The typical class of concrete
used for crosswall panels is C35/45. Self-compacting concrete is also increasingly used in
the precast factory to reduce the use of vibrators to compact the concrete. This improves
working conditions as it reduces an operation which in an enclosed environment is noisy
and which also causes vibration to the user.
5.5 Finishes
Generally high-quality nishes are achieved with precast concrete. This is due to a combination of high-quality formwork, an internal working environment, use of self-compacting
concrete and consistent workmanship. Precast concrete should achieve a Type B nish
according to BS 811017. If required, a Type C nish can be achieved, but there is likely to be
a premium to pay for this and it should only be specied where it is needed. An alternative
to specifying Type C is to use a suitable paint or skim coat of plaster. Alternatively there
are other systems available, such as llers, which can be used instead of gypsum plaster,
and which can prove to be more cost-effective.
If a quality nish is required on both sides of the wall then it should be cast vertically so
that both faces are cast against a shutter. A set of battery moulds enables the vertical
casting of many wall units simultaneously (see Figure 5.4).
Hollowcore units are usually cast by extruding the concrete and therefore high-quality
nishes are not possible. A skim of plaster or other alternative can be used to achieve a
suitable nish.
For exposed concrete, designers need to be clear that it is not possible to specify unequivocally the visual quality of nish required, for example colour and consistency. The way
to achieve the required nishes is through communication between the design team and
the precast concrete manufacturer. In this way there will be common understanding of
the look required and what can be achieved.
Figure 5.4
Battery moulds.
Photos: Bell and Webster Concrete Limited and Bison
Concrete Products Limited
34
09/09/2008 11:56:07
5.6 Screeds
Levelling screeds are likely to be used with crosswall and solid precast units, but only in
the corridors and entrance ways to each bedroom/dwelling. This is shown in Figure 5.5,
where the use of a screed is avoided over the deep oor units. A screed is used over the
shallow oor units, which support the bathroom pods, to bring the general oor level up
to the level of the bathroom oor. This has the advantage of being able to take up any
tolerances in the screed which can be tied into the level of the bathroom pod and the
adjacent solid precast concrete units.
Figure 5.5
Plan showing use of screed in crosswall
construction.
KEY
Precast wall
225 mm-thick slab
150 mm-thick slab
with 75 mm screed
150 mm-thick slab
supporting bathroom pod
Steel lintel
5.7 Design details
The precast concrete panels should be designed to make the casting, striking and erection
as simple as possible. A brief outline of some of the design considerations to consider and
typical details are given in this section.
Wherever possible a mesh should be used to reinforce the section; it is quicker and simpler
to x a mesh than loose bars.
35
09/09/2008 11:56:10
Figure 5.6
Detailing of unit to allow striking of unit.
Chamfer to allow
striking of unit
Opening
Precast concrete
unit
Casting bed
Where there are openings within a panel, consideration should be given to striking the
panel. A chamfer is usually needed to allow striking (see Figure 5.6).
On site, wall panels will be joined together. Figure 5.7 shows typical details for joining
two or three panels, including a vertical tie if required for robustness. Figure 5.8 shows an
example of a connection during construction.
Figure 5.7
Plan details showing typical wall panel
connection details.
Wire loop
Vertical tie
Vertical tie
Vertical tie
Grout
Grout
Grout
Wire loop
Wire loop
36
09/09/2008 11:56:10
Figure 5.8
Panel-to-panel connection.
Figure 5.9
Slab panels should also be xed together and typical details are shown for the junction
between solid slab units and wall panels (see Figure 5.9) and hollowcore units and panels
(see Figures 5.10 and 5.11).
Wall to solid oor connection details.
Horizontal tie
Grout
Grout
Wire loop
Horizontal tie
Vertical tie
Wire loop
Vertical tie
a) Internal wall to solid slab
b) External wall to solid slabs
Figure 5.10
Wall to hollowcore oor connection details.
Shims for
tolerance
Concrete infill
Mortar bed
Vertical tie
a) Internal wall to hollowcore slab
Grout
Horizontal tie
Horizontal tie placed
in open trough
Horizontal tie
Grout
Horizontal tie placed

in open trough
Vertical tie
b) External wall to hollowcore slab
37
09/09/2008 11:56:12
Right: Figure 5.11
Wall to hollowcore oor connection.

Photo: Bison Concrete Products Limited
Use of A-frame to transport panels to site.

5.8 Construction
Construction is a critical aspect on a crosswall project and the precast concrete manufacturer
will be well versed in achieving a solution that is fast to erect and will be able to give advice.
It is not the intention in this short section to cover all the design considerations, rather to
highlight those that should be considered in the early stages of the project. Consideration
of the site layout has already been discussed in section 5.1.
Design considerations in the sizing of panels are:
crane capacity at the precast yard
crane capacity on site, which reduces with increasing radius
layout configuration to minimise number of units, e.g. maximise external panel length
by enclosing more than one room
access to site
maximising the number of units on a wagon to minimise journeys
transportation places limitations on the size and weight of the units. Wall panels are
usually transported on A-frames (see Figure 5.12) because they are easier and safer to
lift in a more upright position. Slab panels will be transported in a horizontal position
and they should be limited to 3.5 m width to avoid additional transportation costs.
Once the wall units have been lifted into position they must be temporarily propped until
the oor above has been placed and grouted. Usually pushpull props are used and these
are xed to wall panels and oor units via cast-in xings which have to be made good once
the props are removed. Perimeter walls can be erected with edge protection attached to
remove the need for scaffolding.
When everything is positioned correctly, and any tie reinforcement placed, the junctions are
grouted up. To avoid using formwork and to avoid unsightly grout runs thixotropic grout
can be used, which is mechanically mixed to ensure consistency and strength and then
pumped into place.
The erection of the wall panels and oor units will be rapid. As an indication, six to eight
rooms can be erected in a day and the lead time will be 12 weeks 19.
38
09/09/2008 11:56:14
5.9 Tolerances
5.9.1 Production tolerances
It is essential to fully consider tolerances at the design stage to improve buildability and
quality of the nished building. This section introduces the tolerances that should be
considered.
In the Eurocode system, recommended production tolerances are provided in the product
standards for precast concrete. The production tolerances can be varied in the execution
specication and the values here are for guidance only, but note stricter tolerances may
incur a cost premium. As a reference the tolerances for length, cross-section and squareness
given in BS 8110 are given in Table 5.1, which are currently used by the UK precast concrete
industry. Table 5.2 gives the tolerances of lengths, heights, thickness and diagonal dimensions for wall elements from BS EN 1499220. Table 5.3 gives the tolerance for length, width
and thickness for oors from BS EN 1374721.
The European product standard introduces two classes for tolerances, the tighter standard,
class A, being generally more onerous than BS 8110, but Class B is less stringent.
Table 5.1
Tolerance for precast elements from
BS 8110: 1997.
Section property Permitted deviation

Reference dimensions 03.0 m
34.5 m
4.56 m
612 m
Length, squareness
9 mm
12 mm
18 mm
Reference dimensions 00.5 m
0.50.75 m
0.751.0 m
1.01.25 m
Cross-section
9 mm
12 mm
15 mm
6 mm
6 mm
Note:
The tolerance for squareness is the difference between the two diagonal dimensions.
Table 5.2
Tolerance for wall elements from
BS EN 14992: 2007.
Class
Permitted deviation
Reference dimensions
00.5 m
0.53 m
> 36 m
> 610 m
> 10 m
3 mm
5 mm
6 mm
8 mm
10 mm
8 mm
14 mm
16 mm
18 mm
20 mm
Note:
These tolerances are applicable to lengths, heights, thickness and diagonal dimensions. The tolerance for squareness is the difference between the
two diagonal dimensions
Table 5.3
Tolerance for oor elements from
BS EN 13747: 2005.
Section property
Permitted deviation
Length
20 mm
Width
+5 mm
10 mm
Thickness
10 mma
Key:
a For oor units less than 100 mm thick refer to BS EN 13747.
39
09/09/2008 11:56:16
5.9.2 Erection tolerances
Erection tolerances are the geometrical tolerances relating to location, verticality and other
aspects of construction assembly. The erection tolerances are provided in BS EN 1367022,
which is due for publication in 2008. The tolerances may be amended in the execution
specication; in the UK the National structural concrete specication for building construction (4th edition)23 will reect the requirements of EN 13670, with some amendments to
reect UK practice.
5.9.3 Construction tolerances
Construction tolerances are the combination of production and erection tolerance, but
are not necessarily a summation of the production and erection tolerances. BS EN 13670
introduces the box principle in which all elements must t within their prescribed envelope
or box. Further advice is given in the guidance notes to the National Structural Concrete
Specication for Building Construction23.
5.9.4 Bearings
Clause 10.9.5.2 of Eurocode 216 gives detailed guidance on determining the bearing lengths
for precast elements and should be referred to.
5.9.5 Coordination with other

building elements
The construction tolerances for the structural frame should be considered when detailing
the interfaces with other building elements. BS 560624 gives good guidance on how to
consider these variations in the design.
An example is forming an opening in a precast panel into which a window is to be xed. The
opening should be specied larger than the window to allow for variations (see Figure 5.13).
BS 5606 gives guidance on how to determine how much larger the opening should be.
A further example where consideration should be given to tolerances is the appearance of
the faade. Given that panels will vary in size, as will the position and size of the openings
within the panels, there should be a clear understanding of how the panels should be set
out. A number of options exist including:
setting out the panels to give a constant joint thickness
setting out the panels so that windows are aligned
setting out the panels so the centre point of the panels are aligned.
Discussion and coordination are the most effective ways of achieving a design that
overcomes tolerance issues.
40
09/09/2008 11:56:16
Figure 5.13
Max. space between components
Designing to allow for dimensional variations.
Min. space
Max. comp.size
Target comp. size
Min. comp. size
Min.
joint
size
Max.
joint
size
Max.
joint
size
Min.
joint
size
5.10 Robustness
Design of buildings to resist disproportionate collapse is a requirement of the Building

Regulations. This section explains how to meet the requirements for crosswall construction.
5.10.1 Building classes
Precast concrete structures require careful detailing to ensure that the structure is robust
and meets the requirements of Approved Document A25. This classies buildings according
to type and occupancy for the purpose of designing to resist disproportional collapse.
Table 5.4 summarises the requirements for the occupancy of buildings likely to be constructed
using crosswall.
Table 5.4
Building classes and corresponding tying
requirements.
Class Building type and occupancy
Tying requirements
House not exceeding four storeys.
No additional measures.
2A
Five-storey occupancy houses.

Hotels, ats, apartments and other residential
buildings not exceeding four storeys.
Horizontal ties; or
Effective anchorage of oors to supports.
2B

buildings exceeding four storeys, but not
exceeding 15 storeys.
Horizontal ties and vertical ties; or

Allowance for removal of support (refer to
Approved Document A).

buildings exceeding 15 storeys.
Systematic risk assessment (refer to Approved

Document A)
The types of tie required for a Class 2B building are shown in Figure 5.14 and can be summarised as:
floor ties connecting floors over an internal wall
horizontal perimeter ties connecting floors to perimeter walls
internal ties running parallel to the internal walls
peripheral ties around the perimeter of the floor
vertical ties connecting vertical walls to provide continuity.
The tying requirements for a Class 2A building are similar, except the vertical ties can be
omitted. Further details of the ties are shown in Figure 5.15 for solid oor units, and
Figure 5.16 for hollowcore oor units.
Class 3 buildings are outside the scope of this guide but guidance can be found in BS EN
1991-1-7 Annex B26 and New approach to disproportionate collapse27.
41
09/09/2008 11:56:17
Figure 5.14
Ties for crosswall construction.
Internal tie
Vertical
tie
Vertical
tie
Horizontal
perimeter tie
Peripheral tie
Vertical tie
In-situ concrete
Minimum (f + 2Hagg + 10)
Gable beam
Projecting bars
Perimeter tie
In-situ infill
At least one (often two) core(s)

opened for approximately 300 mm
Tie bar diameter f
Above: Figure 5.15
Position of internal tie within longitudinal

joints of hollowcore units.
Right: Figure 5.16
Perimeter tie
a) Plan
Plug in open cores

b) Section
Perimeter ties where hollowcore units span

parallel to the edge beam.
5.10.2 Design of ties
Eurocode 2, Part 1-128 gives guidance on the design of ties as detailed in the following
subsections.
Peripheral ties
At each oor and roof level an effectively continuous tie should be provided within 1.2m
of the edge. Structures with internal edges (e.g. atria and courtyards) should also have
similar peripheral ties.
42
09/09/2008 11:56:18
The peripheral tie should be able to resist a tensile force of:

Ftie,per = (20 + 4no) 60 kN
where:
no = number of storeys.
Internal ties
At each oor and roof level, internal ties should be provided in two directions approximately
at right angles. The internal ties, in whole or in part, may be spread evenly in slabs or may
be grouped at walls or other positions. If located in walls, the reinforcement should be
within 0.5m of the top or bottom of the oor slabs.
In each direction the tie needs to be able to resist a force, which should be taken as:
Ftie,int= (1/7.5)(gk + qk)(lr/5)Ft Ft
where:
(gk + qk) = average permanent and variable floor actions (kN/m2)
lr
= greater of the distances (in metres) between centres of the columns,
frames or walls supporting any two adjacent floor spans in the
direction of the tie under consideration
Ft
= (20 + 4n0) 60 kN (where n0 is the number of storeys).
The maximum spacing of internal ties should be limited to 1.5lr.
Ties to walls
Walls at the edge and corner of the structure should be tied to each oor and roof. In corner
walls, ties should be provided in two directions. The tie should be able to resist a force of:
Ftie, fac = maximum (2Ft; ls Ft/2.5; 0.03NEd)
where:
Ftie, fac
Ft
ls
NEd
= in kN/m run of wall

= (20 + 4n0) 60 kN (where n0 is the number of storeys)
= floor-to-ceiling height (in metres)
= total design ultimate vertical load in wall or column at the
level considered.
Tying of external walls is required only if the peripheral tie is not located within the wall.
Vertical ties
Each wall panel carrying vertical load should be tied continuously from the lowest to the
highest level. The tie should be capable of resisting the load received by the wall panel
from any one storey under accidental design situation. Figures 5.17 and 5.18 show typical
details for vertical ties.
43
09/09/2008 11:56:19
Figure 5.17
Typical vertical tie details.
Reinforcement U-bar cast

into slab panel
Slab panel
Wall panel
Void cast into
wall panel
Wall panel
Reinforcement placed
after panel erected
Vertical tie cast

into wall panel
Bolt connecting
vertical tie to
vertical tie in
panel below
Reinforcement from
panel below
a) Bespoke vertical ties cast into wall panels
b) Reinforcement placed in-situ
Figure 5.18
Vertical ties cast into wall.
Photos : Bison Concrete Products Limited *.
and Bell and Webster Concrete Limited
Bespoke tie prior to

casting into panel *
Connection detail joining two bespoke

vertical ties *
Tie using standard reinforcement
44
09/09/2008 11:56:20
Tunnel form construction 6
6. Tunnel form construction

6.1 Site
6.2 Initial sizing
6.2.1 Tunnel form system

capabilities
The site layout, location and boundary conditions may impact on the design and construction
of a tunnel form project. The particular issue to consider for a tunnel form project is whether
the formwork modules can be lifted clear of the building so they can be moved to their
next position. Generally 5 m clearance is required on one side of the building, although
shorter tunnel form units can be manufactured (but these will slow productivity). It may be
possible to oversail adjacent land but the risk should be assessed on a case-by-case basis
(note that Network Rail will not allow railways to be oversailed).
requirements such as acoustics (see section 3.2) may also determine the minimum
requirements.
The typical fabrication sizes of tunnel forms are given in Figure 6.1. Any combination of two
half-tunnel modules is possible, allowing every room width between 2400 mm (2 1200 mm
modules) and 6600 mm (2 3300 mm modules). It is also possible to mix modules, for
example a 3000 mm room width can be achieved using 1200 mm and 1800 mm modules.
Spans under 2000 mm can be accommodated using CAM-action tunnels, which are full
tunnels. Wider tunnels can be formed with the use of a table form between the two half
tunnels, but this slows down the process because an extra lift is required. The length of
the tunnel form elements are between 2.5 and 12.5 m in 1.25 m increments.
Any oor-to-ceiling height between 2.46 and 3.50 m can be accommodated with the
tunnel forms, although this should be consistent from oor to oor. Small variations in wall
height can be incorporated by using higher kickers with the same forms. Double-height
walls (up to 4.5 m) can be achieved using extension legs. This allows double-height living
space in duplex apartments, or an open stairwell/hallway for low-rise construction or
lobby/concierge areas.
6.2.2 Structural sizes
Slabs
The initial sizing of the oor can be carried out using the data in Figure 6.2. Tunnel form
can support slabs up to 350 mm thick. The tunnel forms can be strengthened to
accomodate deeper slabs.
45
09/09/2008 11:56:22
6 Tunnel form construction
Figure 6.1
Details of the tunnel form modules.
Maximum width
Horizontal panel Additional Sliding
panel
panel
950
5-400 250
Maximum width
Horizontal panel
2150
2150
34
34
Sliding
panel
250
Minimum width
Minimum width
250
950
Horizontal
panel
Vertical
panel
Additional
panel
5-900
250
Horizontal
panel
Vertical
panel
Articulated diagonal strut
2366
2366
Articulated diagonal structure
Triangulation brace
Triangulation brace
Lower triangulation
Triangulation wheel
(raised during casting
to avoid loading slab)
Lower triangulation
Triangulation wheel
Removable wheel with jack

1200-1600 mm
Self-weight 130 kg/m2
2400-3300 mm
a) Small module
b) Large module
Maximum width
Additional
panel
Horizontal panel
5-600
1550
34
Minimum width
1550
Sliding
panel
250
250
Horizontal
panel
CAM action to allow

shrinking of formwork
Vertical
panel
2366
Articulated diagonal
strut
Triangulation brace
Lower triangulation
Triangulation wheel

1800-2400 mm
c) Medium module
< 2000 mm
d) CAM Action full tunnel
46
09/09/2008 11:56:22
Figure 6.2
Initial sizing of one-way spanning slabs.
350
Key
Characteristic
imposed load
2.5 kN/m2
(2= 0.3)
5.0 kN/m2
(2= 0.6)
300
Slab depth (mm)
1.5 kN/m2
(2= 0.3)
7.5 kN/m2
(2= 0.6)
Single span
(dotted)
250
200
Multiple span
(solid)
150
100
4.0
6.0
5.0
7.0
9.0
8.0
Span (m)
Single span, m
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0

IL = 1.5 kN/m2
129
159
191
233
281
334
IL = 2.5 kN/m2
136
168
200
238
286
338
IL = 5.0 kN/m3
150
185
223
259
311
374
162
198
237
275
338
397
IL = 7.5 kN/m
Reinforcement, kg/m2 (kg/m3)

IL = 1.5 kN/m2
6 (46)
8 (52)
11 (57)
13 (54)
15 (54)
19 (56)
IL = 2.5 kN/m2
6 (44)
8 (50)
11 (54)
15 (62)
19 (65)
19 (56)
IL = 5.0 kN/m
7 (50)
10 (56)
12 (56)
18 (70)
19 (60)
23 (62)
IL = 7.5 kN/m2
8 (51)
11 (55)
15 (62)
18 (66)
23 (68)
24 (60)
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
Multiple span, m 4.0

IL = 1.5 kN/m2
125
133
158
185
230
271
IL = 2.5 kN/m
125
141
167
194
235
276
IL = 5.0 kN/m3
128
156
183
215
257
301
IL = 7.5 kN/m2
136
165
197
226
273
327
Reinforcement, kg/m2 (kg/m3)

IL = 1.5 kN/m2
4 (36)
6 (47)
8 (48)
10 (55)
12 (53)
14 (52)
IL = 2.5 kN/m2
6 (48)
8 (53)
8 (49)
13 (65)
12 (52)
14 (52)
IL = 5.0 kN/m3
8 (59)
10 (63)
12 (67)
15 (69)
17 (67)
20 (68)
10 (71)
13 (76)
15 (77)
17 (77)
20 (73)
23 (71)
IL = 7.5 kN/m
Design assumptions
Reinforcement
fyk = 500 N/mm2. Main bar diameters and distribution steel as required. To
comply with deection criteria, service stress, s, may have been reduced.
Loads
included. Expressions (6.10a) and (6.10b) have been used.
Concrete
C32/40, density 25 kN/m3, 20 mm quartzite (gravel) aggregate.
Fire and durability
Fire resistance 1 hour; exposure class XC1.
47
09/09/2008 11:56:24
Walls
Generally the walls are sized to be as narrow as possible to increase the net oor area and
will vary depending on the structural, acoustic and thermal requirements. Often the minimum wall thickness will be determined by the acoustic requirements. There may be
occasions, such as in tall buildings where there are high compressive loads on the lower
walls, or adjacent to long oor spans where there are high bending moments due to the
notional eccentricity of the slab loading, when a thicker wall is required.
The tunnel form systems can accommodate wall thicknesses of 100 to 600 mm. Optimum
construction usually results in 180 mm thick walls; primarily due to acoustic rather than
structural requirements.
6.3 Concrete placing and

curing
Any slim concrete wall requires a concrete mix with good workability. This is best achieved
through the use of superplasticisers or water-reducing agents, as opposed to increased
water content which could reduce strength and durability. A workable mix, combined
with a skilled use of vibrators, results in a surface suitable for direct nishes. The small
increase in mix cost is more than saved in the time and cost of not requiring a follow-on
trade to apply a surface nish. Trials should be conducted on site to ensure that the mix
and proposed placement result in a good surface nish.
A key feature of the tunnel form system is the use of heaters during the winter months to
ensure sufcient concrete strength gain to permit early striking times. Space heaters are
placed within the area beneath the formwork which is sealed at each end by tarpaulin
curtains. The heaters are used to provide a slow, evenly spread heat between 50C and
70C. The system manufacturer can provide formulae and data for calculating the heating
capacity required. Generally, the curtains are closed and the area is heated for a period of
one hour before placing the concrete, until the concrete achieves the required strength
for striking. This manner of heating promotes the curing of the concrete.
The covered heated curing method also means hydration occurs at an early stage. This
reduces problems with water loss due to evaporation on conventional slabs before the
concrete has reached full strength.
6.4 Finishes
The steel forms are nished with 4 mm steel plating fabricated to a tolerance of 1 mm.
Given the accuracy of fabrication, the quality of nishes achieved is limited by the care and
attention of the workforce in cleaning and preparing the shutters and placing the concrete.
As with any concrete, greatest attention is required when compacting the kickers, avoiding
aggregate segregation at the bottom of the wall, and ensuring compaction in the corners.
The joint between the wall and the kickers is usually concealed behind the skirting board.
Contractors should make an allowance to rub down ns at formwork joints, ll occasional
blowholes, and ll tie bar holes. The effort required to make good will be proportional to
the effort in placing the concrete, and hence varies from site to site.
48
09/09/2008 11:56:25
In many cases, the walls only require a good-quality paint or wallpaper to present an
acceptable nish. However, due to variability of weather and concrete supply, a good cost
plan should include an allowance for a skim to cover over any defects with concrete compaction or cold joints.
Typically, the slab surface is nished with a hand-oat rather than power-oating due to
the starter bars along each wall line and the time taken to power-oat. Most end-users
will apply the oor nishes directly onto the slab or use a smoothing compound of latex
or synthetic polymer as a base.
6.5 Design checks required
Design of tunnel form construction is relatively simple.

Design typical slab one way spanning between walls; select mesh size. It is important
to use mesh in the walls and slabs where possible since it speeds up the daily cycle
because it requires less time to lift and fix into position.
Design slab above openings in wall (i.e. corridors or doors) as two-way span using tables
for small regular panels. Use finite element for large irregular panels. Select mesh size.
Calculate the permanent actions on the walls. For multi-storey construction, the
cumulative permanent dead weight will be greater than the tunnel formwork load.
Design lowest wall as a simple plain wall (assuming stability cores). Select mesh size.
Check lowest wall using appropriate concrete strength (i.e. less than the 28-day
strength) for weight of formwork and weight of concrete supported by formwork
applied as a line load adjacent to the wall.
Large spans with a table form may also have a prop at mid-span. Calculate backpropping requirements if necessary. Typically the slab is propped at 2 m centres.
High multi-storey construction may enable reduced mesh size in the walls at upper
levels, although this is not common.
See design example in Appendix C for further details.
6.6 Design
Usually every party wall is cast in concrete, but every other party wall may be omitted by
using longer spans; this has the benet of providing future exibility.
Tunnel form structures are monolithic and therefore the benets of continuity can be used
in the structural design.
When using tunnel form construction, it is possible to make changes to the position and size
of openings late in the design process. However, late changes can lead to aborted work and
have an impact on the programme. It is therefore advisable to ensure the co-ordination
of services and structure in sufcient time to avoid late changes, except where absolutely
necessary.
Generally the details are similar to any other in-situ reinforced concrete frame. However,
there are situations where the tunnel formwork system requires the designer to take account
of this in the detailing, for instance at the slabwall interface as shown in Figure 6.3.
49
09/09/2008 11:56:25
Figure 6.3
Detail of the slabwall interface.
Mesh
reinforcement
Lap
Loose bar
Mesh
reinforcement
a) Mesh only junction
6.7 Construction
6.7.1 Construction sequence
6.7.2 Programme
Mesh
reinforcement
b) Loose bars used for junction
The formwork is specially adapted for each project. The repetitive nature of the system and
the use of prefabricated standard dimensioned forms and reinforcing mats/cages simplify
the whole construction process, producing a smooth and fast operation. The techniques
used are already familiar to the industry, but with tunnel form construction there is less
reliance on skilled labour. A typical 24-hour construction sequence is shown in Figure 6.4.
On average, a team of nine to twelve site operatives plus a crane driver can strike and x
300 m2 of formwork each day, including placing approximately 35 to 60 m3 of ready-mixed
concrete using a skip or 80 m3 using a concrete pump. The work can continue in all weather
except high winds, and heaters can be used to accelerate the concrete curing process.
The schedule provided by the repetitive 24-hour cycle means each operative knows exactly
what to do and when, and works to a precisely detailed plan. The smaller work teams and
predictable, measurable daily production rates simplify and enhance overall control of
the project. Known completion times make scheduling of material deliveries and followon trades more accurate and optimise cash ow by facilitating just-in-time principles.
By quickly providing protection, the system allows the follow-on trades to commence
work on completed rooms while work proceeds on upper oors.
The lead-in time will generally be approximately 4 weeks 19.
50
09/09/2008 11:56:26
Figure 6.4
Construction sequence for tunnel form
construction.
Illustrations: Outinord International Ltd
07:00
Concrete cube test completed by
engineer
Striking of tunnel forms can begin
07:30
First half tunnel form is removed
cleaned, oiled and repositioned
Wall reinforcement placed in
advance
Services are placed within the
walls
11:00
Final elements are lifted into
position
Once two half tunnels are in place
then reinforcement can be placed
on deck
Conduits are placed for services
within the slab and then reinforcement completed
14:30
Concrete pouring can commence
Walls followed by slabs
(2 to 3 hours)
Vibrators are used to ensure a
high-quality finish
17:00
Curtains are closed and space
heaters inserted
Heating of the tunnel forms helps
to accelerate the curing process
The exercise is repeated the
following day
51
09/09/2008 11:56:27
6.7.3 Details
The key to designing for any systemised form of construction is to understand how the
system works on site. Figures 6.1 and 6.5 illustrates the composition of a typical tunnel
form.
The sliding and additional soft panels are of standard dimensions (1200, 1800 or 2400 mm).
The additional panel is manufactured to the dimension to suit the span, enabling a range
of module widths to be easily constructed on site with the same unit. The vertical panel is
of a standard 2400 mm dimension. Higher oor-to-ceiling heights are accommodated by
manufacturing an upper extension panel of the required dimensions. This panel easily xes
to the vertical panel.
The wheels and triangulation support are only used when striking and positioning the
units. These components are retracted before the fresh concrete is placed, hence this load
is transferred through the inclined strut to the wall line. This reduces the back-propping
requirements and negates the requirement to design for construction loading.
Figure 6.5
Typical tunnel form.
Illustrations: Outinord International Ltd
Openings and ducts are blocked out by xing stop-ends to the steel formwork using magnets.
The ends of walls and slabs are also closed using stop-ends held onto the formwork using
magnets. This ensures fast placement and repeated use of high-quality formers for the
openings.
Accuracy from one level to the next is maintained by the use of precast concrete cruciforms.
These t into the space between the tunnel forms to provide an accurate line for the
location of the formwork for the walls above (see Figure 6.6). This means that accuracies
of 3 mm are achieved for room sizes.
High dimensional tolerance is achieved with conical tie bars to ensure constant wall
thickness, and cruciforms to ensure accurate positioning of the formwork in the next lift.
The tunnel form system allows extensive use of pre-cut mesh reinforcement, resulting in
quicker placement and xing.
Figure 6.6
Kicker formwork and concrete cruciforms to
control accuracy.
Photos: Outinord International Ltd
52
09/09/2008 11:56:43
6.8 Robustness
6.9 Health and safety
6.10 Alternatives to tunnel

form
Like all in-situ concrete frames, it will generally be found that no additional reinforcement
is required to ensure a robust structure with tunnel form construction. Reinforcement
provided for other purposes may be used as the reinforcement acting as ties in in-situ
concrete. Indeed, normal detailing of reinforcement ensures that the ties are adequately
anchored. Tunnel form structures are likely to far exceed the robustness requirements.
The tunnel form system incorporates stripping platforms, void platforms and gable-end
(end-wall) platforms with integrated edge protection. These platforms also allow for
circulation around the tunnel form and the structure.
Tunnel form is a particular formwork system specically designed to maximise the speed of
construction for cellular-type structures built with in-situ concrete. More typical formwork
systems, such as vertical panel systems, horizontal panel systems and table forms can
also be used for this type of structure. Much of the design guidance in this publication can
equally well be applied to these formwork systems.
53
09/09/2008 11:56:45
7 Twinwall
7. Twinwall
Hybrid concrete wall panels comprise two skins of precast concrete, connected by steel
trusses, which hold the precast skins apart at a constant spacing, which act as permenant
formwork to the in-situ concrete (see Figure 7.1).
Figure 7.1
Typical twinwall panel.
The precast skins are

connected and spaced
by steel lattice
Main horizontal and

vertical reinforcement
for the wall is fitted
within the precast skins
The precast skins contain the main horizontal and vertical reinforcement for the wall, in the
form of a cross-sectional area of mesh or bars which can be specied by the designer. However, starter bars and continuity reinforcement must be provided within the in-situ portion.
7.1 Site
The site layout, location and boundary conditions may impact on the design and construction
of a twinwall project. The particular design considerations to consider for a twinwall project
are arrangements for unloading the units. It is far more efcient to use a just-in-time
delivery system, where the units are lifted from the lorry into their nal position. In this
case an unloading area that can be used throughout the working day is required.
The location and size of the crane are also important considerations, especially as precast
units tend to require a crane with a higher lifting capacity. In particular the need to oversail
beyond the site, especially public highways or railways (note that Network Rail will not allow
oversailing) may well inuence the crane location or perhaps even the structural solution.
7.2 Initial sizing
requirements such as acoustics (see section 3.2) may also determine the minimum
requirements. Manufacture, transportation and placing of the units impose limits on the
maximum sizes (see section 5.8).
54
09/09/2008 11:56:46
Twinwall 7
Figure 7.2
Initial sizing of lattice girder slabs.
Key
300
Characteristic
imposed load
1.5 kN/m2
(2= 0.3)
Slab depth (mm)
250
2.5 kN/m2
(2= 0.3)
5.0 kN/m2
(2= 0.6)
7.5 kN/m2
(2= 0.6)
200
150
100
Span (m)
Single span, m
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
IL = 1.5 kN/m2
115
117
148
IL = 2.5 kN/m2
115
125
158
IL = 5.0 kN/m3
115
147
186
220
250
276
IL = 7.5 kN/m2
131
170
208
238
265
291
9.0
187
226
261
288
196
233
264
291
Overall thickness, mm
Design assumptions
Reinforcement
fyk = 500 N/mm2.
Cover
cnom = 20 mm; c, dev= 0 mm.
Loads
included. BS EN 199018 , Expressions (6.10a) and (6.10b) have been used.
Concrete
Slabs
Typically a lattice girder slab is used in twinwall construction. The sizing data for lattice
girder slabs are given in Figure 7.2. Units are usually 1200 or 2400 mm wide and can be
used for spans of up to 10 m.
Hollowcore slabs may also be used and the sizing chart in section 5.1. is applicable. However, it should be noted that the precast skin of the twinwall panel will be too narrow to
be considered a permanent bearing.
55
09/09/2008 11:56:47
7 Twinwall
7.2.1 Walls
Overall wall thicknesses below 200 mm are difcult to achieve because the precast skin
thickness is typically 50 to 70 mm each side (plus tolerance), and the thickness of the insitu concrete in between must accommodate starter and continuity reinforcement with
sufcient space for the concrete to ow around the bars. The nal wall thickness can range
typically from 200 to 350 mm in total width, although thicker walls are possible. It is
worth noting that, due to the manufacturing process, tolerances on the inside faces of the
precast skin are not well controlled and can reduce the space available for in-situ
concrete or starter bars by 10 to 15 mm each side.
Generally the walls are sized to be as narrow as possible to increase the net oor area. There
may be occasions, such as in tall buildings where there are high compressive loads, or
adjacent to long oor spans where there are high bending moments due to the notional
eccentricity of the wall, when a thicker wall is required.
7.3 Concrete
To make efcient use of the precast moulds, it is important to strike the precast elements in
the factory as quickly as possible. For this reason precast concrete manufacturers prefer to
use higher-strength concrete than is generally used for in-situ concrete. The typical class
of concrete used for twinwall panels is C35/45. Self-compacting concrete is also
increasingly used in the precast factory to reduce noise due to use of vibrators to compact
the concrete.
The in-situ concrete to be placed between the walls should be able to ow between the two
precast faces, and around the starter bars and continuity reinforcement. Using a vibrator
poker may be difcult or impossible. The use of self-compacting concrete should be considered. A smaller aggregate size, for example 10 mm, may also be appropriate.
7.4 Finishes
The use of high-quality formwork moulds gives the external faces of the panels a smooth
nish. The nish quality is suitable to receive a plaster nish or wallpaper. It should be
noted that the colour will not be consistent and it is therefore not advised that exposed
concrete nishes are used.
7.5 Design details
Typical details for connecting the twinwall and lattice girder slabs are shown in Figures 7.3
and 7.4.
Where the design engineer is relying on others to design particular elements responsibility
for the design of the elements and the continuity reinforcement should be clearly set out.
In BS EN 1499220 twinwall is classied as composite walls to be designed like a solid wall.
This approach can easily be applied to the general wall condition. However, care is required
at joints to ensure the full section width can be assumed. This is important where local
bearing is the critical load case, for example on a transfer beam or above a column.
56
09/09/2008 11:56:48
Twinwall 7
Figure 7.3
Internal twinwall connection with a lattice
girder slab.
Precast concrete
In-situ concrete
Slab reinforcement
In-situ concrete
Lap length
Tie reinforcement
Figure 7.4
External twinwall connection with a lattice
girder slab.
In-situ concrete
Precast concrete
Tie reinforcement
In-situ
concrete
Lap length
Lap length
Tie reinforcement
57
09/09/2008 11:56:48
7 Twinwall
Ensuring the maximum section width can be used requires care on site to ensure the
following:
Tight lateral tolerance of the wall on the bearing surface to ensure the wall above is
aligned with the wall below.
Tight vertical tolerance, as an out-of-plumb wall could result in a reduced bearing surface.
Good working practice on site to ensure compaction of the concrete in bearing between
the base of the wall and the slab. The infill should be a minimum thickness of 30 mm,
with no air bubbles or honeycombing. Where possible, good compaction is achieved
with self-compacting concrete and 10 mm aggregate.
Minor damage to the precast element does not result in a reduced bearing area.
Appropriate reduced effective depth due to a single line of central starter bars at the
joints.
It is not possible in the space available to cover all the design requirements for a twinwall
building, but detailed guidance is given in The Concrete Centre publication Design of
Hybrid Concrete Buildings29.
7.6 Construction
Manufacture, transportation and placing of the units is a key consideration in the design
of a twinwall project. These considerations are similar to those for crosswall construction
and are explained in section 5.8.
An efcient construction sequence is the key to maximising the economy of twinwall
construction. Ideally the twinwall panel will be lifted directly from the lorry into its nal
position. The panels are typically propped on one side only, until the oor above has been
cast.
The lattice girder slabs can then be placed, and again these must be propped, until the
concrete in the oor has sufcient strength to carry its own weight. Continuity wall and slab
reinforcement is then xed in position before the wall and slab concrete can be poured.
The panels are typically erected with the base of the wall around 30 mm above the oor
slab. A timber batten is usually placed on one side of the wall to act as a setting-out guide
when lifting the twinwall panels into position (see Figure 7.5). A second timber batten is
xed after the panel is placed. These timbers are removed after casting the in-situ
concrete and this is the principal means of checking that the in-situ concrete has reached
the base of the pour.
58
09/09/2008 11:56:49
Twinwall 7
Figure 7.5
Position and levelling of twinwall panel.
7.6.1 Speed of construction
7.7 Tolerances
The wall and oor panels can be erected as fast as for crosswall construction; however, the
in-situ element needs to be cast as each oor is completed, which slows the speed of the
frame construction. In mitigation there is no need to install a separate screed. To maximise
the benets there should be repetition of panels. The panels should be detailed to improve
buildability.
Section 5.9 on tolerances in the crosswall section should be referred to. In addition the
following should be considered. The inside faces of the precast skins are an unnished
surface and can vary by 10 to 15 mm, with implications for the space available for in-situ
concrete and starter and continuity reinforcement when the panels arrive on site.
Mesh reinforcement is cast into each precast skin. A 50 mm thick precast skin could
accommodate, for example:
20 mm cover to external face (or as appropriate to meet durability requirements)
10 mm vertical bar
8 mm horizontal bar
10 mm cover to internal face (while not required for durability in the permanent
condition, some cover here is advisable).
Clearly, walls which require larger bar sizes to achieve required levels of reinforcement, or
walls in exposed conditions, will in turn need thicker precast skins to achieve required
covers.
59
09/09/2008 11:56:50
7 Twinwall
7.8 Robustness
An advantage of the twinwall system is that it is simple to tie the structure together with
reinforcement in the in-situ concrete, to meet the requirements of the Building
Regulations to avoid disproportional collapse.
60
09/09/2008 11:56:53
Appendix A. Volumetric precast concrete

prison cells
As an alternative to the systems described in this publication, volumetric precast concrete
modules may be used for prisons. The system consists of modules, each containing four
cells.
As with the other systems described in this publication, this system benets from the re
protection, acoustic properties and robustness of concrete. The latter is of particular
benet in this application. Off-site construction has benets for construction adjacent to
existing prisons. It enables the on-site workforce to be reduced, which in turn minimises the
number of security clearances required for personnel. Off-site construction also reduces
the on-site construction period, which again improves security.
All the walls between cells and the roof are cast in one concrete pour using special moulds,
which have been designed to simplify the demoulding process (see Figure A.1).
The window grills are cast into the concrete to increase security (see Figure A.2).
The modules are tted out with (see Figure A.3):
sanitary ware
windows
furniture
Figure A.1
Mould for volumetric prison cells.
Photo: Precast Cellular Structures Limited
61
09/09/2008 11:56:53
Figure A.2
Window grills are cast in for increased
security.
The complete 40-tonne module can then be transported to site, where it is placed on a
pre-prepared ground-oor slab. Further units can be stacked on top of the ground-oor
units, with the roof of the lower unit forming the oor of the upper unit.
Figure A.3
Sanitary ware and services
are installed off-site.
62
09/09/2008 11:56:55

Project details
Calculated by
Crosswall worked example

Slab design
Checked by
Client
OB
PG
TCC
Job no.
CCIP - 032
Sheet no.
Date
CW1
Jul 08
Design of one-way spanning 150 mm-thick continuous slab.

Variable actions
Bathroom
pod
Screed
Self-weight
1.5 m
2.0 m
3.5 m
Actions
kN/m/m width of slab
Permanent
Self-weight
60 mm screed
gk over full span
= 0.15 x 25
= 0.06 x 22
Pod
Deduct because there is no screed under pod
gk over part span
Variable
= 3.75
= 1.30
= 5.05
= 3.00
= 1.30
= 1.70
= 1.50
= 0.50
= 2.00
Residential
Services and finishes
qk
Cover
Nominal cover, cnom
cmin,dur = minimum cover due to environmental conditions

Assuming XC1 and using C35/45 concrete,
cmin,dur = 15 mm
BS EN 1992-1-1, Table 4.1,

BS 8500-1, Table A.4
cdev = allowance in design for deviation

Assuming no measurement of cover cdev = 10 mm
BS EN 1992-1-1,4.4.1.2(3)
cnom = cmin + cdev
= 15 + 10 = 25 mm
Fire
Check adequacy of section for 1-hour fire resistance (i.e. REI 60)
Thickness, hs,min = 80 mm cf. 175 mm proposed
OK
Axis distance, amin = 20 mm cf. 25 + 8/2 = 29 i.e. not critical
OK
BS EN 1992-1-24.1(1),
5.1(1), Table 5.8
cnom = 25 mm
Load combination (and arrangement)

By inspection, BS EN 1990 Exp. (6.10b) governs
Gk = 1.25 and Qk = 1.5
BS EN 1990 Exp. (6.10b)
63
09/09/2008 11:57:01

Project details
Calculated by

Slab design
Checked by
Client
OB
PG
TCC
Job no.
Sheet no.
Date
CCIP - 032
CW2
Jul 08
Analysis
Total ultimate limit state load across full width of slab = 1.25 x 5.05 + 1.5 x 2 = 9.31 kN/m/m width
Additional ultimate limit state load under bathroom pod = 1.25 x 1.7= 2.13 kN/m/m width
Reactions (ULS):
RLHS =
1
3.5
9.31 x 3.52 + 2.13 x 1.5 x 2.75

2
RRHS =
1
3.5
9.31 x 3.52 +
2
2.13 x 1.52
2
= 18.8 kN/m width
= 17.0 kN/m width
Determine point of zero shear (i.e. location of maximum moment)

Distance from right-hand support = 17.0/9.31 = 1.83 kN/m
Maximum sagging moment:
2
MEd = 17.0 x 1.83 9.31 x 1.83
= 15.5 kNm/m width
2
Shear force (ULS), (maximum occurs at left-hand support), VEd = 16.3 + 2.5 = 18.8 kN/m
Flexural design
Effective depth:
d = 150 x 25 x 8/2 = 121 mm

Flexure in span:
K = MEd/bd2fck = 15.5 x 106/(1000 x 1212 x 35) = 0.03

z = d/2 [1 + (1 3.53K)] 0.95d
z = 121/2 [1 + (1 3.53 x 0.03)] 0.95 x 121
z = 118 114
z = 114 mm
As = MEd/fydz = 15.5 x 106/(500/1.15 x 114) = 313 mm2/m
Minimum area of reinforcement:
As,min = 0.17% for fck = 35 MPa

As,prov = 385/(1000 x 121) = 0.32% OK
Either use A393 mesh or B385 mesh (note the latter uses significantly less steel).
BS EN 1992-1-1, Exp (9.1N)
Deflection
By inspection; deflection not critical.
Shear
VEd
= 18.8 kN/m width
vEd
= 18.8 x 103/1000 x 121 = 0.16 MPa
vRd,c
= 0.54 MPa
BS EN 1992-1-1, 6.2.2(1)
No shear reinforcement required
64
09/09/2008 11:57:03

Project details
Calculated by

Wall design
Checked by
Client
OB
PG
TCC
Job no.
Sheet no.
Date
CCIP - 032
CW3
Jul 08
Wall design:
Wall is 180 mm thick, check top storey of wall for lateral loads, vertical loads OK by inspection.
Wk = 3.5 x 3.0 x 1.0 = 10.5 kN

Taking wind pressure as 1.0 kN/m2
(Assume this load is shared equally between the two 6 m long walls)
Gk,fl = 5.05 x 3.5 = 17.7 kN/m
(Floor load on wall)
Gk,w = 25 x 0.18 x 3.0 = 13.5 kN/m
(Self-weight of wall)
Gk,tot = 17.7 + 13.5 = 31.2 kN/m
(Total vertical permanent load)
Ultimate limit state loads:

Axial load, N = 0.9 x 31.2 x 6 = 168.5 kN
Moment, M = 1.5 x 5.3 x 3 = 23.9 kNm
Check for tension is the wall:
t = N
Lt
3
M
23.9 x 106
= 168.5 x 10
(t l2/6)
6000 x 180
(180 x 60002/6)
=
=
0.156 0.022
0.134 MPa (no tension in wall)
It may be necessary to check for tension at every floor level.
65
09/09/2008 11:57:05

Project details
Calculated by
Tunnel form worked example

Slab design
Checked by
Client
OB
PG
TCC
Job no.
CCIP - 032
Sheet no.
Date
TF1
Jul 08
Slab design:
Try 175 mm-thick continuous slab.
Permanent actions
6m
Variable actions
6m
6m
Actions
kN/m/m run
Permanent
Self-weight
= 0.175 x 25
gk
= 4.4
= 4.4
Variable
Residential
= 1.5
Services and finishes
= 0.5
qk
= 2.0
Cover
Nominal cover, cnom
cmin,dur = minimum cover due to environmental conditions

Assuming XC1 and using C35/45 concrete,
cmin,dur = 15 mm
BS EN 1992-1-1, Table 4.1,

BS 8500-1, Table A.4
cdev = allowance in design for deviation

Assuming no measurement of cover cdev = 10 mm
BS EN 1992-1-1, 4.4.1.2(3)
cnom = cmin + cdev
= 15 + 10 = 25 mm
Fire
Check adequacy of section for 1-hour fire resistance (i.e. REI 60)
Thickness, hs,min = 80 mm cf. 175 mm proposed
OK
Axis distance, amin = 20 mm cf. 25 + 8/2 = 29, i.e. not critical
OK
BS EN 1992-1-2, 4.1(1),
5.1(1) and Table 5.8
cnom = 25 mm
Load combination (and arrangement)

By inspection, BS EN 1990, Exp. (6.10b) governs
Gk = 1.25 and Qk = 1.5
BS EN 1990, Exp. (6.10b)
Analysis
Using bending moment coefcients for a continuous slab, a coefcient of 0.086Fl applies to the
end span and rst interior support. Check end span for exure and shear capacity as well as
deection.
66
09/09/2008 11:57:08

Project details
Calculated by

Slab design
Checked by
Client
OB
PG
TCC
Job no.
Sheet no.
Date
CCIP - 032
TF2
Jul 08
Design moment:
F
M
= total design ultimate load

= (1.25 x 4.4 + 1.5 x 2.0) x 6 = 51.0 kN/m width
= 0.086Fl = 0.086 x 51.0 x 6 = 26.3 kNm/m width
Shear force:
V = 0.6F = 0.6 x 51.0= 30.6 kN
Flexural design
Effective depth:
d = 175 25 8/2 = 146 mm

Flexure in span:
K = MEd/bd2fck = 26.3 x 106/(1000 x 1462 x 35) = 0.035
z = d/2 [1 + (1 3.53K)] 0.95
z = 146/2 [1 + (1 3.53 x 0.035)] 0.95 x 145
z = 141 138
z = 138 mm
As = MEd/fydz = 26.3 x 106/(500/1.15 x 138) = 438 mm2/m
Minimum area of reinforcement:
As,min = 0.17% for fck = 35 MPa

As,prov = 438/(1000 x 146) x 100 = 0.30%
BS EN 1992-1-1, Exp (9.1N)

OK
Use B503 mesh
Deflection
Check span-to-effective-depth ratio
= 0.30%
Basic span-to-effective-depth ratio = 60.6
Actual span-to-effective-depth ratio = 6000/145 = 41.4
Deflection OK
BS EN 1992-1-1, Exp (7.16a)

<Table 7.4N & NA>
<Exp. (7.17)>
Shear
VEd
= 30.6 kN/m
vEd
= 30.6 x 103/1000 x 146 = 0.21 MPa
vRd,c
= 0.54 MPa
BS EN 1992-1-1, 6.2.2(1)
No shear reinforcement required
Construction situation.
Assume tunnel forms will be struck at 15 MPa cube strength and lifted onto new slab. Check slab for
self-weight and load from formwork. (Note once tunnel form has been positioned there is no load on the
interior of the slab.)
Leg loads from tunnel forms = (110/100 3)/2 = 1.7 kN per leg at 2 m from wall
67
09/09/2008 11:57:10

Project details
Calculated by

Slab design
Checked by
Client
OB
PG
TCC
Job no.
Sheet no.
Date
CCIP - 032
TF3
Jul 08
Self-weight of slab = 4.4 kN/m

Moment, MEd 0.086 4.4 62 + 1.7 2.0 = 13.6 + 3.4 17.0 kNm
Flexural design
Flexure in span:
K = MEd/bd2fck = 17.0 x 106/(1000 x 1462 x 12) = 0.068
z = d/2 [1 + (1 3.53K)] 0.95d

z = 145/2 [1 + (1 3.53 x 0.068)] 0.95 x 145
z = 136 138
z = 136 mm
As = MEd/fydz = 17.0 x 106/(500/1.15 x 136) = 288 mm2/m
Less than the requirements for permanent situation
OK
68
09/09/2008 11:57:12
References
References
1
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8204. Screeds, bases and in-situ oorings. Part 1: Concrete
bases and cement sand levelling screeds to receive oorings code of practice. BSI, London, 2003.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS 8204-2. Screeds, bases and in-situ oorings. Part 2:
Concrete wearing surfaces code of practice. BSI, London, 2003.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8204. Screeds, bases and in-situ oorings. Part 7:
Pumpable self-smoothing screeds code of practice. BSI, London, 2003.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8203. Code of practice for installation of resilient oor
coverings. BSI, London, 2001.
GATFIELD, M.J. Report 184: Screeds, oorings and nishes selection, construction and
maintenance. CIRIA, London, 1998.
THE CONCRETE CENTRE. Precast concrete in buildings. TCC, Camberley, 2007, Ref. TCC/03/31.
ELLIOTT, K.S. Multi-storey precast concrete framed buildings. Blackwell Science, Oxford, 1996.
DEPARTMENT FOR COMMUNITIES AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT. Building Regulations (England

and Wales) Approved document L. DCLG, London, 2006.
THE CONCRETE SOCIETY. Technical report TR67 Movement, restraint and cracking in concrete
structures. The Concrete Society, Camberley, 2008.
10
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992-1-2. Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures.

Part 1-2: Structural re design. BSI, London, 2004.
11

and Wales) Approved document E (2004). DCLG, London, revised 2006.
12
ROBUST DETAILS LTD. Robust Details Part E Resistance to the passage of sound (Edition 2). RDL,
Milton Keynes, 2005.
13
THE CONCRETE CENTRE. Thermal mass. TCC, Camberley, 2005, Ref. TCC/05/05.
14
THE CONCRETE CENTRE. Thermal mass for housing. TCC, Camberley, 2006, Ref. TCC/04/05.
15
DE SAULLES, T. Utilisation of thermal mass in non-residential buildings. The Concrete Centre,

Camberley, 2006, Ref. CCIP-020.
16
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992-1-1. Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures

Part 1-1 General rules for buildings. BSI, London, 2004.
17
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8110. The structural use of concrete. Part 1: Code of
practice for design and construction. BSI, London, 1997.
18
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1990. Eurocode: Basis of structural design. BSI,

London, 2002.
19
THE CONCRETE CENTRE. Concrete framed buildings. TCC, Camberley, 2006, Ref. TCC/03/024.
20
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 14992. Precast concrete products. Wall elements. BSI,
London, 2007.
21
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 13747. Precast concrete products. Floor plates for oor
systems. BSI, London, 2005.
22
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. EN 13670. Execution of concrete structures. Part 1: Common.

BSI, London, due 2008.
23
CONSTRUCT. National structural concrete specication for building construction. The Concrete
Society, Camberley, due 2008.
24
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 5606. Guide to accuracy in building. BSI, London, 1990.
25

and Wales) Approved document E (2004). DCLG, London, revised 2006.
69
09/09/2008 11:57:14
References
26
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1991-1-7. Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. Part 1-7:

General actions accidental actions. BSI, London, 2006,
27
ALEXANDER, S. New approach to disproportionate collapse. The Structural Engineer, London, 7 Dec
2004, p14-18.
28
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992-1-1. Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures.

Part 1-1: Design of concrete structures. General rules and rules for buildings. BSI, London, 2004.
29
TAYLOR, H.P.J. and WHITTLE, R. Design of Hybrid Concrete Buildings. The Concrete Centre,
Camberley, 2008, Ref. CCIP-030.
70
09/09/2008 11:57:15
CCIP-032
CI/Sfb
UDC
69.056.5
Guidance is provided on selecting an appropriate solution, sizing

the structure and carrying out detailed design. Detailing issues are
covered, some of which should be considered at the early stages of a
project to achieve an efcient building conguration.
A guide for the design and specication of concrete buildings

using tunnel form, crosswall or twinwall systems

Owen Brooker is senior structural engineer for The Concrete Centre

where he promotes efcient concrete design through guidance
documents, presentations and the national helpline. A consultant
by background, he is also author of a number of guides on the
application of Eurocode 2.
Richard Hennessy is structures knowledge manager working in the
structures discipline development group of Buro Happold. Richard
is a structural engineer and was able to bring his rst-hand project
experience and also Buro Happolds collective experience of the
tunnel form technique to this publication.
CCIP-032
ISBN 978-1-904482-46-8
Price Group P

engineer with essential guidance for designing cellular-type
structures. It is written for the structural engineer who has
knowledge of building structures in general but who has
limited or no experience of cellular structures. This guide
highlights areas that require close coordination between the
structural and services engineers and the architect.
Residential Cellular
Concrete Buildings
The Concrete Centre

Tel: +44 (0)1276 606 800
04/09/2008 10:01:37
CCIP-010
CI/Sfb
UDC
624.94.04.033
Cost Model Study Commercial Buildings
A comparative cost assessment of the construction of

multi-storey ofce buildings
A report commissioned by The Concrete Centre
Francis Ryder, Head of Cost at The Concrete Centre, has project

managed this cost model study for commercial buildings.
For more information visit
www.concretecentre.com/publications
This comprehensive and independent cost study was

undertaken to evaluate a number of structural frame options
for a three-storey ofce building in an out-of-town location
and a six-storey ofce building in a city centre location.
A total of 14 oor design options were evaluated, budget
costings were assigned to all elements of construction
and adjustments were made to reect time-related costs
attributable to differences in the construction programme.
Cost Model Study

Commercial Buildings
The publication outlines the analysis, the detailed costings and

programmes for each structural alternative, and provides a useful
resource for architects, engineers and contractors involved with
evaluating the cost competitiveness of structural options for
multi-storey ofce construction.
CCIP-010
Published October 2007
ISBN 1-904482-36-8
Price Group P
The Concrete Centre

Tel: +44 (0)1276 606 800
CMS-commercial cover.indd 1
01/10/2007 11:26:58
Acknowledgements
The Concrete Centre, as the organisation who commissioned this independent study, would like to
acknowledge the contributions of the following companies on this project:
Allies and Morrison Architectural Design
Established in 1984, Allies and Morrisons expertise includes master planning, architecture, landscape, design,
interior design and conservation. Allies and Morrison routinely work on a number of master plans and played a key
role in preparing master plan proposals for the London 2012 Olympics and the regeneration of the Lower Lea Valley.
Past award winning commissions include One Piccadilly Gardens, Manchester; the BBC Media Village at White
City; Girton College Library and Archive and the British Council in Lagos, Nigeria.
www.alliesandmorrison.co.uk
Arup - Structural Design.
Arup is an international rm of consulting engineers, with over 55 years of international experience in providing
consultancy in engineering, design, planning and project management services in every eld related to building,
civil, and industrial projects. Arup aims to provide a consistently excellent multi-disciplinary service by adding
value through technical excellence, efcient organisation, personal service and a strong commitment to
sustainable design.
www.arup.com
Davis Langdon LLP - Quantity Surveying
Davis Langdon LLP provides a range of integrated project and cost management services designed to maximise
value for clients investing in infrastructure, construction and property, with extensive experience in projects
and programmes across a broad range of sectors and building types. Davis Langdon has a culture of achieving
excellence and delivers success through limiting risk, forecasting and controlling cost, managing time and
resources, and maximising value for money according to the specic needs of the client and brief.
www.davislangdon.com
Mace - Programming
Mace is one of the worlds most diverse management and construction companies and is a renowned global
business providing management and construction services to the public and private sectors, with a reputation for
nding the best solutions to complex projects. Mace has been responsible for the successful delivery of a number
of award-winning projects, including the More London development incorporating City Hall, Heathrow T5 and
the City of Londons fourth tallest tower, 51 Lime Street.
www.mace.co.uk
The following proprietary products are referenced in this publication.
Slimdek is a registered trademarks of Corus UK Ltd. Ribdeck is a registered trademark of Richard Lees Steel
Decking Ltd.

Tel: +44 (0)1276 606800 Fax: +44 (0)1276 606801
CCIP-010
ISBN 1-904482-36-8
Price Group P
The Concrete Centre
CCIP publications are available from the Concrete Bookshop at
www.concretebookshop.com Tel: +44 (0)7004 607777
All advice or information from The Concrete Centre is intended for use in the UK only by those who will evaluate the signicance
and limitations of its contents and take responsibility for its use and application. No liability (including that for negligence) for
any loss resulting from such advice or information is accepted by The Concrete Centre or its subcontractors, suppliers or advisors.
Cover photo: Cardinal Place Anthony Weller/VIEW.
Printed by Alden press, Witney, UK.
01/10/2007 11:28:59
Cost Model Study Commercial

Buildings
Contents
1.
Summary
2.
Introduction
3.
Method of study
4.
Building A 3-Storey business park location
11
5.
Building B 6-Storey central city location
22
6.
Programmes
35
7.
Summary of costs
45
8.
Study ndings
49
9.
Commentary from The Concrete Centre
62
A1. Appendix A Detailed programmes
Commercial Buildings - Cost Mode1 1
68
02/10/2007 11:18:49
02/10/2007 11:19:14
Summary
1. Summary
This cost model study compares the costs of constructing three- and six-storey commercial
buildings using a variety of short-span and long-span options in two different locations,
taking into account construction and Category A t-out, and the effect of programme
times on cost.
Designs were commissioned for a three-storey ofce building in an out-of-town business
park location in the south east and a six-storey ofce building located in central London.
The buildings were based upon appropriate structural grids commonly in current use, with
designs and specications suited to current market conditions. Architectural design was
undertaken by Allies and Morrison, all structural designs were carried out by Arup, and
costings were undertaken by Davis Langdon.
The designs were taken to normal outline design stage, the only differences being directly
attributable to the structural frame material. Budget costings were assigned to all elements
of construction, from substructure, superstructure and external envelope through to preliminaries, with the exception of external works, which were considered to be too highly
site-specic to permit accurate costing. Adjustments were made to the costings to reect
time-related costs attributable to differences in construction programmes.
Whilst identifying the variation in the costs of frames, the study also considers the effects
that the choice of framing material and method of construction have on other elements
of the building, as well as the other benets that the choice of frame can generate.
The study demonstrates the need to consider all elements of the building cost, rather than
simply the cost of the structure, and highlights the extent to which elements other than
the structure are affected by the choice of frame solution.
In terms of overall construction cost for the three-storey building, the most economic
solution was found to be the RC Flat Slab option, closely followed by the steel Composite
option (+0.5%), with the Post-Tensioned Flat Slab and In-situ + Hollowcore options in
equal third place (+1.2%). The Steel + Hollowcore option was in fth place (+2.4%), with
the Slimdek option being the least economic (+5.1%).
In terms of overall construction cost for the six-storey building, the most economic
solution was also found to be the RC Flat Slab option, closely followed by the PostTensioned Flat Slab option (+0.1%), with the steel Composite option in third place
(+0.9%) and the In-situ + Hollowcore option in fourth place (+1.0%). The Steel +
Hollowcore option was in fth place (+3.5%), with the Slimdek option again being the
least economic (+5.0%). Of the two long-span options on this building, the PostTensioned Band Beam option and the Long-Span Composite option are respectively 2.2%
and 2.3% more costly than the Flat Slab option.
02/10/2007 11:19:14
Summary
Thus in consideration of the construction cost, an average of 1.0% separates the four
most economic short-span options, rising to 5.1% when all six options are considered.
For the two long-span solutions considered, the difference in total construction cost is
negligible at 0.1%.
The main conclusions are that, for modern commercial buildings, the variation in total
construction cost is relatively small across the range of structural options considered and
that they are all relatively competitive. Clearly, therefore, it is the effect on other
construction related factors in the project which need to be considered in the selection of
the most appropriate structural choice. Factors such as cash ow, overall project time,
re protection, use of at softs and lower oor to oor height are discussed in detail in
the study.
02/10/2007 11:19:14
Introduction
2. Introduction
This Cost Model Study Commercial Buildings was undertaken to provide both a comparison and an understanding of the construction costs associated with commercial
buildings using a variety of different structural solutions.
Cost is usually the major criterion in assessing design and construction alternatives and
construction professionals require current studies in order to provide weight to their
decisions. The Reinforced Concrete Council (RCC) published a cost model study on
commercial buildings in 1993 (GOODCHILD, C.H. Cost Model Study, British Cement
Association 97.333, 1993). The Concrete Centre identied that this study needed to be
updated because building types in the contemporary market are signicantly different
from those that formed the basis of the 1993 study.
The value of the RCC study was found to be not so much in the cost results but in the
detailed and rigorous assessment of how structural frame choice can affect the cost of other
items, such as cladding, internal planning, re protection, services, t-out, etc. It is the
independent assessment of current building types reported in this document that will be
of most enduring value to quantity surveyors, architects, engineers and other
construction professionals.
Thus, The Concrete Centre commissioned a study, undertaken in 2005 and 2006 by the
following consultants:
Allies and Morrison
Architectural Design
Arup
Structural Design
Davis Langdon LLP
Quantity Surveying
Mace
Programming
The objective of the study was to provide a cost comparison between various structural
options for buildings of three-and six-storeys, on clear sites, in out-of-town and city centre
locations respectively. Identical specications were required, with the only permissible
variations being directly attributable to the materials used in the structural frame.
It is emphasised that the study was undertaken on an independent basis. The structural
design for all options was carried out by Arup and costs were prepared by Davis Langdon,
based on pricing data obtained from their national cost database of recent projects and
therefore reecting the current marketplace.
Procurement and construction planning/programming studies also formed part of the
commissions, in order that the effects of programme on costs could be included. These
were carried out by Mace.
The cost models were developed using current best practice and are reported upon in this
publication. The process of designing and costing alternative methods of constructing
otherwise identical buildings raises many interesting issues for those com-missioning,
designing and constructing buildings. As will be shown, there are many useful conclusions to
be drawn, over and above those relating simply to cost.
02/10/2007 11:19:15
Method of study
3. Method of study
Brief
The brief given to the design team asked for the outline designs of multi-storey buildings
on open clear sites, one case being an out-of-town business park in the south east and
the other case being in central London. The designs were to reect contemporary
commercial practice and the design teams best judgement. They would be used for
preparing budget costs and for making comparisons of the effects of the choice of
different structural frames.
The choice, size and location of the buildings to be investigated were based on the design
teams judgement of current commercial practice and demand, and to avoid unduly
favouring one structural solution over another.
Designs were commissioned for a three-storey ofce building in an out-of-town business
park location in the south east (Building A) and a six-storey ofce building located in
central London (Building B). The buildings were based upon appropriate structural grids
commonly in current use, using pad or piled foundations. Specications were suited to
current market conditions, which suggested that Building A be an air-conditioned, L-shaped
building with curtain walling and some natural ventilation and that Building B be a rectangular, air-conditioned building with curtain walling.
Building A was chosen to reect a framed building of average size (4,650m2) in a commercial/business park setting. It is representative of a typical low-rise building in the
centres of current development activity.
Building B, containing retail space at ground oor level, was chosen to reect a high-quality
framed building of average size (14,200m2 of ofces and 2,300m2 of retail space) in
Central London. It is acknowledged that a building of this type in London would normally
have a basement. However, it was considered that inclusion of this element could unduly
favour some of the structural options over others above ground. Accordingly, the basement
construction has been excluded from the study.
Concepts and initial studies
The shape and form of the buildings were determined to suit typical market requirements
in terms of performance and cost.
Indicative sketches for the two buildings, showing the building form, follow on page 7.
02/10/2007 11:19:15
Method of study
Building A: Three-storey.
Building B: Six-storey.
Typical oor plans and cross-sections for both

building projects used in this study
The form of Building A is an L-shape with a full-height atrium, a central service core and
secondary stairs and service access located towards the ends of the building, with a
limited amount of undercroft parking. Air conditioning is provided by a fan-coil system
providing full climate control when active.
The internal environment is designed to maximise daylighting and allow some mid-season
free cooling from natural ventilation, which saves energy and lowers CO2 emissions. This
is achieved with oor plates 23.5m wide, congured around a grid of three bays of 7.5m,
allowing a degree of cross-ventilation from the perimeter windows.
The building envelope comprises grid stick curtain wall cladding, incorporating oor to
ceiling double glazing units and aluminium clad insulated spandrels, permitting good
daylighting to most of the working areas.
02/10/2007 11:19:16
Method of study
The form of Building B is rectangular, arranged around a central atrium and incorporating
a fan-coil unit air-conditioning system, with service cores located towards the ends of the
building. The form of the building is designed with a low envelope to volume ratio, which,
in addition to maximising investment return, helps minimise heat loss during the winter.
The building is fully sealed, requiring full climate control year round. The building envelope
comprises unitised curtain walling, incorporating oor to ceiling double-glazing units and
stone clad insulated spandrels.
The oor plate depths are 9.5m to the core walls on the E-W axis and 15.5m to either the
core walls or the atrium on the N-S axis. The building can be operated with single or split
tenancies, with splitting by vertical division and requiring a glazed wall to the atrium.
Layouts involving circular columns and cantilevers were not pursued (other than the
inclusion of two feature columns to the edge of the atrium on Building A) as they may
have unduly favoured some structural solutions over others. Also, utilisation of exposed
concrete inside the building to reduce capital and running costs of the air conditioning by
using the thermal mass of the structure has not been considered in the base case comparison, as this may also have unduly favoured some structural solutions over others. This is a
potential benet which is discussed further in Chapter 9 - Commentary from The Concrete
Centre.
Investigations to determine the optimum structural grid for the proposed buildings were
carried out. Grids of 7.5 7.5m, 9.0 6.0m and 9.0 9.0m were considered.
For Building A, a 7.5 7.5m grid was established as optimum and was adopted for all
frame options in the study, long spans not being considered appropriate. For Building B, a
7.5 9.0m grid is more representative of the current market for a city centre site. It also
permitted exploration of a long-span option in the study, by creating a 15.0 9.0m grid.
The resulting gross oor areas were to be approximately 1,500m2 per oor based on a
7.5 7.5m structural grid for Building A and approximately 2,750m2 per oor based on a
9.0 7.5m structural grid for Building B.
For Building A, six options were developed. For Building B, six options were developed for
the short-span situations (7.5m) and two options for a long-span situation (15.0m), giving
eight options in total.
The structural options were chosen as being representative of current best practice and
most likely to be proposed by the design team for a commercially viable project. Indicative
diagrams and descriptions for each of the options are shown in the gures which follow.
02/10/2007 11:19:18
Method of study
Short-span options - Building A and B

Option 1 - Flat Slab
Reinforced In-situ concrete at slab

and columns
Option 2 - Composite
Steel beams and metal decking, both

acting compositely with In-situ
concrete oor slabs. Steel columns
Long-span options - Building B only

Option 3 - PT Flat Slab
Option 7 - PT Band Beams
Post-tensioned In-situ concrete at slab

and reinforced In-situ concrete columns
Post-tensioned In-situ concrete at slab

and band beams with reinforced In-situ
concrete columns
Short-span options - Building A and B

Option 4 - Steel + Hollowcore
Option 5 - In-situ + Hollowcore
Option 6 - Slimdek
Option 8 - Long-Span Composite
Steel beams acting compositely with

precast concrete hollowcore oor
slabs. Steel columns
Reinforced In-situ concrete beams and

columns with precast concrete
hollowcore oor slabs
Slimdek system comprising asymmetric

beams and metal decking, both acting
compositely with In-situ concrete oor
slabs. Steel columns
Long-span cellular steel beams and

metal decking, both acting compositely
with In-situ concrete oor slab. Steel
columns
Scheme designs
The two buildings were taken up to normal outline design stage. The buildings were all to
commercial developers standards with associated outline specications. The only differences were directly attributable to the choice of structural solution.
The architectural schemes, layouts and specications were based on contemporary
commercial practice and current regulations. The new Part L of the Building Regulations
had not come into effect at the time the designs were undertaken and is not therefore
taken into account in the study.
Ofce oors were designed to be for an open-plan conguration on a 1.5m planning
module, to allow for possible subdivision of the oors into two tenancies. Cellular ofce
layouts were allowed for. Potential partitions may be aligned with external wall mullions
or piers at 1.5m centres. Initial oor plans and core layouts were adjusted and modied
following liaison and discussion between the design team members. In particular, core
areas were modied as necessary to accommodate structural and engineering services
requirements and to suit the peculiarities that result from the choice of structural
solution.
No design was undertaken for external works and landscaping, these aspects being so highly
site-specic as to preclude meaningful consideration. The extent, layout and complexity of
external works are to a large extent dictated by the size, conguration and orientation of the
site for each particular project, together with constraints imposed by location and external
factors such as planning. The extent to which external works are likely to be inuenced to
any signicant degree by the choice of structural solution is considered to be minimal, and
consequently, consideration of external works is beyond the scope of this study.
02/10/2007 11:19:18
Method of study
The nal structural zones represent those considered, by the design teams experience
and judgement, to be optimum depths for the structures.
Specications and drawings
Design criteria and outline specications were nalised and scheme drawings were
prepared for each building for all structural options. The design information is presented
in this document as follows:
Design criteria
Architectural, structural and services
Outline specications
Architectural, structural and services
Architectural drawings Typical oor plans

Structural drawings
Partial oor plans and oor zone for each of the following options:
Flat Slab
In-situ + Hollowcore
PT Flat Slab
Composite
Steel + Hollowcore
Slimdek
PT Band Beams
Long-Span Composite
Basis of costing and

quantities
Costings were based on drawings and specications prepared for all options, for both
buildings.
Structural schemes were prepared for each frame option to allow for an order of cost to be
assessed and thus a comparison made (and not for an absolute cost to be determined).
The level of information provided on each scheme was equivalent to that which would be
prepared in a normal scheme design. Quantities and estimates of cost and areas were prepared from the scheme design information. Budget costings were assigned to all elements of
construction, from substructure, superstructure and external walls through to preliminaries,
using rates appropriate to the specications and locations and a base date of June 2006.
The costings were presented in the form of summaries and are contained within Chapter 7
Summary of costs, where information on key rates is also presented.
Planning and programming
Detailed construction programmes were prepared on the basis of the drawings, specications and quantities outlined in this report; these are presented in the form of bar charts
and are contained within Chapter 6 Programmes. Procurement programmes and contractor
lead times were also considered.
A more detailed explanation of the planning and programming, including notes on the
assumptions made and the logic used, is given within Chapter 6 Programmes, and
examples of the detailed programmes are contained within Appendix A.
10
02/10/2007 11:19:23
Building A - Design criteria
4. Building A
Design criteria
Architectural
The following design criteria, representative of current good practice and commercial
standards, form the basis of the study.
Plan dimensions
Planning grid
1500 1500mm
Partition grid
1500 1500mm
Structural grid
7500 7500mm
Vertical dimensions 39504160mm (see drawings)

Floor to ceiling height
2700mm
Raised oor
250mm
Occupancy
Density
One person per 10m2 of nett internal oor area.
Design target populations
Three-storey 407 total, 319 on upper oors.
Ancillary accommodation
Core areas
Structural
Include male and female toilets and cleaners cubicle on each

oor, disabled toilets and PABX equipment on the ground oor.
Codes of practice and standards

Concrete
BS 8110 Part 1: 1997 (amendments 1 & 2) - Structural use of concrete
Structural steelwork
BS 5950 Part 1: 2000 - Structural use of steelwork in buildings
Loads
Imposed load
Dead load
Line loads
Ofces: 4.0 + 1.0kN/m2 for partitions

Roof: 0.75kN/m2
Self-weight plus superimposed dead load of 0.9kN/m2
External cladding
Atrium glazing
Internal blockwork walls
8kN/m
8kN/m
10kN/m
Deections
General
Deections will be limited in accordance with the guidance in the

appropriate Code of Practice.
Fire rating
1hr
Vibration
Natural frequency limited to 4Hz.
Ground conditions
Services
Bearing pressure
It has been assumed that the site provides a bearing capacity

suitable for pad foundations and a ground-bearing ground oor slab
with an N value of approximately 30 in a Standard Penetration Test.
It has been assumed that the water table is below founding level.
Lateral stability
Frame action
Propping
Propping is required for the Slimdek system during construction.

No propping is required for the other steel frames.
General
All normal services to be provided to typical contemporary

commercial standards, including: heating, lighting, ventilation,
lifts, hot and cold water supply, drainage, re services, small
power, provision for communications, lightning protection, etc.
Ventilation
General
Air-conditioned using fan-coil system, with partial natural

ventilation.
11
02/10/2007 11:19:23
Building A - Outline specications
Architectural
External envelope
External wall
Proprietary grid stick curtain walling system, 170mm thick overall.
Internal atrium walls

(if required for tenancy split)
Grid stick curtain wall incorporating oor to ceiling single glazing units and
aluminium clad spandrels.
Rain screen to stair cores
Aluminium panel rain screen with ventilated insulated cavity supported on

slab-bearing blockwork walls or grid frame.
Plant rooms
Proprietary curtain walling panel system.
Plant screen
Coated aluminium louvres connected to steel panels bolted to slab upstands.
Flat roofs
Inverted roof build-up with monolithic hot applied bitumen polymer

membrane, insulation and ballast.
Ofce areas
Floors
Proprietary medium duty raised oor system, 250mm overall, and carpet.
Ceilings
500 500mm pre-nished fully demountable perforated tile with concealed

suspension system.
External walls
Grid stick curtain wall incorporating oor to ceiling double glazing units and
aluminium clad insulated spandrels. Solar control by soft coat glass and
fritting to south/west elevations and soft coat glass to north and east
faades. Mullions to be top hung from roof level.
Faades incorporate high-level openable vents allowing cross ventilation for
daytime cooling during temperate weather and/or night time purging.
Operation of the faade vents by remote control to prevent users opening at
the wrong times.
Columns
Emulsion-painted plastered concrete or painted dry-lined encased steel

columns.
Skirtings
Recessed ush painted softwood.
Entrance halls/ground oor lift lobbies

Floor
Carpet.
Walls
Emulsion painted dry-lining or plaster.
Ceilings
Pre-nished 500 500mm metal tile with concealed grid.
Skirtings
Furniture
Reception desk.
Doors
Stainless steel revolving doors.
Lift lobbies (upper oors)

Floors
Carpet.
Walls
Ceilings
Toilets
Floor
Unglazed ceramic tiles.
Walls
Glazed ceramic tiles. Full-height cubicle partitions and doors.
Ceilings
Skirtings
Ceramic tile.
Lighting
Downlighters.
WCs
Suspended WC pans with concealed cisterns.
Wash basins
Fully or semi-recessed vanity mounted hand basins with concealed UPVC

pipework, polished granite top.
Urinals
White vitreous china.
Mirrors
Full height and width.
Vanity shelf
Polished granite.
Fittings
Polished stainless steel ttings and shaving point.
Hand drying
Recessed paper towel dispensers.
12
02/10/2007 11:19:24
Architectural continued..
Staircases
Floors
Precast terrazzo (primary stair) or granolithic (secondary stair) treads and

risers with non-slip nosings, with mild steel painted stringer.
Walls
Emulsion painted suspended plasterboard dry-lining.
Ceilings
Handrail
Polished stainless steel top and secondary rails.
Balustrade
Polished stainless steel posts.
Internal doors
Doors
Hardwood veneered plywood solid core doors with overpanels and painted
hardwood frames.
Ironmongery
Polished stainless steel.
Plant spaces
Structural
Enclosed
Floors: screed laid to falls.

Walls/ceilings: unnished structure/blockwork.
Open/external
Precast paving slabs and gravel ballast.
Intake room
Unnished structure.
Substructures
Foundations
Mass/reinforced concrete pads, cast on 75mm blinding on compacted

formation.
Slab
Ground-bearing slab with edge thickening and mesh reinforcement to top

face. Joints provided with debonded bars on all gridlines to control cracking.
Allowance made for lift pits and manholes.
Superstructures
Services
Structural frames
Specication as given on partial oor plans.

Plant room enclosures: steel frame (25kg/m2) supporting lightweight
cladding.
Fire
One hour re protection to all structural members apart from roof structure
(no re protection required). The building is not sprinkler-protected.
Air conditioning
Design data
22C dry bulb +/ 1C.

50% RH +10%/15% RH.
0.25 air changes per hour for ofce areas.
Internal thermal loads:
Occupants
Ofce lighting
Ofce small power
8W/m2
10W/m2
18W/m2
Occupancy
One person per 10m2.
Fresh air allowance
12 litres per second per person.
Supply
All ofces air-conditioned by means of four-pipe fan-coil system.
Air handling
Roof-mounted air handling units serving all areas of the building. Chilled
water generated by a central refrigeration plant.
Heating
General:
Low temperature hot water system. Gas red boiler plant in roof plant room.
13
02/10/2007 11:19:24
Services
Ventilation
Supply
Vents incorporated within suspended ceiling. All toilet areas provided with
mechanical supply and extract system.
Plumbing services
Cold water
Rising main to cold water storage tank feeding central core and LTHW
system. Separate drinking water system.
Hot water
Hot water from central roof mounted storage feeding core areas.
Roof drainage
Rainwater outlets connected to vertical stacks.
Foul drainage
All foul waste to discharge into Local Authority foul water drainage system.
Fire services
Hose reels.
Control systems
Control
All mechanical services plant and equipment controlled by central BMS.
Electrical services
Load densities
Ofces:
Lighting
Small power
Air conditioning
Miscellaneous
12W/m2
15W/m2
60W/m2
10W/m2
Lighting
Generally to L2 ofce standard; control by switches with key switches for the
emergency ttings. Emergency ttings to be self-contained.
Small power
Distribution within raised ooring via oor boxes. Cleaners sockets to walls
and circulation spaces.
Communications
Provision within oor boxes for tenants installations.
Lightning
Protection system complying with BS 6651:1999.
Lift installation
Design criteria
Designed to serve an overall, building population of one person per 14 m2.

15% of the design target population to be handled in a ve minute period.
14
02/10/2007 11:19:25
Building A - Architectural drawings
Architectural drawings
A
B
7500
C
7500
D
7500
7500
1
Full height
atrium
E
7500
2
7500
F
7500
G
7500
H
7500
I
7500
7500
7500
7500
Typical oor plan
In the structural drawings which follow, one page is

dedicated to each structural option. On each page is
part of a typical oor which represents the area
highlighted in blue. In addition a cross-section
through the oor zone accompanies each plan.
15
02/10/2007 11:19:25
Building A - Structural drawings
Structural drawings
Flat Slab
300 mm RC slab
1.
2.
3.
4.
300mm concrete flat slab to upper floors and roof.

Concrete class C 32/40.
High-yield reinforcement.
Assumed design imposed loads:
Roof:
0.75kN/m2
Plant room:
7.5kN/m2
Offices:
5.0kN/m2
5. Vertical dimensions:
Slab:
300mm
Services zone:
600mm
Floor zone = 1050mm
Ceiling/lighting:
150mm
Floor to ceiling:
2700mm
Raised floor:
250mm
Total:
4000mm
300
1050
Services zone
600
Ceiling and lighting zone
150
Section through floor zone
Stairs
200mm R C Shear walls

Void
800
R C Column
7500
Full Height
Atrium
7500
800
R C Column
Void
Lifts
7500
7500
Toilet
Zone
All Columns
450 x 450 unless
otherwise noted
7500
7500
7500
7500
16
02/10/2007 11:19:26
Composite
130
A193 mesh
457 x 152 UB52

800
(min)
1.2mm ribdeck AL
Services zone
1087
350 (min)
150

1. 130mm lightweight concrete slab on 1.2mm Ribdeck AL on

steel frame to upper floors and roof.
2. Lightweight concrete class C 32/40.
3. High-yield reinforcement.
4. Assumed design imposed loads:
Roof:
0.75kN/m2
Plant room:
7.5kN/m2
Offices:
5.0kN/m2
Slab:
130mm
Services zone(1):
807mm
Floor zone = 1087mm
Ceiling/lighting:
150mm
1090mm
Floor to ceiling:
2700mm
Raised floor:
250mm
Total:
4040mm
C3
203 x 203 UC46

Void
203 x 203
UC46
406 x 140 UB46
Full Height
Atrium
508
CHS153
457 x 152 UB52
C2 = 254 x 254 UC89

C3 = 305 x 305 UC97
356 x 127 UB33
356 x 127 UB33
356 x 127 UB33
7500
C1 = 254 x 254 UC73
C1
C1
including downstand beams
508
CHS153
C3
356 x 127 UB33
356 x 127 UB33
C3
7500
203 x 203 UC46

Stairs
457 x 191 UB82
C3
356 x 127 UB33
6000
457 x 191 UB82
(1)
406 x 140 UB46

7500
457 x 191 UB67
406 x 140 UB46

7500
C1
356 x 127 UB33
356 x 127 UB33
406 x 140 UB46
457 x 152 UB52
C2
C1
406 x 140 UB46

7500
356 x 127 UB33
C3
C2
406 x 140 UB46
356 x 127 UB33
457 x 152
UB52
356 x 127 UB33
356 x 127 UB33
C3
356 x 127 UB33
356 x 127 UB33

C2
C1
356 x 127 UB33
Toilet
Zone
Void
254 x 102 UB25
356 x 127 UB33
406 x 140 UB39
406 x 140
UB39
C2
356 x 127 UB33
356 x 127 UB33
7500
C2
C3 457 x 152 UB52
Lift
356 x 127 UB33
457 x 152 UB52

C2
457 x 191
UB82
406 x 140 UB39
356 x 127 UB33
356 x 127 UB33
356 x 127 UB33
7500
C2
406 x 140 UB39
457 x 152 UB52

C2
C1
7500
17
02/10/2007 11:19:27
A142 mesh in 50mm

(min) structural topping
150mm
hollowcore
200
250
Typical edge
beam
50
425
600
450
600
600
Services zone
450
1150
800
(min)
600
350(min)
150
1. 150mm precast concrete hollowcore units with 50mm (min)

mesh reinforced structural topping to upper floors and roof.
2. Concrete class C 32/40.
Roof:
0.75kN/m2
Plant room:
7.5kN/m2
Offices:
5.0kN/m2
Slab and topping:
200mm
Services zone(1):
800mm
Floor zone = 1150mm
Ceiling/lighting:
150mm
Floor to ceiling:
2700mm
Raised floor:
250mm
Total:
4100mm
(1)
Stairs
200mm R C
Shear walls
Void
7500
800
R C Column
Full Height
Atrium
7500
800
R C Column
600 x 250 R C Beam (edge)
Void
Lifts
7500
Toilet
Zone
7500
600 x 250 R C Beam (trimmer)
All Columns
400 x 400 unless
otherwise noted
7500
600 x 600 R C Beam (typical)
7500
7500
7500
18
02/10/2007 11:19:28
PT Flat Slab
250mm Post-tensioned slab
Reinforcement
250
1.
2.
3.
4.
250mm post-tensioned concrete flat slab to upper floors and roof.

Post-tensioning: Each post-tensioning tendon has five No. 12.7 mm
diameter strands.
Roof:
0.75kN/m2
Plant room:
7.5kN/m2
Offices:
5.0kN/m2
Slab:
250mm
Services zone:
600mm
Floor zone = 1000mm
Ceiling/lighting:
150mm
Floor to ceiling:
2700mm
Raised floor:
250mm
Total:
3950mm
PT duct
1000
Services zone
600
150
Stairs
200mm
R C Shear walls
Void
800
R C Column
7500
Full Height
Atrium
7500
800
R C Column
Void
Lifts
7500
7500
Toilet
Zone
All Columns
400 x 400 unless
otherwise noted
7500
7500
7500
7500
19
02/10/2007 11:19:29
A142 mesh in 50mm structural topping
Steel + Hollowcore
mesh reinforced structural topping on steel frame to upper floors
and roof.
3. Steel grade S355.
Roof:
0.75kN/m2
Plant room:
7.5kN/m2
Offices:
5.0kN/m2
Slab:
250mm
(1)
Services zone :
807mm
Floor zone = 1207mm
Ceiling/lighting:
150mm
1210mm
Floor to ceiling:
2700mm
Raised floor:
250mm
Total:
4160mm
250
200 mm Hollowcore
457 x 191 UB67

1207
800
(min)
Services zone
350 (min)
150
203 x 203 UC60

Void
203 x 203
UC60
508 CHS
153
C3
406 x 178 UB54
406 x 178 UB54
457 x 191 UB67
C3
7500
C2
Stairs
C2 = 305 x 305 UC97

C3 = 305 x 305 UC118
C4 = 305 x 305 UC137
508 CHS
153
457 x 191 UB67
406 x 178 UB54
139.7 x 5.0 CHS
7500
C1 = 254 x 254 UC89
Full Height
Atrium
C1
C2
406 x 140 UB39
C2
457 x 191 UB74
C2
139.7 x 5.0 CHS
7500
Void
457 x 191 UB67
C2
139.7 x 5.0 CHS
7500
406 x 140 UB39
C1
139.7 x 5.0 CHS
C2
406 x 178 UB54

C4
457 x 191 UB67
457 x 191 UB67
C4
C3
7500
457 x 191 UB67
C4
Toilet
Zone
406 x 140 UB39
406 x 178 UB54
152 x
89 UB16
457 x 191 UB67

139.7 x 5.0 CHS
C3 533 x 210 UB82
Lifts
406 x 178 UB54
406 x 178 UB54
533 x 210 UB82
457 x 191 UB67
C3
139.7 x 5.0 CHS
457 x 191 UB67
C2
7500
139.7 x 5.0 CHS
457 x 191 UB67
7500
C2
457 x 191 UB67
6000
305 x 305 UC97
C2
203 x 203 UC60
305 x 305 UC97
(1)
C2
139.7 x 5.0 CHS
C2
7500
20
02/10/2007 11:19:30
Slimdek
In situ concrete slab
1. 342mm (overall) concrete slab on SD225 deep decking on

asymmetric steel beams to upper floors and roof.
Roof:
0.75kN/m2
Plant room:
7.5kN/m2
Offices:
5.0kN/m2
Slab:
342mm
Services zone:
600mm
Floor zone = 1092mm
Ceiling/lighting:
150mm
1095mm
Floor to ceiling:
2700mm
Raised floor:
250mm
Total:
4045mm
342
A193 mesh
SD225 Deep decking
300 ASB 155
1092
600
Services zone
150
C3
203 x 203 UC60

Void
203 x 203
UC60
200 ASB124
300 ASB155
C3
7500
203 x 203 UC60

Stairs
305 x 305 UC97
C3
508 CHS
153
C3
C1 = 254 x 254 UC89
300 ASB155
6000
305 x 305 UC97
C2 = 254 x 254 UC107
Full Height
Atrium
C3 = 305 x 305 UC97

C4 = 305 x 305 UC118
508 CHS
153
203 x 102 UB23
300 ASB155
300 ASB155
7500
C5 = 305 x 305 UC137
C3
C1
203 x 102 UB23
203 x 102 UB23

7500
C1
C2
7500
C1
203 x 102 UB23

300 ASB196
C2
203 x 102 UB23
C1
C5
7500
300 ASB155
300 ASB155
C5
300 ASB155
203 x 102 UB23
280 ASB74
300 ASB155
300 ASB155
Toilet
Zone
Void
300 ASB155
300 ASB196
300 ASB196
300 ASB155
300 ASB155
7500
280
ASB74
C5
C2
C2
300 ASB155
300 ASB155
203 x 102 UB23
C5
Lifts
300 ASB155
300 ASB196
C4
300 ASB155
7500
C2
C2
203 x 102 UB23
C1
7500
21
02/10/2007 11:19:31
Building B - Design criteria
5. Building B
Design criteria
Architectural
The following design criteria, representative of current good practice and commercial
standards, form the basis of the study.
Plan dimensions
Planning grid
1500 1500mm
Partition grid
1500 1500mm
Structural grid
7500 9000mm
Vertical dimensions 39504235mm (see drawings)

Floor to ceiling height
3200mm GF1st Floor; 2700mm 1st5th Floor
Raised oor
250mm
Occupancy
Structural
Density
One person per 10m2 of nett internal oor area.
Design target populations

Ancillary accommodation
1,215 total.
Core areas
Include male and female toilets and cleaners cubicle on each

oor, disabled toilets and PABX equipment on the ground oor.
Codes of practice and standards

Concrete
BS 8110 Part 1: 1997 (amendments 1 & 2) - Structural use of concrete
Structural steelwork
BS 5950 Part 1: 2000 - Structural use of steelwork in buildings
Loads
Imposed load
Dead load
Line loads
Ofces: 4.0 + 1.0kN/m2 for partitions

Roof: 0.75kN/m2
Self-weight plus superimposed dead load of 0.9kN/m2
External cladding
Atrium glazing
Internal blockwork walls
8kN/m
8kN/m
10kN/m
Deections
General
Deections will be limited in accordance with the guidance in the

appropriate Code of Practice.
Fire rating
1hrs
Vibration
Natural frequency limited to 4Hz.
Ground conditions
Bearing pressure
The ground is assumed as typical made ground to GFL 5m and

clay from GFL 5m to depth. Piles are 750mm diameter open
bored piles using C30/37 concrete.
A pile capacity working load capacity of 1MN @ 14m penetration
into the clay, varying linearly to 2MN @ 23m penetration.
Maximum pile length 28m.
Lateral stability
Propping
It is assumed that the ground does not have sufcient capacity to

carry a ground-bearing slab and that all options would have a reinforced In-situ concrete suspended slab. In long-span options, intermediate piles are provided to reduce the span of this ground slab.
Braced frame using shear walls.
Propping is required for the Slimdek system during construction.
No propping is required for the other steel frames.
22
02/10/2007 11:19:32
Building B - Outline specications
Services
General
All normal services to be provided to typical contemporary

commercial standards, including: heating, lighting, ventilation,
lifts, hot and cold water supply, drainage, re services, small
power, provision for communications, lightning protection, etc.
Ventilation
General
Air-conditioned using four-pipe fan coil system.
Architectural
External envelope
External wall
Proprietary curtain walling system, 170mm thick overall.
Shop fronts at
ground oor
Floor-to-ceiling ground-supported single glazing in aluminium grid frame,

with aluminium louvre spandrel system over for ventilation of shops.
Internal atrium walls

(if required for tenancy split)
Unitised curtain wall incorporating oor-to-ceiling single glazing units and

aluminium clad spandrels.
Individual units to be 1500 or 3000mm wide storey height, top hung from
slab edge.
Plant rooms
Proprietary curtain walling panel system.
Plant screen
Coated aluminium louvres connected to steel panels bolted to slab upstands.
Flat roofs
Inverted roof build-up with monolithic hot-applied bitumen

polymer membrane, insulation and ballast.
Atrium roof
Fritted double glazed units in an aluminium grid frame.
Ofce areas
Floors
Proprietary medium duty raised oor system, 250mm overall, and carpet.
Ceilings
500 500mm pre-nished fully demountable perforated tile with concealed

suspension system.
External walls
Unitised curtain wall incorporating oor to ceiling double glazing units and
stone clad insulated spandrels. Individual units to be 1500 or 3000mm wide
storey height top hung from slab edge. Solar shading to south and west
faades in the form of external horizontal/vertical brises-soleils cantilevered
off the face of the building to allow faade cleaning access.
Columns
Emulsion painted plastered concrete or painted dry-lined encased steel

columns.
Skirtings
Retail space
Generally left as shell nish for t-out by tenants
External walls
Floor to ceiling ground supported single glazing in aluminium grid frame, with
aluminium louvre spandrel system over for ventilation.
Stone panel rain screen with ventilated insulated cavity supported on groundbearing blockwork walls or grid frame.
Entrance halls/ground oor lift lobbies

Floor
Carpet.
Walls
Ceilings
Skirtings
Furniture
Reception desk.
Doors
Stainless steel revolving doors.
Lift lobbies (upper oors)

Floors
Carpet.
Walls
Ceilings
23
02/10/2007 11:19:32
Architectural continued..
Toilets
Floor
Unglazed ceramic tiles.
Walls
Glazed ceramic tiles. Full height cubicle partitions and doors.
Ceilings
Skirtings
Ceramic tile.
Lighting
Downlighters.
WCs
Suspended WC pans with concealed cisterns.
Wash basins
Fully or semi-recessed vanity mounted hand basins with concealed UPVC

pipework, polished granite top.
Urinals
White vitreous china.
Mirrors
Full height and width.
Vanity shelf
Polished granite.
Fittings
Polished stainless steel ttings, and shaving point.
Hand drying
Recessed paper towel dispensers.
Staircases
Floors
Precast terrazzo (primary stair) or granolithic (secondary stair) treads and

risers with non-slip nosings, with mild steel painted stringer.
Walls
Ceilings
Handrail
Polished stainless steel top and secondary rails.
Balustrade
Polished stainless steel posts.
Internal doors
Doors
Hardwood veneered plywood solid core doors with overpanels and painted
hardwood frames.
Ironmongery
Polished stainless steel.
Plant spaces
Structural
Enclosed
Floors: screed laid to falls.

Walls/ceilings: unnished structure/blockwork.
Open/external
Precast paving slabs and gravel ballast.
Intake room
Unnished structure.
Substructures
Foundations
Piled foundations (750mm diameter open-bored piles, maximum length 28m);

intermediate piles provided for long-span options.
Slab
In-situ reinforced concrete suspended slab. Allowance made for lift pits and
manholes.
Superstructures
Concrete
Specication as given on partial oor plans.

Plant room enclosures: steel frame (25kg/m2) supporting lightweight
cladding.
Steel
Steel frames as shown on partial oor plans.
Fire
One-and-a-half-hour re protection to all structural members apart from roof

structure (no re protection required). The building is not sprinkler-protected.
24
02/10/2007 11:19:33
Services
Air conditioning
Design data
22C dry bulb +/ 1C.

50% RH +10%/15% RH.
0.25 air changes per hour for ofce areas.
Internal thermal loads:
Occupants
Ofce lighting
Ofce small power
8W/m2
10W/m2
18W/m2
Occupancy
One person per 10m2.
Fresh air allowance
12 litres per second per person.
Supply
All ofces air-conditioned by means of four-pipe fan coil system
Air handling
Roof-mounted air handling units serving all areas of the building. Chilled
water generated by a central refrigeration plant.
Heating
General
Low temperature hot water radiant panels. Gas red boiler plant in the roof
plant room.
Ventilation
Supply
Vents incorporated within suspended ceiling. All toilet areas provided with
mechanical supply and extract system.
Plumbing services
Cold water
Rising main to cold water storage tank feeding central core and LTHW
system. Separate drinking water system.
Hot water
Hot water from central roof mounted storage feeding core areas.
Roof drainage
Rainwater outlets connected to vertical stacks.
Foul drainage
All foul waste to discharge into Local Authority foul water drainage system.
Fire services
Hose reels.
Control systems
Control
All mechanical services plant and equipment controlled by central BMS.
Electrical services
Load densities
Ofces:
Lighting
Small power
Air conditioning
Miscellaneous
12W/m2
15W/m2
60W/m2
10W/m2
Lighting
Generally to L2 ofce standard; control by switches with key switches for the
emergency ttings. Emergency ttings to be self-contained.
Small power
Distribution within raised ooring via oor boxes. Cleaners sockets to walls
and circulation spaces.
Communications
Provision within oor boxes for tenants installations.
Lightning
Protection system complying with BS 6651:1999.
Lift installation
Design criteria
Designed to serve an overall, building population of one person per 14 m2.

15% of the design target population to be handled in a ve minute period.
25
02/10/2007 11:19:34
Building B - Architectural drawings
Architectural drawings
B
9000
C
9000
D
9000
E
9000
F
9000
G
9000
H
9000
I
9000
7500
7500
9000
3
Full height
atrium
7500
7500
Typical oor plan
In the structural drawings which follow,

one page is dedicated to each structural
option. On each page is part of a typical
oor which represents the area highlighted
in blue. In addition a cross-section through
the oor zone accompanies each plan.
26
02/10/2007 11:19:34
Building B - Structural drawings
Structural drawings
Flat Slab
325 mm RC slab
1.
2.
3.
4.
325mm concrete flat slab to upper floors and roof.

Assumed design imposed loads:
Roof:
0.75kN/m2
Plant room:
7.5kN/m2
Offices:
5.0kN/m2
Slab:
325mm
Services zone:
600mm(1)
Floor zone = 1075mm
Ceiling/lighting:
150mm
Floor to ceiling:
2700mm(2)
Raised floor:
250mm
Total:
4025mm
325
1075
Services zone
600
150
(1)
(2)
550 x 550 (G-2)

450 x 450 (2-R)
Void
200mm R C
Shear walls
9000
Toilet
Zone
Stairs
increase to 750mm for GF - 1st

Lobby
Lifts
Atrium
7500
550 x 550 (G-2)

450 x 450 (2-R)
7500
550 x 550 (G-2)

450 x 450 (2-R)
550 x 550 (G-2)

450 x 450 (2-R)
550 x 550 (G-2)

450 x 450 (2-R)
550 x 550 (G-2)

450 x 450 (2-R)
All Columns
450 x 450 unless
otherwise noted
9000
9000
9000
9000
27
02/10/2007 11:19:36
PT Flat Slab
250mm Post-tensioned slab
Reinforcement
250
PT duct
1000
Services zone
600
150
1.
2.
3.
4.
250mm post-tensioned concrete flat slab to upper floors and roof.

Post-tensioning: Each post-tensioning tendon has five No. 12.7 mm
diameter strands.
Roof:
0.75 kN/m2
Plant room:
7.5kN/m2
Offices:
5.0kN/m2
Slab:
250mm
Services zone:
600mm(1)
Floor zone = 1000mm
Ceiling/lighting:
150mm
Floor to ceiling:
2700mm (2)
Raised floor:
250mm
Total:
3950mm
(1)
(2)
Toilet
Zone
9000
Void
200mm R C
Shear walls
Lobby
Lifts
Atrium
7500
7500
Stairs

All Columns
500 x 500 (G-1)
450 x 450 (1-R)
9000
9000
9000
9000
28
02/10/2007 11:19:37
Composite
130
457 x 191 UB67

800
(min)
1.2mm ribdeck AL
Services zone
1087
350 (min)
150
(1)

(2)
(3)
406 x 140 UB46

Toilet
Zone
406 x 140 UB39
406 x 140 UB39
406 x 140 UB46
406 x 140 UB39
9000
406 x 140 UB39

9000
C3 = 356 x 368 UC129
C2
406 x 140 UB39

9000
406 x 140 UB46
406 x 140 UB46
C2
406 x 140 UB39
C2
457 x 191 UB67
406 x 140 UB46
C3
406 x 140 UB46
406 x 140 UB46
406 x 140 UB46
C2
457 x 191 UB67
406 x 140 UB46
C3
406 x 140 UB46
406 x 140 UB46
C2
457 x 191 UB67
457 x 191 UB67
406 x 140 UB46
C3
406 x 140 UB46
406 x 140 UB46
C2 = 305 x 305 UC97

Atrium
254 x
146
UB31
406 x 140 UB39
457 x 191 UB67
406 x 140 UB46
406 x 140 UB46
Lifts
C1 = 254 x 254 UC73
406 x 140 UB46
C3
457 x 191 UB67
406 x 140 UB46
7500
7500
C1
254 x 146 UB31
254 x 146 UB31
C2
C2
254 x 146 UB31
Stairs
C2
406 x 140 UB46
Lobby
457 x 191 UB67
406 x 140 UB39
457 x 191 UB67
457 x 191 UB67
9000
Void
C2
406 x 140 UB39
200mm R C
Shear walls
406 x 140 UB46
C3
254 x 146 UB31
406 x 140 UB46
C2
C3
457 x 191 UB67
A193 mesh
1. 130mm lightweight concrete slab on 1.2mm Ribdeck AL on

steel frame to upper floors and roof.
Roof:
0.75kN/m2
Plant room:
7.5kN/m2
Offices:
5.0kN/m2
Slab:
130mm
(1)
Services zone :
807mm(2)
Floor zone = 1087mm
Ceiling/lighting:
150mm
1090mm
Floor to ceiling:
2700mm(3)
Raised floor:
250mm
Total:
4040mm
C2
9000
29
02/10/2007 11:19:37
A142 mesh in 50mm

(min) structural topping
150mm
hollowcore
200
250
Typical edge
beam
50

mesh reinforced structural topping to upper floors and roof.
In-situ reinforced concrete beams and columns.
Roof:
0.75kN/m2
Plant room:
7.5kN/m2
Offices:
5.0kN/m2
5. Vertical dimensions :
Slab and topping:
200mm
Services zone(1):
800mm(2)
Floor zone = 1150mm
Ceiling/lighting:
150mm
Floor to ceiling:
2700mm (3)
Raised floor:
250mm
Total:
4100mm
425
600
450
600
600
Services zone
450
1150
800
(min)
600
350(min)
150

(1)

(2)
(3)
Void
B
200mm R C
Shear walls
Lobby
A 600 x 600 R C Beam
B 600 x 250 R C Beam
9000
C
Stairs
A
7500
7500
Beam Schedule
C 600 x 425 R C Beam
Lifts
Atrium
Toilet
Zone
All Columns
450 x 450
9000
9000
9000
9000
30
02/10/2007 11:19:38
PT Band Beams
225
2500 (typical)
PT Duct
Services zone
325
800
1175
(min)
350
(min)
150
1. 225mm post-tensioned concrete flat slab with band beams to

upper floors and roof.
4. Post-tensioning: Each post-tensioning tendon has five No. 12.7
mm diameter strands.
Roof:
0.75kN/m2
Plant room:
7.5kN/m2
Offices:
5.0kN/m2
Slab:
225mm
(1)
Services zone :
800mm(2)
Floor zone = 1175mm
Ceiling/lighting:
150mm
Floor to ceiling:
2700mm (3)
Raised floor:
250mm
Total:
4125mm
(1)
(2)
(3)
Toilet
Zone
7500
7500
9000
Void

200mm R C
Shear walls
Stairs
550 x 1750 P T
edge beam
550 x 2750 P T
beam
Lobby
Lifts
Atrium
550 x 2500 P T
Beam (typical)
All Columns
800 x 800
9000
9000
9000
9000
31
02/10/2007 11:19:39
Long-Span Composite
130
1. 130mm lightweight concrete slab on 1.2mm Ribdeck AL on steel

frame to upper floors and roof. Steel columns and cellular beams.
Roof:
0.75kN/m2
Plant room:
7.5kN/m2
Offices:
5.0kN/m2
Slab and decking:
130mm
(1)
Services zone :
800mm(2)
Floor zone = 1080mm
Ceiling/lighting:
150mm
Floor to ceiling:
2700mm (3)
Raised floor:
250mm
Total:
4030mm
1.2 mm ribdeck AL
A142 mesh
Cellular beam
457 x 191 UB67 +
533 x 210 UB92
710
(Typical)
800 1080
(min)
Services zone
150
(1)
(2)
(3)
Lifts
406 x 140 UB39
406 x 140 UB39
406 x 140 UB39
406 x 140 UB39
406 x 140 UB39
406 x 140 UB39
406 x 140 UB39
406 x 140 UB39
9000
Lobby
Stairs
Toilet
Zone
C3
C3
200mm R C
Shear walls
Void
533 x 210 UB82
610 x 229 UB101
610 x 229 UB101
C4
406 x 140 UB39
610 x 229 UB101
C3

Atrium
C1 = 254 x 254 UC73

C2 = 305 x 305 UC97
610 x 229 UB101
610 x 229 UB101
533 x 210 UB82

610 x 229 UB101
C4
C3
C3
C3
C3 = 356 x 368 UC129
C2
533 x 210 UB82

9000
C3
533 x 210 UB82

9000
C3
533 x 210 UB82

9000
C3
533 x 210 UB82
457 x 191 UB67 + 533 x 210 UB92
457 x 191 UB67 + 533 x 210 UB92
457 x 191 UB67 + 533 x 210 UB92
457 x 191 UB67 + 533 x 210 UB92
457 x 191 UB67 + 533 x 210 UB92
457 x 191 UB67 + 533 x 210 UB92
457 x 191 UB67 + 533 x 210 UB92
457 x 191 UB67 + 533 x 210 UB92
457 x 191 UB67 + 533 x 210 UB92
457 x 191 UB67 + 533 x 210 UB92
457 x 191 UB67 + 533 x 210 UB92
356 x 127 UB33
7500
C1
457 x 191 UB67 + 533 x 210 UB92
356 x 127 UB33
7500
C4 = 356 x 368 UC177
C3
9000
32
02/10/2007 11:19:40
Steel + Hollowcore
A142 mesh in 50 mm (min) structural topping

mesh reinforced structural topping on steel frame to upper floors
and roof.
Roof:
0.75kN/m2
Plant room:
7.5kN/m2
Offices:
5.0kN/m2
Slab:
250mm
Services zone(1):
883mm(2)
Floor zone = 1283mm
Ceiling/lighting:
150mm
1285mm
Floor to ceiling:
2700mm (3)
Raised floor:
250mm
Total:
4235mm
250
200 mm Hollowcore
533 x 210 UB82

1283
800
(min)
Services zone
350 (min)
150

(1)
(2)
(3)

C1 = 305 x 305 UC97
Lobby
Stairs
406 x
178
UB54
406 x 178
UB54
Toilet
Zone
305 x 165
UB40
Lifts
C3
9000
203 x 133 UB25
457 x 191 UB67

9000
Atrium
457 x 191 UB67
533 x 210 UB82

203 x 133 UB25
533 x 210 UB82
C3
457 x 191 UB67

9000
C3
C2
C2
203 x 133 UB25

C3
C4 = 356 x 368 UC153
C3
C2
533 x 210 UB82

203 x 133 UB25
7500
406 x 140 UB39
406 x 140 UB46
457 x 191 UB67
C3 = 356 x 368 UC129
406 x 178 UB54
C2
533 x 210 UB82
C1
457 x 191 UB67
203 x 133 UB25
C4
C2 = 305 x 305 UC158
203 x 133 UB25
457 x 191 UB82
406 x 140 UB46
7500
406 x 140 UB39
C3
254 x
146
UB31
C3
203 x 133 UB25
200mm R C
Shear walls
457 x 191 UB67
203 x 133 UB25
533 x 210 UB82
457 x 191 UB67
Void
406 x 178 UB60
C4
533 x 210 UB101
533 x 210 UB101
9000
406 x 178 UB60
C3
C3
406 x 178 UB54
457 x 191 UB67
457 x 191 UB67
457 x 191 UB82
C3
457 x 191 UB67
C3
9000
33
02/10/2007 11:19:41
Slimdek
In situ concrete slab
1. 342mm (overall) concrete slab on SD225 deep decking on

asymmetric steel beams to upper floors and roof.
Roof:
0.75kN/m2
Plant room:
7.5kN/m2
Offices:
5.0kN/m2
Slab:
342mm
Services zone:
600mm(1)
Floor zone = 1092mm
Ceiling/lighting:
150mm
1095mm
Floor to ceiling:
2700mm (2)
Raised floor:
250mm
Total:
4045mm
342
300 ASB 249

1092
600
Services zone
150
(1)

(2)
C2
300 ASB196
300 ASB153
C1
280 ASB124
200mm R C
Shear walls
300 ASB155
300 ASB155
300 ASB249
300 ASB249
9000
Void
Lobby
280 ASB74
280 ASB74
280 ASB74
C2
Stairs
Toilet
Zone
300 ASB249
C1
300 ASB155
A193 mesh
SD225 Deep decking
Atrium
C1 = 305 x 305 UC97
C2 = 356 x 368 UC129
280
ASB74
Lift
300 ASB153
280 ASB124
C1
300 ASB249
300 ASB249
9000
9000
300 ASB249
C1
C2
300 ASB249
C2
300 ASB249
C2
C2
300 ASB249
C2
300 ASB249
C2
203 x 102 UB23
C2
C1
203 x 102 UB23
203 x 102 UB23
300 ASB249
203 x 102 UB23
C2
203 x 102 UB23
300 ASB249
280 ASB74
C2
7500
203 x 102 UB23
280 ASB74
7500
C2
203 x 102 UB23
300 ASB196
9000
203 x 102 UB23
C2
9000
34
02/10/2007 11:19:42
Programmes
6. Programmes
A comparison of the overall programme durations, showing each of the periods from
procurement to completion, is given in tabular and graphical form in this Chapter. Detailed
programmes for the Flat Slab and Composite options for both Building A and Building B
are also presented in Appendix A Detailed programmes.
Structural
option
Procurement Lead time

Overall
Frame
time (weeks) (weeks) construction construction
time (weeks) time (weeks)
Overall
project
time
(weeks)
Building A
Flat Slab
10
50
10
64
PT Flat Slab
10
51
11
65
In-situ +
Hollowcore
10
52
13
66
Composite
10
12
48
70
Steel +
Hollowcore
10
12
48
70
Slimdek
10
12
48
70
PT Flat Slab
10
66
17
82
Flat Slab
10
67
18
83
PT Band Beams
10
66
17
83
In-situ +
Hollowcore
10
70
22
86
Steel +
Hollowcore
10
16
65
21
91
Slimdek
10
16
65
21
91
Composite
10
16
67
23
93
Long-Span
Composite
10
18
67
23
95
Building B
Note
Frame construction time for
Composite, Steel +
Hollowcore, Slimdek and
Long-Span Composite
options includes construction
of concrete jump-form core.
Procurement programme
Lead times
The procurement element is identical for each option at ten weeks, comprising two weeks
for collation of information, four weeks for bidding, three weeks for bid evaluation and
one week for award of contract, assuming a traditional approach to works package subcontracting.
Building A
The lead time for the Flat Slab, In-situ + Hollowcore and PT Flat Slab options is four
weeks, comprising one week for working drawings, one week for drawing approval, one
week for material procurement and one week for mobilisation.
35
02/10/2007 11:19:43
Programmes
The lead time for the structural frame for the Composite, Steel + Hollowcore and Slimdek
options is 12 weeks, comprising four weeks for working drawings, one week for drawing
approval, one week for material procurement, ve weeks for manufacture and one week
for mobilisation.
Building B
The lead time for the structural frame for the Flat Slab, In-situ + Hollowcore and PT Flat
Slab options for the short-span options is six weeks, comprising one week for working
drawings, one week for drawing approval, two weeks for material procurement and two
weeks for mobilisation. For the long-span PT Band Beam option, an extra week is required
for procurement, increasing the lead time to seven weeks.
The lead time for the structural frame for the Composite, Steel + Hollowcore and Slimdek
options for the short-span options is 16 weeks, comprising four weeks for working drawings,
one week for drawing approval, two weeks for material procurement, eight weeks for
manufacture and one week for mobilisation. For the Long-Span Composite option, an
extra two weeks are required for manufacture, increasing the lead time to 18 weeks.
Other elements
With regard to lead times, the most critical element is cladding, which is required relatively early in the construction and for which the lead time can be as much as 45 weeks for
complex, high-quality curtain walling systems. Clearly, it would be unlikely that incurring
such a long lead time after contract award would be a viable option on most projects.
Accordingly, the procurement process for cladding would generally need to be set in
motion before contract award and several solutions are available to overcome this problem.
It is possible for a client to enter into a framework agreement with one or more cladding
manufacturers, under which production space can be reserved to suit an anticipated
project schedule. This route is most likely to be adopted by an experienced client with an
ongoing stream of developments. Alternatively, a client may pre-order the cladding prior
to awarding a contract, in order to guarantee delivery to suit an eventual construction
programme. In either case, the client bears the nancial risk of such a commitment to the
cladding manufacturer.
The early appointment of a contractor under a two-stage tender approach can prove effective in overcoming the problem and may also prove benecial by involving the contractors
expertise in buildability and programming in the cladding procurement. Alternatively, a
long-term partnering or alliancing approach can alleviate the difculty; however, the risk
apportionment on such a basis needs to be appropriate to the project and must be fully
understood and carefully considered by all parties.
Lifts and some M&E plant also tend to have long lead times, especially non-standard
equipment, but as these are generally required later in the project, greater scope exists
for managing the risks associated with pre-ordering.
36
02/10/2007 11:19:44
Programmes
Construction programmes
Assumptions and logic

A ve-day week was assumed. Holidays have not been shown on the programme and no
allowance has been made for inclement weather. A simplied view has been taken of such
factors as logistics, site access, boundary constraints, cranage, etc., where it has been
assumed that there would be no access or supply problems. These aspects are highly sitespecic and could result in shorter or longer construction periods. On activities not related
to the structure, similar resources and sequences have been assumed for all the options.
It was assumed that the ground oor slab would be fully or substantially complete before
a steel frame is erected. Whilst it is possible for steelwork to be erected from the pile caps
before the ground oor slab is constructed, thus saving time on the critical path, many
steelwork contractors prefer the ground oor slab to be installed, as it is safer for the
steelwork erectors to work from mobile elevated working platforms positioned on a at
surface, as well as providing a clear lay-down area for the steelwork.
It is also possible for a concrete frame to be built before the ground oor slab is constructed, the columns being cast from pile caps and the ground oor slab being installed
subsequently. The time savings are similar for both materials.
It was assumed that the frame for Building A would be erected using a mobile crane and
that one tower crane is used for the erection of Building B. It was also assumed that longlead items such as cladding, lifts and some plant would be pre-ordered.
With the Flat Slab, PT Flat Slab and Slimdek options, although the availability of a clear
unimpeded soft would permit greater use of prefabrication in the M&E services distribution, with consequent programme savings, no allowance has been made for any reduction
in the construction programme as a result of this potential benet.
Building A
The construction programmes range from 50 to 52 weeks for the buildings constructed
using the Flat Slab, In-situ + Hollowcore and PT Flat Slab options, compared with a 48week period for each of the buildings constructed using the Composite, Steel +
Hollowcore and Slimdek options.
Building B
Of the short-span buildings, construction programmes range from 65 weeks for the Steel
+ Hollowcore and Slimdek options, the PT Flat Slab option at 66 weeks, closely followed
by the Flat Slab and Composite options at 67 weeks, with the In-situ + Hollowcore option
at 70 weeks.
The construction programmes for the long-span options are almost identical, with the PT
Band Beam option being marginally shorter at 66 weeks, compared to 67 weeks for the
Long-Span Composite option.
37
02/10/2007 11:19:44
Building A - Programmes
Building A
Composite 48 weeks
0
10
20
10
20
30
40
50
60
30
40
50
60
30
40
50
60
30
40
50
60
Activity
Number of weeks
Establish site
2
Substructures
8
Superstructure
8
Roof finishes
8
11
Roof installations
External envelope
13
Cores and risers
13
Toilet fit-out
16
8
M & E first fix
M & E second fix
5
Lifts
12
Fit-out first floor
9
Fit-out second floor
8
5
Fit-out ground floor
Final fix
9
Testing & commissioning
17
External works
12
Week number
Steel + Hollowcore 48 weeks

0
10
20
10
20
Activity
Number of weeks
Establish site
2
Substructures
8
Superstructure
7
Roof finishes
8
11
Roof installations
External envelope
13
Cores and risers
13
Toilet fit-out
16
8
M & E first fix
M & E second fix
5
Lifts
12
Fit-out first floor
9
8
5
Final fix
9
17
External works
12
Week number
38
02/10/2007 11:19:45
Slimdek 48 weeks
0
10
20
10
20
30
40
50
60
30
40
50
60
30
40
50
60
30
40
50
60
Activity
Number of weeks
Establish site
2
Substructures
8
Superstructure
7
Roof finishes
8
11
Roof installations
External envelope
13
Cores and risers
13
Toilet fit-out
16
8
M & E first fix
M & E second fix
5
Lifts
12
Fit-out first floor
9
8
5
Final fix
9
17
External works
12
Week number
Flat Slab 50 weeks

0
10
20
10
20
Activity
Number of weeks
Establish site
2
Substructures
8
Superstructure
10
Roof finishes
8
11
Roof installations
External envelope
13
Cores and risers
13
Toilet fit-out
16
8
M & E first fix
M & E second fix
5
Lifts
12
Fit-out first floor
8
8
5
Final fix
9
17
External works
12
Week number
39
02/10/2007 11:19:46
PT Flat Slab 51 weeks

0
10
20
10
20
30
40
50
60
30
40
50
60
30
40
50
60
30
40
50
60
Activity
Number of weeks
Establish site
2
Substructures
8
Superstructure
11
Roof finishes
8
11
Roof installations
External envelope
13
Cores and risers
13
Toilet fit-out
16
8
M & E first fix
M & E second fix
5
Lifts
12
Fit-out first floor
8
8
5
Final fix
9
17
External works
12
Week number
In-Situ + Hollowcore 52 weeks

0
10
20
10
20
Activity
Number of weeks
Establish site
2
Substructures
8
Superstructure
13
Roof finishes
5
11
Roof installations
External envelope
13
Cores and risers
13
Toilet fit-out
16
8
M & E first fix
M & E second fix
5
Lifts
12
Fit-out first floor
8
8
5
Final fix
9
17
External works
12
Week number
40
02/10/2007 11:19:48
Building B - Programmes
Building B
Steel + Hollowcore 65 weeks

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Activity
Number of weeks
Establish site
2
Substructures
15
Superstructure
21
Roof finishes
9
Roof installations
15
Atrium glazing
19
External envelope
15
Cores and risers
18
Toilet fit-out
20
14
M & E first fix
M & E second fix
10
Lifts
22
Fit-out first floor
10
10
10
Fit-out third floor
10
Fit-out fourth floor
10
Fit-out fifth floor
12
Final fix
17
External works
12
Week number
Slimdek 65 weeks
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Activity
Number of weeks
Establish site
2
Substructures
15
Superstructure
21
Roof finishes
9
Roof installations
15
Atrium glazing
19
External envelope
15
Cores and risers
18
Toilet fit-out
20
14
M & E first fix
M & E second fix
10
Lifts
22
Fit-out first floor
10
10
10
Fit-out third floor
10
10
Fit-out fifth floor
12
Final fix
18
External works
12
Week number
41
02/10/2007 11:19:49
PT Flat Slab 66 weeks

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Activity
Number of weeks
Establish site
2
Substructures
16
Superstructure
17
Roof finishes
9
Roof installations
15
Atrium glazing
19
External envelope
19
Cores and risers
20
Toilet fit-out
20
14
M & E first fix
M & E second fix
10
Lifts
22
Fit-out first floor
10
10
10
Fit-out third floor
10
10
Fit-out fifth floor
12
Final fix
19
External works
12
Week number
PT Band Beams 66 weeks

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Activity
Number of weeks
Establish site
2
Substructures
16
Superstructure
17
Roof finishes
9
Roof installations
15
Atrium glazing
19
External envelope
19
Cores and risers
20
Toilet fit-out
20
14
M & E first fix
M & E second fix
10
Lifts
22
Fit-out first floor
10
10
10
Fit-out third floor
10
10
Fit-out fifth floor
12
Final fix
19
External works
12
Week number
42
02/10/2007 11:19:50
Flat Slab 67 weeks

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Activity
Number of weeks
Establish site
2
Substructures
16
Superstructure
18
Roof finishes
9
Roof installations
15
Atrium glazing
19
External envelope
17
Cores and risers
25
Toilet fit-out
20
14
M & E first fix
M & E second fix
10
Lifts
22
Fit-out first floor
10
10
10
Fit-out third floor
10
10
Fit-out fifth floor
12
Final fix
19
External works
16
Week number
Composite 67 weeks
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Activity
Number of weeks
Establish site
2
Substructures
15
Superstructure
23
Roof finishes
9
Roof installations
15
Atrium glazing
19
External envelope
18
Cores and risers
19
Toilet fit-out
20
14
M & E first fix
M & E second fix
10
Lifts
22
Fit-out first floor
10
10
10
Fit-out third floor
10
10
Fit-out fifth floor
12
Final fix
17
External works
12
Week number
43
02/10/2007 11:19:51
Long-Span Composite 67 weeks

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Activity
Number of weeks
Establish site
2
Substructures
15
Superstructure
23
Roof finishes
9
Roof installations
15
Atrium glazing
19
External envelope
17
Cores and risers
19
Toilet fit-out
20
14
M & E first fix
M & E second fix
10
Lifts
22
Fit-out first floor
10
10
10
Fit-out third floor
10
10
Fit-out fifth floor
12
Final fix
17
External works
12
Week number
In-Situ + Hollowcore 70 weeks

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Activity
Number of weeks
Establish site
2
Substructures
16
Superstructure
22
Roof finishes
9
Roof installations
15
Atrium glazing
19
External envelope
19
Cores and risers
22
Toilet fit-out
20
14
M & E first fix
M & E second fix
10
Lifts
22
Fit-out first floor
10
10
10
Fit-out third floor
10
10
Fit-out fifth floor
13
Final fix
18
External works
12
Week number
44
02/10/2007 11:19:53
Summary of costs
7. Summary of costs
Costs
Basis of pricing
Prices used in this study have been prepared by Davis Langdon, based on pricing data
obtained in June 2006 from their national cost database of recently tendered projects.
Rates for Building A are based on construction in south east England and rates for
Building B are based on construction in central London.
Preliminaries
The cost of the main contractors preliminaries for each option was based on two separate
elements. A lump sum was included to allow both for non-work-related aspects such as
contractual requirements for insurances, employers facilities, etc. and for xed one-off
costs such as site establishment, access roads, crane bases, services connection charges, etc.
Separate allowances were made for time-related costs, such as management and staff, site
accommodation, services and facilities, cranage, etc. Such costs vary according to programme duration and the sequencing of operations within the programme. Adjustment
of these costs has been made to reect the different construction durations identied in
the programmes produced by Mace.
For Building A, preliminaries on average equate to an on-cost of 13.6% of the basic
construction cost and for Building B, preliminaries on average equate to an on-cost of
15.5% of the basic construction cost.
Finance and rental costs

The study did not include assessment of the costs of nancing the project, nor
consideration of return on rentals.
Summary tables
The itemised costs for Building A and Building B are presented in the following tables,
followed by the key rates used in the study.
45
02/10/2007 11:19:54
Summary of costs - Building A
Building A
4642 m2 GIFA
Element
Short-span options
Flat Slab
Composite
PT Flat Slab
Steel + Hollowcore
Slimdek
Element total ()
Element total ()
Element total ()
Element total ()
Element total ()
Element total ()
Substructure
199,480
189,765
202,641
200,512
195,452
192,107
Frame/upper oors
564,827
568,078
591,645
642,599
643,704
872,208
Roof nishes
241,208
241,208
241,208
241,208
241,208
241,208
63,000
63,000
63,000
63,000
63,000
63,000
External cladding
1,166,600
1,174,480
1,187,720
1,154,800
1,199,980
1,175,460
Internal planning
141,230
154,110
145,255
139,740
156,630
153,900
Wall nishes
51,010
50,040
49,684
48,820
52,240
50,240
Floor nishes
274,432
274,432
274,432
274,432
274,432
274,432
Ceiling nishes
125,308
125,308
125,308
125,308
125,308
125,308
Fittings
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
Sanitary
208,890
208,890
208,890
208,890
208,890
208,890
1,285,834
1,311,551
1,285,834
1,285,834
1,311,551
1,285,834
637,811
650,567
637,811
637,811
650,567
637,811
70,000
70,000
70,000
70,000
70,000
70,000
BWIC
172,470
172,470
172,470
172,470
172,470
172,470
Contingency
394,658
398,542
398,692
399,407
406,907
418,715
Preliminaries
735,000
715,000
755,000
745,000
715,000
715,000
Overheads and prot
383,505
385,646
388,175
388,190
392,840
402,995
6,775,263
6,813,088
6,857,765
6,858,021
6,940,180
7,119,578
Stairs
Mechanical
Electrical
Lifts
TOTAL
Element
Short-span options
Flat Slab
/m2
Composite
/m2
/m2
PT Flat Slab
/m2
Steel + Hollowcore
/m2
Slimdek
/m2
43
2.9
41
2.8
44
3.0
43
2.9
42
2.8
41
2.7
122
8.3
122
8.3
127
8.6
138
9.4
139
9.3
188
12.3
Roof nishes
52
3.6
52
3.5
52
3.5
52
3.5
52
3.5
52
3.4
Stairs
14
0.9
14
0.9
14
0.9
14
0.9
14
0.9
14
0.9
External cladding
252
17.2
253
17.2
256
17.3
249
16.8
258
17.3
253
16.5
Internal planning
30
2.1
33
2.3
31
2.1
30
2.0
34
2.3
33
2.2
Substructure
Frame/upper oors
Wall nishes
11
0.8
11
0.7
11
0.7
11
0.7
11
0.8
11
0.7
Floor nishes
59
4.1
59
4.0
59
4.0
59
4.0
59
4.0
59
3.9
Ceiling nishes
27
1.8
27
1.8
27
1.8
27
1.8
27
1.8
27
1.8
Fittings
13
0.9
13
0.9
13
0.9
13
0.9
13
0.9
13
0.8
45
3.1
45
3.1
45
3.0
45
3.0
45
3.0
45
2.9
Mechanical
277
19.0
283
19.3
277
18.8
277
18.7
283
18.9
277
18.1
Electrical
Sanitary
137
9.4
140
9.5
137
9.3
137
9.3
140
9.4
137
9.0
Lifts
15
1.0
15
1.0
15
1.0
15
1.0
15
1.0
15
1.0
BWIC
37
2.5
37
2.5
37
2.5
37
2.5
37
2.5
37
2.4
Contingency
85
5.8
86
5.8
86
5.8
86
5.8
88
5.9
90
5.9
Preliminaries
158
10.8
154
10.5
162
11.0
160
10.9
154
10.3
154
10.0
83
5.7
83
5.7
84
5.7
84
5.7
84
5.7
88
5.7
Overheads and prot

TOTAL
1,460
1,468
1,477
1,477
1,495
1,534
46
02/10/2007 11:19:54
Summary of costs - Building B
Building B
16,480 m2 GIFA
Element
Short-span options
Flat Slab
PT Flat Slab
Long-span options
Composite
Element total Element total Element total

()
()
()
Short-span options
In-situ +
Hollowcore
PT Band Beams
Long-Span
Composite
Steel +
Hollowcore
Slimdek
Element total
()
Element total
()
Element total
()
Element total
()
Element total
()
891,672
865,937
815,468
885,169
907,622
848,868
860,967
852,231
1,811,939
2,016,344
1,878,457
1,846,453
2,227,681
2,201,664
2,275,704
3,011,992
Roof nishes
545,080
545,080
545,080
545,080
545,080
545,080
545,080
545,080
Stairs
132,000
132,000
132,000
132,000
132,000
132,000
132,000
132,000
External cladding
5,951,060
5,849,590
5,957,935
6,053,840
6,086,885
5,957,935
6,208,265
5,974,270
Internal planning
297,080
293,790
355,728
300,225
301,360
355,638
366,552
356,352
Wall nishes
234,455
229,931
256,770
233,226
227,825
241,566
264,162
263,112
Floor nishes
1,167,221
1,167,221
1,167,221
1,167,221
1,167,221
1,167,221
1,167,221
1,167,221
Ceiling nishes
702,366
702,366
702,366
702,366
702,366
702,366
702,366
702,366
Fittings
132,500
132,500
132,500
132,500
132,500
132,500
132,500
132,500
Sanitary
824,000
824,000
824,000
824,000
824,000
824,000
824,000
824,000
Mechanical
4,544,360
4,544,360
4,635,247
4,544,360
4,544,360
4,635,247
4,635,247
4,544,360
Electrical
2,690,688
2,690,688
2,739,502
2,690,688
2,690,688
2,739,502
2,739,502
2,690,688
600,000
600,000
600,000
600,000
600,000
600,000
600,000
600,000
Substructure
Superstructure
Lifts
601,800
601,800
601,800
601,800
601,800
601,800
601,800
601,800
Contingency
1,584,467
1,589,670
1,600,806
1,594,420
1,626,854
1,626,404
1,654,152
1,679,848
Preliminaries
3,350,000
3,310,000
3,350,000
3,470,000
3,310,000
3,350,000
3,270,000
3,270,000
Overheads and prot
1,563,641
1,565,717
1,577,693
1,579,401
1,597,694
1,599,707
1,618,771
1,640,869
27,624,328
27,660,993
27,872,572
27,902,748
28,225,936
28,261,499
28,598,289
28,998,690
BWIC
TOTAL
Element
Short-span options
Flat Slab
Long-span options
PT Flat Slab
Composite
In-situ +
Hollowcore
/m2
/m2
PT Band Beams
Short-span options
Long-Span
Composite
Steel +
Hollowcore
/m2
/m2
Slimdek
/m2
/m2
54
3.2
53
3.1
49
2.9
110
6.6
122
7.2
114
33
2.0
33
2.0
0.5
0.5
External cladding
361
21.5
355
21.0
Internal planning
18
1.1
18
1.1
22
1.3
18
1.1
18
1.1
22
1.3
22
1.3
22
1.2
Wall nishes
14
0.8
14
0.8
16
0.9
14
0.8
14
0.8
15
0.9
16
0.9
16
0.9
Floor nishes
71
4.2
71
4.2
71
4.2
71
4.2
71
4.1
71
4.1
71
4.1
71
4.0
Ceiling nishes
43
2.5
43
2.5
43
2.5
43
2.5
43
2.5
43
2.5
43
2.4
43
2.4
Fittings
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
Sanitary
50
3.0
50
3.0
50
2.9
50
2.9
50
2.9
50
2.9
50
2.9
50
2.8
Mechanical
276
16.5
276
16.3
281
16.5
276
16.2
276
16.0
281
16.3
281
16.1
276
15.6
Electrical
163
9.7
163
9.7
166
9.8
163
9.6
163
9.5
166
9.6
166
9.5
163
9.2
Lifts
36
2.2
36
2.2
36
2.1
36
2.1
36
2.1
36
2.1
36
2.1
36
2.1
2.1
Substructure
Superstructure
Roof nishes
Stairs
/m2
54
3.2
55
3.2
52
3.0
52
3.0
52
2.9
6.7
112
6.6
135
7.9
134
7.7
138
7.9
183
10.3
33
1.9
33
1.9
33
1.9
33
1.9
33
1.9
33
1.9
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
362
21.3
367
21.6
369
21.5
362
21.0
377
21.6
363
20.5
/m2
BWIC
37
2.2
37
2.2
37
2.1
37
2.1
37
2.1
37
2.1
37
2.1
37
Contingency
96
5.7
96
5.7
97
5.7
97
5.7
99
5.7
97
5.7
100
5.8
101
5.8
Preliminaries
203
12.1
201
11.9
203
12.0
211
12.4
201
11.7
203
11.8
199
11.4
198
11.2
95
5.7
94
5.7
95
5.7
95
5.7
97
5.7
97
5.7
98
5.7
99
5.7
Overheads and prot

TOTAL
1,676
1,678
1,691
1,693
1,713
1,715
1,735
1,759
47
02/10/2007 11:19:55
Summary of costs
Key rates
Key rates used in the structural elements of the study are tabulated below:
Building element
Unit
Building A
Building B
Concrete in walls
m3
125
125
Concrete in suspended slabs
m3
115
120
Lightweight concrete in suspended slabs
145
145
Concrete in beams
m3
115
120
Concrete in columns
m3
115
120
A142 mesh reinforcement
m2
A193 mesh reinforcement
m2
Reinforcement in suspended slabs
tonne
820
840
Reinforcement in beams
tonne
820
840
Reinforcement in walls
tonne
820
840
Reinforcement in columns
tonne
820
840
Post-tensioning to oor slabs
m2
27
27
Intumescent coating - 60 minute (site applied)
m2
13
Intumescent coating - 90 minute (site applied)
m2
20
Formwork to walls
m2
32
31
Formwork to softs of suspended slabs
m2
31
32
Formwork to beams
42
42
Formwork to columns
m2
42
42
Formwork to columns - curved
m2
63
150mm hollowcore planks
46
47
200mm hollowcore planks
m2
48
54
Solid grade S355 steel beams
tonne
1,390
1,405
Solid grade S355 steel columns
tonne
1,390
1,405
Solid grade S355 steel columns hollow sections
tonne
1,730
ASB grade S355 steel beams
tonne
1,590
1,600
Cellular grade S355 steel beams
tonne
Core walls SHS steel bracing
tonne
1,545
1,770
Ribdeck AL 1.2mm steel decking
m2
21
21
SD225 steel decking (propped)
m2
36
39
Shear studs -19mm 100mm
No
Shear studs -19mm 120mm
No
Building A
Building B
Key rates used in other elements of the study are tabulated below:
Other element
Unit
External cladding
m2
360
830
Rain-screen
260
935
Brise-soleil
m2
310
310
Atrium walling
m2
360
480
Shop fronts
m2
470
m2
55
65
80
Curtain walling
Internal planning
Non-structural dry-lined metal stud partitions
Blockwork walls to retail units
48
02/10/2007 11:19:56
Study ndings
8. Study ndings
Costs
Building A 3 storey
In terms of overall construction cost for Building A, the most economic option, the Flat
Slab, was found to be between 0.6% and 4.8% less expensive than the alternative
structural solutions.
Building B 6 storey
In terms of overall construction cost for Building B, for the short-span situation, the most
economic option, the Flat Slab, was found to be between 0.1% and 4.7% less expensive
than the alternative structural solutions.
Overall
The most signicant differential for both buildings occurred using the Slimdek option, for
which the overall construction costs were found to be between 5.0% and 5.1% more
expensive than the most economic option, after adjusting time-related preliminaries for
construction programme difference. When only the costs of the structural frame and
upper oors are considered, the Slimdek option was found to be between 54.1% and
66.4% more expensive than the most economic option.
Programme
Building A
With regard to speed of construction, for Building A the construction programmes for the
Composite, Steel + Hollowcore and Slimdek options are all identical at 48 weeks, with 50
weeks required for the Flat Slab option, 51 weeks for the PT Flat Slab option and 52 weeks
for the In-situ + Hollowcore option.
Building B
With regard to speed of construction, for the short-span options in Building B, the construction programmes for both the Steel + Hollowcore and Slimdek options are identical
at 65 weeks, with 66 weeks required for the PT Flat Slab option; the Flat Slab option and
Composite options identical at 67 weeks and 70 weeks for the In-situ + Hollowcore
option.
For the long-span options in Building B, the PT Band Beam option was found to have a
programme of 66 weeks, compared to a programme of 67 weeks for the Long-Span
Composite option.
When considering a ten week procurement time and a lead time of 4-7 weeks for the Flat
Slab, In-situ + Hollowcore, PT Flat Slab and PT Band Beam options; and, 1218 weeks for
the Composite, Steel + Hollowcore, Slimdek and Long-Span Composite options; the
overall programmes are as summarised below:
49
02/10/2007 11:19:57
Study ndings
Building A short-span
Building B short-span
Building B long-span
Flat Slab
64 weeks PT Flat Slab
82 weeks PT Band Beams
PT Flat Slab
65 weeks Flat Slab
83 weeks Long-Span Composite 95 weeks
83 weeks
In-situ + Hollowcore 66 weeks In-situ + Hollowcore 86 weeks

Composite
70 weeks Steel + Hollowcore
91 weeks
Steel + Hollowcore
70 weeks Slimdek
91 weeks
Slimdek
70 weeks Composite
93 weeks
The study ndings are presented in the following manner:

The costings are divided into the following eight primary components which together
make up the overall cost of each scheme design:
Substructures
Frames and upper floors
Cladding
Internal planning
Roof finishes and internal finishes
Mechanical and electrical services
Preliminaries
Contingency and overheads and profit.
For each component, the costs per m2 of gross internal oor area for each of the eight
options are compared graphically and in tabular form, with the most economical option
for that component being used as the base for comparison.
The costs of each primary component are also broken down where appropriate; for example
frames and upper oor costs are sub-divided into concrete frame, formwork and reinforcement, steel frame, decking & slabs and re protection.
(Minor differences between the gures used in the Study ndings and the Summary of costs are
due to rounding.)
Average Elemental Breakdown
Average Elemental Breakdown
Internal
Planning
2%
M&E, Lifts & BWIC

34%
Substructure
3%
Frame and Upper

Floors
10%
Building A
Roof Finishes &

Internal Finishes
11%
Preliminaries
11%
Internal
Planning
1%
External Cladding
17%
M&E, Lifts & BWIC

34%
Substructure
3%
Frame and Upper

Floors
8%
Contingency &
O/h&P
12%
External Cladding
21%
Roof Finishes &

Internal Finishes
10%
Preliminaries
12%
Contingency &
O/h&P
11%
Building B
50
05/10/2007 09:47:59
Study ndings - Building A
Study ndings Building A
Overall costs
Based on the building footprints and outline specications compiled by Allies and
Morrison, together with the structural design information and calculation provided by
Arup, all six structural options are within 5.1% of each other, after adjusting time-related
preliminaries for construction programme differences.
Of particular note is the signicance of M&E services costs in the overall comparison,
representing an average of 34% of total costs, and of the external cladding, representing
an average of 17% of total costs.
As illustrated in the gure and table, the Slimdek option was found to be 5.1% more
expensive than the Flat Slab option, with both options providing clear, unimpeded softs.
These gures are based on cost per m2 of gross internal area. The differences in cost
would be even greater if net internal areas had been considered, due to the larger area
taken up by a steel core. However, as this level of detail would not normally be apparent
at outline design stage, it has not been examined further in this study.
1525
1500
1475
1450
Slimdek
Steel +
Hollowcore
Composite
Flat Slab
1400
PT Flat Slab
1425
In-situ +
Hollowcore
Overall construction costs
/m
1550
Overall costs
/m2
Flat Slab
1,460
% difference
-
Composite
1,468
+0.5%
1,477
+1.2%
PT Flat Slab
1,477
+1.2%
Steel + Hollowcore
1,495
+2.4%
Slimdek
1,534
+5.1%
In Table 1 and Table 2 which follow, showing the construction costs for each element of
the building, the % comparison is related to the cost for the most economic option for
the element in question.
51
02/10/2007 11:19:59
Table 1 Element
Elemental cost
comparison. Percentage of total cost
Findings
Substructures
Frame and upper oors
3%
10%
Foundations for the three-storey building are simple pads.

Costs for the ground-oor slab and associated earthworks
are identical for all solutions.
On an overall basis, costs for the complete substructure
were found to be lowest for the Composite and Slimdek
options, with costs for the alternative options ranging from
+2.4% to +7.3%.
Costs for the earthworks and foundations only (excluding
the GF slab) were found to be lowest for the Composite
option, with costs for the alternative options ranging from
+4.5% to +13.6%, which is the consequence of smaller
pads being utilised for the lighter buildings.
When the costs of the frame and upper oors only are
compared on a like-for-like basis, the most economic option
is the Flat Slab, with costs for the alternative structural
options ranging from +4.1% to +54.1%. A signicant feature
is the premium required to achieve a clear, at soft with
the Slimdek system as opposed to with alternative at
soft solutions, the Flat Slab and PT Flat Slab options. This
is shown graphically and in tabular form below.
It should be appreciated that, in cost plans, the inll to the
steel core bracing in a steel-framed building is often
allocated to the Internal Planning element. In this study,
this would have produced an imbalance of approximately
7.5% in the comparisons, which has been adjusted in the
table below.
This highlights the need for designers to be aware that the
structure of a cost plan may not readily reveal the full
effects of the choice of a particular structural frame.
Examination of the cost plan at a more detailed level than
elemental totals may therefore prove benecial in
informing the structural choice.
Relative costs
/m
/m
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
Fire protection
Decking & slabs
Steel frame
GF slab
Foundations
Earthworks
Percentage comparison
with Flat Slab option
Note for frame and

upper oors
*Stairs have been
excluded from the
comparison, being of
equal cost for all
solutions.
Substructure costs
Slimdek
Steel +
Hollowcore
PT Flat Slab
In-situ +
Hollowcore
Composite
In-situ +
Hollowcore
PT Flat Slab
Flat Slab
Steel +
Hollowcore
Slimdek
Flat Slab
20
Composite
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Formwork
Reinforcement
Concrete frame
Frame and upper oors costs

/m2
% difference
/m2
Composite
41
Flat Slab
122
Slimdek
41
Composite
122
Steel + Hollowcore
42
+2.4%
127
+4.1%
Flat Slab
43
+4.9%
PT Flat Slab
138
+13.1%
PT Flat Slab
43
+4.9%
Steel + Hollowcore
139
+13.9%
44
+7.3%
Slimdek
188
+54.1%
% difference
52
02/10/2007 11:20:00
External cladding
Internal planning
17%
2%
For the costs of external cladding (curtain walling to main

elevations and atrium, together with rain screens, brisesoleil, external doors and cladding to roof plant areas), the
most economic option is the PT Flat Slab, with cost for the
alternative solutions ranging from +0.9% for the Flat Slab
option to +4.2% for the Steel + Hollowcore option.
However, whilst the percentage variation between options
may appear small, it should be borne in mind that, the
actual cost variation can be signicant for this element.
For the Internal planning (internal partitions, internal

glazing to atrium, WC cubicles and internal doors) the
most economic solutions are the Flat Slab and PT Flat Slab
options in equal place. Costs for the alternative solutions
range from +3.3% for the In-situ + Hollowcore option to
+13.3% for the Steel + Hollowcore option.
The variation in cost is related to the area of cladding

resulting from the necessary storey heights, which vary
from 3950mm on the PT Flat Slab option to 4160mm on
the Steel + Hollowcore option, to accommodate the
different structural zones.
This cost range reects the adjustment of the imbalance

relating to the inll to steel braced cores, referred to in the
Frame and upper oors element.
Account has been taken in the costing of the added
complexity of re and acoustic sealing of partition heads
against the irregular softs of steel decking and around
irregularly shaped intersecting steel frame members.
With the wall-to-oor ratio on this building form, a 5.3%

increase in oor-to-oor height produces a 6.0% increase
in cladding cost over three storeys.
/m
225
/m
**
35
30
220
25
215
20
15
210
10
205
Steel +
Hollowcore
Composite
Slimdek
In-situ +
Hollowcore
Flat Slab
PT Flat Slab
Steel +
Hollowcore
Composite
Slimdek
Flat Slab
PT Flat Slab
200
In-situ +
Hollowcore
Doors
Atrium glazing
Internal planning
External cladding costs

/m2
Internal planning costs

/m2
% difference
PT Flat Slab
215
Flat Slab
217
Slimdek
Composite
% difference
PT Flat Slab
30
+0.9%
Flat Slab
30
219
+1.9%
31
+3.3%
219
+1.9%
Slimdek
33
+10.0%
222
+3.3%
Composite
33
+10.0%
Steel + Hollowcore
224
+4.2%
Steel + Hollowcore
34
+13.3%
Note for external

cladding
** Undercroft treatment
has been excluded from
the comparison, being of
equal cost for all
solutions.
53
02/10/2007 11:20:02
Roof nishes and internal nishes, xtures

and ttings
11%
34%
Percentage of total cost
The costs of the roof nishes were the same across all the
structural options, as is also the case for the xtures and
ttings.
Slight differences in internal nishes costs are entirely
contained within the wall nishes and reect the dissimilar
storey heights, which differ by 5.3% between the lowest
(the Flat Slab option) and the highest (the Steel + Hollowcore
option). At this outline stage of design, these differentials
are so small as to be lost in the rounding of the gures.
80
60
40
Ceiling nishes
Wall nishes
Steel +
Hollowcore
Flat Slab
Slimdek
Composite
In-situ +
Hollowcore
PT Flat Slab
20
BWC
Lifts
Electical
Floor nishes
Finishes costs
Steel +
Hollowcore
Composite
100
Slimdek
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
/m
Mechanical
Sanitary
Mechanical and electrical costs

/m2
Note for nishes

*Roof nishes and
xtures and ttings
have been excluded
from the comparison,
being of equal cost for
all solutions.
However, with regard to the relative ease of installation of

the mechanical and electrical services, a premium is incurred
for the additional complexity where the services distribution
has to be installed around downstand beams of varying
depth, cross-section and number, as are found with the
Composite and Steel + Hollowcore options.
/m
Relative costs
In respect of the direct costs of lifts, mechanical services,

electrical services, sanitary installations and builders work
in connection, there was no noticeable difference between
all of the structural solutions.
PT Flat Slab
Findings
In-situ +
Hollowcore
Elemental cost
comparison.
Flat Slab
Table 1 contd Element
% difference
/m2
% difference
PT Flat Slab
97
Flat Slab
512
97
512
Composite
97
PT Flat Slab
512
Slimdek
97
Slimdek
512
Flat Slab
97
Composite
520
+1.6%
Steel + Hollowcore
97
Steel + Hollowcore
520
+1.6%
54
02/10/2007 11:20:04
Preliminaries
Contingency, overheads and prot
11%
12%
The budget for preliminaries for each option was based on

two separate elements. A lump sum to allow for both nonwork-related aspects, such as contractual requirements for
insurances, employers facilities, etc., together with xed
one-off costs such as site establishment, access roads,
crane bases, services connection charges, etc.
A design contingency of 7.5% has been included within the

budget costs, to reect the outline nature of the design
information developed at this stage of a project. The
budget costs also contain an allowance of 6% in respect of
overheads and prot. It should be borne in mind that, at
this stage of the design, the allowance for contingency is
the equivalent of 70% of the cost of the frame and upper
oors on the most economic solutions.
The second element relates to time-related costs, such as

management and staff, site accommodation, services and
facilities, cranage, etc. Such costs therefore vary according
to programme duration and the sequencing of operations
within the programme. Adjustment of these costs has
been made to reect the different construction durations
between 48 and 52 weeks identied in the programmes.
(see Chapter 6 Programmes).
160
140
120
120
100
100
80
80
Slimdek
In-situ +
Hollowcore
PT Flat Slab
20
Flat Slab
20
Steel +
Hollowcore
60
40
Composite
60
40
Slimdek
160
140
Steel +
Hollowcore
180
PT Flat Slab
180
In-situ +
Hollowcore
/m
Composite
/m
Flat Slab
Detailed consideration of items within the Preliminaries,

e.g. size of particular cranes, was beyond the scope of this
study.
Overheads & prot

Contingency
Time-related preliminaries
Fixed preliminaries
Preliminaries costs
Contingency, overheads and prot costs

/m2
% difference
Composite
154
/m2
% difference
Flat Slab
168
Steel + Hollowcore
154
Composite
169
+0.6%
Slimdek
154
170
+1.2%
Flat Slab
158
+2.6%
PT Flat Slab
170
+1.2%
PT Flat Slab
160
+3.9%
Steel + Hollowcore
173
+3.0%
162
+5.2%
Slimdek
177
+5.4%
55
02/10/2007 11:20:05
Study ndings - Building B
Study ndings Building B
Overall costs
Based on the building footprints and outline specications compiled by Allies and Morrison,
together with the structural design information and calculation provided by Arup, all eight
structural options are within 5.5% of each other, after adjusting time-related preliminaries
for construction programme differences.
Of particular note is the signicance of M&E services costs in the overall comparison,
representing an average of 33% of total costs, and of the external cladding, representing
an average of 21% of total costs.
As illustrated in the gure and table, the Slimdek option was found to be 5.5% more
expensive than the most economic option, the Flat Slab, with both options providing
clear, unimpeded softs.
These gures are based on cost per m2 of gross internal area, with all options having
concrete cores.
In terms of overall construction costs, for short-span options, the most economic solution
was found to be the Flat Slab option, with alternative solutions being between 0.7% and
5.5% more expensive.
For long-span options, the PT Band Beam solution was found to be more economic than
the Long-Span Composite solution. The Long span options are shown on the right of the
charts as shown below.
/m
Short span
Long span
1750
1725
1700
1675
1650
Long span
Composite
PT Band Beams
Slimdek
Steel +
Hollowcore
In-situ +
Hollowcore
Composite
1600
PT Flat Slab
1625
Flat Slab
Overall construction costs
/m
Overall costs
/m2
% difference
Flat Slab
1,676
PT Flat Slab
1,678
+0.1%
Composite
1,691
+0.9%
1,693
+1.0%
Steel + Hollowcore
1,735
+3.5%
Slimdek
1,759
+5.0%
PT Band Beams
1,713
+2.2%
Long-Span Composite
1,715
+2.3%
56
02/10/2007 11:20:06
Table 2 Element
Substructures
3%
8%
Foundations for Building B are piled, with varying pile depths,

pile cap sizes and congurations for each option. Costs for
the ground oor slab and associated earthworks are identical for all solutions.
On an overall basis, costs for the complete substructure were
found to be lowest for the Composite option, with costs for
the alternative options ranging from +6.1% to +12.2%.
When the costs of the frame and upper oors only are compared, the most economic option is the Flat Slab, with
costs for the alternative structural options ranging from
+1.8% to +66.4%. A signicant feature is the premium
required to achieve a clear, at soft with the Slimdek system
as opposed to with alternative at soft solutions, the Flat
Slab and PT Flat Slab options. This is shown graphically and
in tabular form below.
Costs for the earthworks and foundations only (excluding

the GF slab) were found to be lowest for the Composite
option, with costs for the alternative options ranging from
+6.6% to +18.2%, which is the consequence of fewer piles,
shorter pile lengths and smaller pile caps needed for the
lighter buildings.
For the long-span options, the frame and upper oors costs
were almost identical, the PT Band Beams option being
0.8% more expensive than the Long-Span Composite
option. Both long-span solutions were an average of 22.3%
higher than the most economic short-span solution, the
Flat Slab.
/m
/m
200
Elemental cost
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
Note for frame and

upper oors
*Stairs have been
excluded from the
comparison for clarity,
being of equal cost for
all solutions.
PT Band Beams
Long Span
Composite
Slimdek
Steel +
Hollowcore
PT Flat Slab
Composite
In-situ +
Hollowcore
Fire protection
Decking & slabs
Steel frame
Substructure costs
Composite
Flat Slab
PT Band Beams
Flat Slab
PT Flat Slab
Steel +
Hollowcore
Slimdek
Composite
20
GF slab
Foundations
Earthworks
180
Long Span
Composite
Relative costs
In-situ +
Hollowcore
Findings
Formwork
Reinforcement
Concrete frame
Frame and upper oor costs

/m2
% difference
49
/m2
% difference
Flat Slab
110
Slimdek
52
+6.1%
112
+1.8%
Steel + Hollowcore
52
+6.1%
Composite
114
+3.6%
PT Flat Slab
53
+8.2%
PT Flat Slab
122
+10.9%
Flat Slab
54
+10.2%
Steel + Hollowcore
138
+25.5%
54
+10.2%
Slimdek
183
+66.4%
Long-Span Composite
52
+6.1%
Long-Span Composite
134
+21.8%
PT Band Beams
55
+12.2%
PT Band Beams
135
+22.7%
57
02/10/2007 11:20:07
External cladding
Internal planning
21%
1%
For the costs of external cladding (curtain walling to main

elevations and atrium, together with rainscreens, brisesoleil, external doors and cladding to roof plant areas), the
most economic option is the PT Flat Slab, with costs for the
alternative solutions ranging from +1.7% for the Flat Slab
option to +6.2% for the Steel + Hollowcore option. However,
whilst the percentage variation between options may
appear small, it should be borne in mind that, the variation
in terms of actual cost can be signicant for this element.
For the Internal planning (internal partitions, WC cubicles

and internal doors) the most economic solutions are the
Flat Slab, PT Flat Slab and In-situ + Hollowcore options in
equal place. Costs for the alternative solutions are 22.2%
higher, with minor differences between the Composite, Insitu + Hollowcore, Slimdek and Long-Span Composite
options.
335
325
Long Span
Composite
10
PT Band Beams
345
ISteel +
Hollowcore
15
PT Band Beams
355
Long Span
Composite
20
Steel +
Hollowcore
365
Slimdek
25
In-Situ +
Hollowcore
375
Composite
/m
Flat Slab
/m
PT Flat Slab
Relative costs
Such a large cost range reects the effects of both the

differences in storey height to accommodate the different
structural zones and the cost premium incurred as a result
of this added complexity.
Slimdek
With the wall-to-oor ratio on this building form, a 7.2%

increase in oor-to-oor height produces a 6.1% increase in
cladding cost over the six storeys.
Composite
The variation in cost is related to the area of cladding

resulting from the necessary storey heights, which vary
from 3950mm on the PT Flat Slab option to 4235mm on
the Steel + Hollowcore option, to accommodate the
different structural zones.
As with Building A, the costing takes account of the added

complexity of re and acoustic sealing of partition heads
against the irregular softs of steel decking and around
irregularly shaped intersecting steel frame members. The
effect of this factor on Building B is more signicant due to
the quantity of blockwork walls within the ground oor
retail space.
In-Situ +
Hollowcore
Findings
Flat Slab
Percentage of total cost
PT Flat Slab
Elemental cost
comparison.
Doors
Internal planning
External cladding costs

PT Flat Slab
Internal planning costs
/m2
% difference
355
/m2
% difference
PT Flat Slab
18
Flat Slab
361
+1.7%
Flat Slab
18
Composite
362
+2.0%
18
Slimdek
363
+2.3%
Composite
22
+22.2%
367
+3.4%
Slimdek
22
+22.2%
+22.2%
Steel + Hollowcore
377
+6.2%
Steel + Hollowcore
22
Long-Span Composite
362
+2.0%
PT Band Beams
18
PT Band Beams
369
+3.9%
Long-Span Composite
22
+22.2%
58
02/10/2007 11:20:09
Roof nishes and internal nishes, xtures

and ttings
10%
33%
The costs of the roof nishes were the same across all the
structural options and they are therefore not included in
the comparison of the internal nishes shown graphically
and in tabular form below, which is also the case for the
xtures and ttings.
For the internal nishes (oor wall and ceiling nishes) the
most economic solutions are the PT Flat Slab and PT Band
Beam option in equal place, with costs for the alternative
solutions ranging from +0.8% for the Flat Slab, In-situ +
Hollowcore and Long-Span Composite options, to +1.6%
for the Composite, Steel + Hollowcore and Slimdek options.
In respect of the direct costs of lifts, mechanical services,

electrical services, sanitary installations and builders work
in connection, there was no noticeable difference between
all of the structural solutions.
However, with regard to the relative ease of installation of
the mechanical and electrical services, a premium is
incurred for the additional complexity where the services
distribution has to be installed around downstand beams
of varying depth, cross-section and number, as are found
with the Composite, Steel + Hollowcore and Long-Span
Composite options.
These differences in internal nishes costs are entirely

contained within the wall nishes and reect the dissimilar
storey heights, which differ by 5.3% between the lowest (the
Flat Slab option) and the highest (the Steel + Hollowcore
option).
60
40
Ceiling nishes
Wall nishes
Long Span
Composite
PT Band Beams
Slimdek
Steel +
Hollowcore
Composite
Flat Slab
In-situ +
Hollowcore
PT Flat Slab
20
BWC
Lifts
Electical
Floor nishes
Finishes costs
Long Span
Composite
80
PT Band Beams
100
Steel +
Hollowcore
120
Composite
Slimdek
140
PT Flat Slab
/m
Flat Slab
600
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
In-situ +
Hollowcore
/m
Mechanical
Sanitary
Mechanical and electrical costs

/m2
% difference
/m2
% difference
PT Flat Slab
127
Flat Slab
562
128
+0.8%
562
Flat Slab
128
+0.8%
PT Flat Slab
562
Composite
129
+1.6%
Slimdek
562
Steel + Hollowcore
129
+1.6%
Composite
570
+1.4%
Slimdek
129
+1.6%
Steel + Hollowcore
570
+1.4%
PT Band Beams
127
PT Band Beams
562
Long-Span Composite
128
+0.8%
Long-Span Composite
570
+1.4%
Note for nishes

*Roof nishes and
xtures and ttings
have been excluded
from the comparison
for clarity, being of
equal cost for all
solutions.
59
02/10/2007 11:20:11
Preliminaries
Contingency, overheads and prot
12%
12%
The budget for preliminaries for each option was based on

two separate elements. A lump sum to allow for both nonwork-related aspects, such as contractual requirements for
insurances, employers facilities, etc., together with xed
one-off costs such as site establishment, access roads,
crane bases, services connection charges, etc.
A design contingency of 7.5% has been included within the

budget costs, to reect the outline nature of the design
information developed at this stage of a project. The
budget costs also contain an allowance of 6% in respect of
overheads and prot. It should be borne in mind that, at
this stage of the design, the allowance for contingency is
the equivalent of 87% of the superstructure cost on the
most economic solution.
Elemental cost
Findings
Separate allowances were made for time-related costs, such

as management and staff, site accommodation, services and
facilities, cranage, etc. Such costs therefore vary according
to programme duration and the sequencing of operations
within the programme. Adjustment of these costs has been
made to reect the different construction durations between
65 and 70 weeks identied in the programmes (see Chapter 6
Programmes).
Detailed consideration of items within the Preliminaries,
e.g. size of particular cranes, was beyond the scope of this
study.
/m
200
/m
220
200
180
180
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80
Long Span
Composite
PT Band Beams
Slimdek
Steel +
Hollowcore
Composite
Overheads & prot

Contingency
Time-related preliminaries
Fixed preliminaries
In-situ +
Hollowcore
Long Span
Composite
PT Band Beams
In-situ +
Hollowcore
Composite
Flat Slab
PT Flat Slab
20
Steel +
Hollowcore
20
Slimdek
40
40
PT Flat Slab
60
60
Flat Slab
Relative costs
Preliminaries costs
Contingency, overheads and prot costs

/m2
% difference
/m2
Slimdek
199
% difference
Flat Slab
191
Steel + Hollowcore
199
PT Flat Slab
191
PT Flat Slab
201
+1.0%
193
+1.0%
Flat Slab
204
+2.5%
Composite
193
+1.0%
Composite
204
+2.5%
Steel + Hollowcore
198
+3.7%
211
+6.0%
Slimdek
202
+5.8%
PT Band Beams
201
+1.0%
PT Band Beams
196
+2.6%
Long-Span Composite
204
+2.5%
Long-Span Composite
196
+2.6%
60
02/10/2007 11:20:12
Study ndings
Summary comparison
charts
It is evident from the study ndings presented that the effects of the choice of a particular structural solution do not arise solely within the Frame and upper oors element of
the cost plan.
The charts below summarise those elements where costs are directly affected by the
choice of frame and show the percentage variation in cost for each frame option, when
compared with the most economic option, the Flat Slab, as the base case. The
explanation of the reasons for the variations is given in the study ndings above.
Building A
Flat Slab
Composite
In-situ +
PT Flat Slab
Steel +
Hollowcore
Hollowcore
Slimdek
4.9%
+1.6%
+0.5%
2.0%
3.7%
Frame and
upper oors
+0.6%
+4.1%
+13.1%
+13.9%
+54.1%
External
cladding
+0.8%
+2.1%
1.1%
+3.3%
+0.9%
+10.0%
+3.3%
0%
+13.3%
+10.0%
1.9%
2.6%
4.3%
+2.4%
1.5%
+1.6%
0%
0%
+1.6%
0%
+1.0%
+1.0%
+1.2%
+3.1%
+6.1%
Time-related
preliminaries
3.9%
+3.9%
+2.0%
3.9%
3.9%
Overheads
and prot
+0.6%
+1.2%
+1.2%
+3.0%
+5.4%
PT Flat Slab
Composite
In-situ +
Hollowcore
PT Band
Beams
Long-Span
Composite
Steel +
Hollowcore
Slimdek
Substructure
2.9%
8.5%
0.7%
+1.8%
4.8%
3.4%
4.4%
Frame and
upper oors
+10.9%
+3.6%
+1.8%
+22.7%
+21.8%
+25.5%
+66.4%
1.7%
+0.1%
+1.7%
+2.3%
+0.1%
+4.3%
+0.4%
1.1%
+19.7%
+1.1%
+1.4%
+19.7%
+23.4%
+20.0%
1.9%
+9.5%
12.7%
2.8%
+3.0%
+12.7%
+12.2%
0%
+1.4%
0%
0%
+1.4%
+1.4%
0%
+0.3%
+1.0%
+0.6%
+2.7%
+2.6%
+4.4%
+6.0%
Time-related
preliminaries
1.5%
0%
+4.6%
1.5%
0%
3.1%
3.1%
Overheads
and prot
+0.1%
+0.9%
+1.0%
+2.2%
+2.3%
+3.5%
+4.9%
Wall nishes
M and E, lifts
and BWIC
Contingency
Building B
External
cladding
Internal
planning
Wall nishes
M and E, lifts
and BWIC
Contingency
Flat Slab
Base case for comparison
Internal
planning
Base case for comparison
Substructure
61
02/10/2007 11:20:14
9. Commentary from The Concrete Centre

Main conclusion
Differences in cost
The main conclusion to be drawn from the study is that, of the range of structural options
commonly used in the construction of modern commercial ofces, for both the threestorey out-of-town building and for the six-storey city centre building, the most
economic structural solution was found to be the RC Flat Slab option. This produced
savings of between 1% and 6% in overall construction costs in comparison with
alternative solutions.
The main source of savings lies in the superstructure, when the frame, cladding and
internal planning are all taken into account. There are minimal differences in the nishes,
other than those caused by variations in storey heights depending on the structural
solution adopted.
Foundations for the heavier options cost more, but account for a relatively small proportion of the overall cost, the difference between the foundations for lighter and heavier
buildings equating to less than 0.3% of the overall costs.
Preliminaries are very similar, other than time-related aspects, although individual projects
may have logistical difculties, site constraints, access, adjacent buildings, etc. that are
particular to that project and will affect the preliminaries. Such aspects are intrinsically
project specic and are therefore beyond the scope of the study.
There are no differences in the design or specication of the mechanical and electrical
services as a result of the structural designs selected; however, those designs involving
downstand beams of varying depths, cross-section and number incur a cost premium as a
result of the added complexity of installing the services around such projections.
Foundations
A cost premium is incurred in the case of the buildings with the heavier structural frame.
To some extent this cost premium can be offset by adopting post-tensioned slabs, which
are typically some 15% lighter. In the case of Building B, the foundations to the posttensioned options are between 3% and 4% less expensive than those for the Flat Slab
option.
With appropriate adjustment for the location of costs of core walls and bracing inll
within the elemental summaries in order to achieve a like-for-like comparison, the frames
and upper oors for the RC Flat Slab option have been shown to be less expensive than the
alternative structural solutions, which were between 1% and 54% more expensive for
Building A and between 2% and 66% more expensive for Building B.
62
02/10/2007 11:20:14
It should be appreciated that in most cost plans, the inll to the bracing of a steel-braced
core, which is an integral component of the choice of structure, is generally not included
within the costs of the structure, but is allocated to the Internal planning element. Consequently any comparison of the costs of the frame and upper oors only could be distorted
by a signicant amount.
External cladding
The thinner the overall structural and services zone, the lower the cladding cost. Given
that the cladding on the buildings in the study represents between 17% and 22% of the
construction cost, minimising the cladding area represents considerable value to the
client. The minimum oor-to-oor height is almost always achieved with a at soft and
separate services zone, offering the potential for additional storeys in high-rise buildings
and thus improved rental or sales return. Smaller oor-to-oor heights have reduced
cladding areas and hence lowered costs, and of increasing importance is the potential
benet that a reduced cladding area has on the buildings energy use.
Internal planning
It should be noted that a premium is incurred in sealing and re stopping at partition

heads against proled softs of metal decking and around non-rectangular-shaped
intersecting frame members. Failure to consider this aspect can result in expensive and
time-consuming remedial work later in the construction programme.
Mechanical and electrical

services
Mechanical and electrical services represent a large proportion of the overall construction
costs of the buildings, averaging 34% for Building A and 33% for Building B. The design
team was briefed not to design the services in detail, nor to take into account any benets
associated with the potential for fabric energy storage. Nonetheless, it should be noted
that the removal of suspended ceilings in order to benet from the thermal mass of the
concrete within the buildings would reduce the overall capital project costs for all options
by approximately 2% for Building A and by approximately 3% for Building B.
Types of ventilation
Both buildings have been assumed as fully air-conditioned and, whilst natural ventilation
and thermal mass can be used to eliminate air conditioning, these were not considered in
this study.
Flexibility
A at soft provides a clear zone for services distribution, free of any downstand beams.
This reduces co-ordination effort for the design team and therefore the risk of errors, permits
exibility in design and allows co-ordination effort to be focused elsewhere. Services
installation is simplest below a at soft, permitting maximum off-site fabrication of
services, higher quality of work and quicker installation.
63
02/10/2007 11:20:14
These advantages can typically produce cost savings on initial services installation costs but,
more importantly, because they facilitate the use of pre-fabricated services equipment
packages, they can offer reduced installation programmes, together with cost-in-use
benets in the form of reduced maintenance downtime due to ease of equipment changeout, greater exibility and less disruption to an occupiers business operations.
Flat softs also allow greater future adaptability for building refurbishment, new layouts
and cellular arrangements; in addition, different service requirements are straightforward
and more easily accommodated.
These benets are some of the main reasons for the development of Slimdek; however,
this study shows the signicant cost premium incurred with this option and shows how the
RC Flat Slab or PT Flat Slab options are the most economic ways of getting a clear, at soft.
Nett lettable area
Differences in nett lettable area resulting from the different structural options adopted
have not been considered in the study. However, it should be noted that there are two
main areas in which such differences are found: stairs and core areas.
Typically, stairs are re-sized as a result of the reduced storey height module, producing
slightly increased net lettable areas.

The area occupied by a concrete core tends to be slightly smaller than that needed for
a steel core, due to the allowance for steel bracing zones and the structural concrete
walls serving a dual function as partitions.
The RCC study - referred to in the Introduction - found that, on an overall basis, the
difference can be as much as 1.5% extra nett lettable oor area, and this nding is still
valid.
Programmes
General conclusions
The lead times for the Flat Slab, In-situ + Hollowcore, PT Flat Slab and PT Band Beam
options are signicantly shorter than those for the Composite, Steel + Hollowcore, Slimdek
and Long-Span Composite options.
For Building A, during the eight-week saving in lead time, nearly 90% of the frame for the
Flat Slab option could be constructed, whilst the 50 weeks overall construction programme
for the Flat Slab option is only marginally longer than the 48 weeks for the Composite
solution.
For Building B, the ten-week saving in lead time equates to the period required to construct
the frame for the Flat Slab up to fourth-oor level and commence the walls and columns
from the fourth to fth oor, i.e. approximately 60% of the complete frame. The overall
construction programmes for the Flat Slab and the Composite options are identical at 67
weeks.
64
02/10/2007 11:20:15
The programmes reect a pragmatic contractors approach to the construction process.
Inevitably, different planners would produce slightly different programmes based on a
considerable number of variable factors. Overall project programmes are highly inuenced
by the procurement route and type of contract adopted, and alternative procurement
approaches such as construction management or design and build would no doubt
produce different results. For example, construction management and design and build
approaches lend themselves to concrete construction, where the ability to accommodate
late information and variations are particularly benecial, as the work can be let before
the design of following packages has been nalised.
The programmes prepared for this study reect one procurement approach but, in practice,
contractors are more likely to programme to a pre-set completion date in the knowledge
of the type of contract, their projected costs, the risk prole of the project, their knowledge
of and relationship with the client and design team, their supply chain and their exposure
to both liquidated damages and to market forces in play at the time of the project.
A practical view had to be taken of such factors as logistics, site access, boundary constraints,
cranage, etc., which are essentially site-specic. It could be argued that the steelwork
could have started on-site sooner, with earlier sub-contract award or longer periods for
design, package tendering, mobilisation or foundations making the steelwork lead time
less critical or even non-critical. Conversely, the use of a purely domestic sub-contract,
without the ability to pre-order, would push the programme back.
Whereas re protection used to be a critical activity, modern details such as site-applied
intumescent coating have removed reproong from the critical path altogether. However,
although not on the critical path, the reproong activity requires a greater level of
detailing and causes disruption that can adversely affect other trades, e.g. difculties
caused by xings penetrating through re-proong and damage needing rectication.
Off-site intumescent coatings have been introduced in an effort to reduce the construction
time, but these can suffer from signicant damage in transit, requiring site remedial work
which can eliminate the original saving.
The durations of rst x, second x and M&E installations are essentially the same, with
slight differences in quantities appearing to make little difference to the programmes.
However, it is becoming increasingly common to use prefabrication for the M&E services
distribution, which can offer programme advantages when used in conjunction with the
open at softs provided by the Flat Slab, PT Flat Slab and Slimdek options. Prefabrication
of sections of the M&E installations also offers advantages in subsequent maintenance
and refurbishment of the building. No account is taken within the programmes of any
construction time savings resulting from such prefabrication.
65
02/10/2007 11:20:15
Finance costs
Although the reported costings excluded the effects of nance costs, if nance costs were
to be considered, they should not be limited to the construction period alone as, in most
cases, nance costs also affect the procurement and lead times.
It is not possible to examine the entire project from inception to completion, as the duration prior to the commencement of procurement cannot be dened on a generic basis.
However, consideration of the periods that have been identied in the programmes for procurement, lead time and construction would produce the following comparison, assuming
a rate of 7.75% p.a. (base rate + 2%) and comparing the programme extension or saving
against the most economic short-span solution, the Flat Slab option. The PT Band Beam
option has been compared with the Long-Span Composite option.
Building A
Construction cost in /m2
Flat Slab
Composite
In-situ +
Hollowcore
PT Flat Slab
Steel +
Hollowcore
Slimdek
1,460
1,468
1,477
1,477
1,495
1,534
64
70
66
65
70
70
Overall programme in weeks

Savings in nance costs @ 7.75% p.a.
Building B
Construction cost in /m2
+0
+5
+2
+1
+5
+5
1,460
1,473
1,479
1,478
1,500
1,539
Flat Slab PT Flat Composite In-situ +

PT Band Long-Span
Steel +
Slimdek
Slab
Hollowcore Beams Composite Hollowcore
1,676
1,678
1,691
1,693
1,713
1,715
1,735
1,759
Overall programme in weeks
83
82
93
86
83
95
91
91
Savings in nance costs @ 7.75% p.a.
+0
-1
+7
+2
+0
+8
+6
+6
1,676
1,677
1,698
1,695
1,713
1,723
1,741
1,765
This comparison takes no account of differences in cumulative nance costs arising from
the different cash ow proles experienced with the differing forms of construction. For
example, the Composite, Steel + Hollowcore, Slimdek and Long-Span Composite options
require greater expenditure early on than the Flat Slab, In-situ + Hollowcore, PT Flat Slab
and PT Band Beam options, where the pay as you pour principle works in the clients
favour. A more comprehensive analysis of the construction cash ow proles would be
required in order to present a detailed comparison of these effects on nance costs.
Other value considerations
Initial capital cost is not, of course, the sole driver for clients, whose main objective is
optimum value from an overall solution. The wider value aspects of structural solutions in
relation to framed buildings are therefore briey considered in more detail below.
Overall value vs frame cost

Frame cost alone should not dictate the choice of structural solution. Rather it should be
just one of a number of value issues that should be borne in mind when making the
choice of frame material. Only then can one be condent that the optimum structural
solution has been selected.
66
02/10/2007 11:20:16
Fire protection
For Flat Slab, In-situ + Hollowcore, PT Flat Slab and PT Band Beam structures, re protection
is generally not needed, as the material has inherent re resistance of up to four hours. This
removes the time, cost and separate trades required for re protection. Added value benets include such factors as enhanced property safety, the potential for lower insurance
premiums, re-usability of the structure and considerably reduced down-time for an
occupier after a re.
Exposed soft
Potential value to a client exists in those structures with a high thermal mass. By exposing
the softs, this can be utilised through fabric energy storage (FES) to reduce initial plant
costs, by minimising or eliminating the need for air conditioning and substantially reducing
the lifetime operational costs of the asset. Utilisation of FES permits the designer to create
naturally ventilated buildings, giving occupants the chance to control their environment,
with consequent improvements in employee productivity. Furthermore, suspended ceilings
can be reduced or eliminated, giving valuable initial cost and programme benets and
reduced lifetime maintenance costs.
67
02/10/2007 11:20:17
Appendix A - Detailed programmes
10. Appendix A Detailed programmes
Line
Name
Site Set Up
Substructure
Remove Topsoil & RL Dig
Pad Foundations
Underslab Drainage
Ground Floor Slab
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51
1
2
3
4
5
6
Superstructure
Walls / Columns Grd to 1st
1st Floor Slab
Walls / Columns 1st to 2nd
2nd Floor Slab
Walls / Cols 2nd to 3rd
3rd Floor Slab
Roof Upstands & Bases
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Roof Installations
Roof Finishes
Deliver Main Roof Plant
Roof MEP Installations
Install Plant Screen Louvres
15
20
24
Curtain Wallling/External Cladding

Survey/Set Out Brackets
Secondry Steelwork/Framing
Glazing & Spandrel Panels
Capping/Flashing & Roof Upstand Level
25
Building Watertight
26
Cores & Risers

MEP Risers
Toilet Fit Out
Lift Installations
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
27
28
29
16
+
+
17
18
19
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
+
+
28
+
29
+
30
31
Office Fit Out to Cat A

Level 2
32
H/L MEP 1st Installations
32
33
Suspended Ceiling Grid & Service Tiles
34
H/L MEP 2nd Fix
35
Raised Flooring
30
36
37
38
33
34
35
Joinery 1st Fix
36
Level 1
Level G
37
+
+
38
+
39
Close Out
40
Testing & Commissioning
41
External Works
42
Completion
Line
31
39
+
40
+
41
42
Name
Client
Project
Title
Programme
Title
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51
The Concrete Centre

COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS - COST MODEL STUDY
Dated
11/07/2006
Drawn by
Programme No
rev
Revision comment
Notes
Building A : Scheme 1 - Flat Slab
68
02/10/2007 11:20:17
Line
Name
Site Set Up
Substructure
Remove Topsoil & RL Dig
Pad Foundations
Underslab Drainage
Ground Floor Slab
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
8
9
10
11
Roof Installations
Roof Finishes
Deliver Main Roof Plant
Roof MEP Installations
Install Plant Screen Louvres
12

Survey/Set Out Brackets
Secondry Steelwork/Framing
Glazing & Spandrel Panels
Capping/Flashing & Roof Upstand Level
17
28
29
32
33
Name
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49
Dated
Drawn by
11/07/2006
4
5
6
7
8
Superstructure
Walls / Columns Grd to 1st
1st Floor Slab
Walls / Columns 1st to 2nd
2nd Floor Slab
Walls / Cols 2nd to 3rd
3rd Floor Slab
Walls / Columns 3rd to 4th
4th Floor Slab
Walls / Cols 4th to 5th
5th Floor Slab
Cols / Walls 5th to 6th
Roof Slab
Roof Upstands & Plant Bases
Building Watertight
Cores & Risers
M&E Risers
Toilet Fit Out
Lift Installations
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
2d
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
+
+
25
+
+
+
28
29
30
+
+
31
+
34
35
35
36
Perimeter Ceiling Plasterboard Margin
37
38
H/L MEP 2nd Fix
39
Raised Flooring
40
Joinery 1st Fix
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
Line
+
32
+
33
Level
Level
Level
Level
26
+
27
+

Level 1
41
rev
Notes
29
33
Programme No
Revision comment
28
32
27
31
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68
Envelope
Roof Finishes
Roof Installations
Atrium Glazing
30
Building A : Scheme 4 - Composite
Substructure
Pile Probing
Form Pile Matt
Piled Foundations
Excavate & Form Pile Caps
Underslab Drainage
Ground Floor Slab
26
25
The Concrete Centre
Site Set Up
24
Client
23
Project
Title
22
39
Title
21
37
+
38
Programme
20
36
+
Name
Line
+
35
+
Completion
19
30
Level 1
Level G
39
18
+
+
27
31
Line
17
34
+
External Works
16
21

Level 2
38
15
20
26
+
14
19
25
+
37
13
18
24
+
Close Out
12
16
23
36
11
15
Cores & Risers

MEP Risers
Toilet Fit Out
Lift Installations
Joinery 1st Fix
10
+
14
22
33
13
+
Building Watertight
Raised Flooring
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49
H/L MEP 2nd Fix
32
Superstructure
Steelwork
Metal Decking
RC Topping
Roof Upstands & Bases
31
30
35
3
2
29
34
34
36
37
38
39
40
2
3
4
5
41
+
+
42
+
+
43
+
+
44
+
Close Out
External Works
Completion
Name
Client
Project
Title
Programme
Title
45
+
46
+
+
47
48
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68
The Concrete Centre

Dated
28/06/2006
Drawn by
Programme No
rev
Revision comment
Notes
Building B : Scheme 1 - Flat Slab
69
02/10/2007 11:20:54
Line
Name
Site Set Up
Substructure
Pile Probing
Form Pile Matt
Piled Foundations (128 No)
Excavate & Form Pile Caps
Underslab Drainage
Ground Floor Slab
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Superstructure
Concrete Core (jump form)
Structural Steelwork
Metal Decking
RC Topping
Upstands/Bases at Roof Level
19
Envelope
Roof Finishes
Roof Installations
Atrium Glazing
20
Building Watertight
21
Cores & Risers

M&E Risers
Toilet Fit Out
Lift Installations
15
16
17
18
22
23
24
9
10
11
12
45d
13
14
15
16
+
+
17
+
+
+
20
21
22
+
+
23
+

Level 1
25
27
27
28
Perimeter Ceiling Plasterboard Margin
29
30
H/L MEP 2nd Fix
31
Raised Flooring
32
Joinery 1st Fix
33
34
35
36
Level
Level
Level
Level
26
28
29
30
31
32
2
3
4
5
33
+
+
34
+
+
35
+
+
36
+
37
Close Out
38
39
External Works
40
Completion
Line
+
24
+
26
25
18
+
19
+
37
+
38
+
39
40
Name
Client
Project
Title
Programme
Title
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68
The Concrete Centre

Dated
28/06/2006
Drawn by
Programme No
rev
Revision comment
Notes
Building B : Scheme 4 - Composite
70
02/10/2007 11:20:59
02/10/2007 11:21:03
CCIP-010
CI/Sfb
UDC
624.94.04.033
A comparative cost assessment of the construction of

multi-storey ofce buildings
Francis Ryder, Head of Cost at The Concrete Centre, has project

managed this cost model study for commercial buildings.
For more information visit
www.concretecentre.com/publications
This comprehensive and independent cost study was

undertaken to evaluate a number of structural frame options
for a three-storey ofce building in an out-of-town location
and a six-storey ofce building in a city centre location.
A total of 14 oor design options were evaluated, budget
costings were assigned to all elements of construction
and adjustments were made to reect time-related costs
attributable to differences in the construction programme.
Cost Model Study

Commercial Buildings
The publication outlines the analysis, the detailed costings and

programmes for each structural alternative, and provides a useful
resource for architects, engineers and contractors involved with
evaluating the cost competitiveness of structural options for
multi-storey ofce construction.
CCIP-010
ISBN 1-904482-36-8
Price Group P
The Concrete Centre

Tel: +44 (0)1276 606 800
01/10/2007 11:26:58

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UDC

Design of Hybrid Concrete Buildings

Design of Hybrid Concrete Buildings

Bearings, interface details, consideration of movement, composite

R. Whittle MA (Cantab) CEng MICE

Robin Whittle has extensive knowledge and experience of designing

This design guide is intended to provide the structural

A cement and concrete industry publication

The Concrete Centre

Riverside House, 4 Meadows Business Park,

A cement and concrete industry publication

Typical hybrid concrete options.

Published by The Concrete Centre

Design of Hybrid Concrete Buildings

Overview of hybrid solutions

Overall structural design

Design of Hybrid Concrete Buildi1 1

Bearings and movement joints

Structural elements and connections

Special structures - case studies

Design of Hybrid Concrete Buildi2 2

List of worked examples

Design of Hybrid Concrete Buildi3 3

Hollowcore oor acting as a diaphragm

Design of Hybrid Concrete Buildi4 4

1.1 Single point of

Design of Hybrid Concrete Buildi5 5

1.2 Design considerations

The design of each component should include consideration of:

1.3 Best practice

Design of Hybrid Concrete Buildi6 6

Overview of hybrid solutions 2

2. Overview of hybrid solutions

Precast or in-situ concrete

Economic for repetitive elements

Economic for bespoke areas

Long clear spans

Thermal mass that can be utilised for

Services coordination later in

Locally sourced materials

Short lead-in times

Reduced propping on site

Low vibration characteristics

Reduced skilled labour on site

2.1 Type 1: Precast twin wall

Design of Hybrid Concrete Buildi7 7

2 Overview of hybrid solutions

Design of Hybrid Concrete Buildi8 8

Overview of hybrid solutions 2

2.2 Type 2: Precast column

Design of Hybrid Concrete Buildi9 9

2 Overview of hybrid solutions

2.3 Type 3: Precast column

This form of construction allows a high proportion of the structure to be manufactured in

Design of Hybrid Concrete Buildi10 10

Overview of hybrid solutions 2

Design of Hybrid Concrete Buildi11 11

2 Overview of hybrid solutions

2.4 Type 4: In-situ columns

Design of Hybrid Concrete Buildi12 12

Overview of hybrid solutions 2

2.5 Type 5: In-situ column

Design of Hybrid Concrete Buildi13 13

2 Overview of hybrid solutions