BENDING

STRAIN

MEASUREMENTS

OF LATERAL

EARTH

PRESSURES

111

Space does not permit a discussion of the practical significance and inter-relationship
between the various new factors established by our tests in respect of concepts and methods
in current use previously.
This will be done in the writers closing discussion of Ref. 3, which
will be submitted early in 1949 for publication in the Proceedings of the American Society
of Civil Engineers.
LIST OF REFERENCES
(1). Use of Electric Resistivity Strain Ganges Over Long Periods of Time, by Gregory P. Tschebotarioff.
Proceedings, Society for Experimental Stress Analysis, 1946 ; Vol. III, No. 2 pp. 47-52.
(2). A Method of Effecting SR-4 Strain Gauge Operation Under Water, by Edwin L. Kimble.
Ibid.
pp. 52-54.
(3). Large-Scale Model Earth Pressure Tests on Flexible Bulkheads, by Gregory P. Tschebotarioff.
Proceedings, American Society of Civil Engineers, January, 1948. pp. 9-49.
(4) Special Features on Large-Scale Earth Pressure Tests, by Edward Ii. Ward, John R. Bayliss, and
Philip P. Brown, Ibid.
pp. 49-57.
(5). Lateral Earth Pressure as a Problem of Deformation or of Rupture, by Gregory P. Tschebotarioff
and Philip P. Brown,
Proceedings Second International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering 1948. Vol.11. pp. 81-86.
(6). Effect of Boundary Conditions on Lateral Earth Pressures, by Gregory P. Tschebotarioff
and
John David Welch, Ibid.
Vol. III, pp. 308-313.
Stability and Displacements of Retaining Cbn(7). General Report on Section V. Earth Pressure;
structions, by A. E. Bretting, Ibid.
Vol. VI, (in press).
Vol. VI.
(8). Discussion of Professor Brettings General Report, by Gregory P. Tschebotarioff, Ibid.
(in press).

VANE TESTS IN THE ALLUVIAL PLAIN OF THE RIVER FORTH

NEAR GRANGEMOUTH
A. W. SKEMPTON,
Assistant

M.Sc.,

A.M.I.C.E.,

F.G.S.

Unfversity Reader in Soil Mechanics and

Professor at Imperial College, University of London

This paper contains an account of some vane testswhich were carriedout, during September
1948, in a thick deposit of soft clay in the alluvial plain of the River Forth, near Grangemouth.
Undisturbed
samples of the clay were also taken and compression tests (both
unconfined compression and undrained triaxial tests) have been made on specimens prepared
from these samples.
The investigations
extended from the surface to a depth of 100 ft.
The vane test measures the shear strength of clay in situ, and at Grangemouth
it was
found to give results closely equal to those obtained from the compression tests, down to
a depth of about 45 ft.
Below this depth, however, the vane showed a definite increase in
strength with depth, corresponding to an angle of shearing resistance of about 9 ; while
the compression strengths were found to remain almost constant with depth, and indicated
a shear strength in the clay at 100 ft. equal to rather less than one-half that given by the vane.
These results are similar to those recently found by Carlson (1948) in two beds of soft
clay in Sweden ; where, moreover, the vane tests in each case were in reasonably close
In addition, Odenstad
agreement with the strength deduced from the analysis of a slip.
(1948) has described a slip at Falkenberg in Sweden where the shear strength of a clay as
measured by compression tests on undisturbed LampIes was 45 per cent lower than that
calculated from stability analysis.
The Swedish investigations,
together with those at Grangemouth,
show that the usual
procedure of sampling and testing is not always reliable.
Yet there are many cases on
record* in which this procedure has shown very satisfactory
agreement with calculations
based on actual failures in the field. Consequently,
an attempt must be made to define
It is probable that
the limiting conditions under which the normal nrocedure is reliable.
*See Reliability

of Sampling for details of ten such cases.

112

A. W. SKEMPTON

more data than is at present available will be necessary before these conditions can be
specified. Nevertheless, the author has tentatively put forward. a criterion which may be of
assistance in deciding whether a given set of results are trustworthy. The criterion is discussed under Reliability of Sampling, in this paper.
Gn0~00~
Twelve borings were carried out on the site. They revealed a consistent stmtigraphy
which can be summarized as follows :
0 to 5 ft., stiff brown clay, weathered near the surface.
5 to 28 ft., soft grey silty clay.
28 to 32 ft., silt, sand and pebbles.
32 to 100 ft., soft purple-grey silty clay.
100 ft., hard boulder clay (of considerable thickness).
The surface of the boulder clay varies from about SO ft. to more than 100 ft. below
ground level.
The lower bed of clay was probably laid down in the late-Glacial Sea which, according
to Lacaille (1948), was contemporaneous w&h the Yoldia Sea of Scandinavia. The upper
clay was probably deposited in the early post-Glacial Sea (contemporaneous with the Litorina
Sea). The top few feet have been reclaimed from the river, by building a small embankment and warping the land so enclosed. The present surface is, however, only some 5 ft.
or 6 ft. above the mud flats lying outside the embankment.
Apart from this top layer it must therefore beconcluded that the clays are fully consolidated under a pressure at least equal to their own weight, since they have been in place
for several thousand years.
The lower bed of clay contains thin layers of fine sand, but they do not seem to be
sufficiently regular in sequence to merit classification as varves. The clay also contains
occasional small stones, which may have come from melting ice floating in the sea in which
the clay was being deposited. Ground water level is between 2 ft. and 4 ft. below the surface.
The relationship between liquid limit and percentage clay fraction (particles smaller
than 2 microns) indicates that the upper clay is typical of the British post-Glacial clays,
represented, for example, by the Fens and Gosport clays (see Skempton 1948, Fig. 2). The
lower clay is less active and, in fact, lies only just outside the zone of inactive clays in
the Figure referred to above. This result is probably characteristic of late-Glacial clays
produced largely from the weathering and disintegration of non-argillaceous rocks under
glacial or periglacial conditions.
REASONSFOR USING A VANE TEST
The site investigation was commenced in July 1948, and it soon became clear that the
strength of the lower clay lay in the range 250 lb./ft.z to 350 lb./ft. throughout the full
thickness of the stratum. Now the effective overburden pressure at a depth of 100 ft. is
approximately equal to :
(100-5) x (112-62) = 4,750 lb./ft.
where the density of the clay is taken as 112 lb. /ft.8 and it is assumed that no consolidation
at depth has occurred under the top 5 ft. of reclaimed land.
Hence it had to be concluded that, at a depth of 100 ft., the clay had a consolidatedundrained angle of shearing resistance* of not more than :
+safr=

(4 75E50)
=4
and, moreover, there appeared to be nb real increase in strength with depth.
tests.

*This is equivalent to the angle of shearing resistance

as defined by Casagrande (1947).
See also Fig. 4.

obtained

in consolidated-undrained

triaxial

VANE TESTS IN THE ALLUVIAL PLAIN OF THE RIVER FORTH

113

UlP T(
IO Of
I
IHDIA.

TUBE

LOWER BOReHOLE
CASING 6 DIA.

BOTTOM

GUIDE

ROD

PEN:

u:The Torsion System runs in ball

bearings throughout, those in
guides being sealed in grease
against the entry a? water or soil.
FIG.

DETAIL

OF 3 DIA. VANE .

VANE APPARATUS
H

114

A. W. SKEMPTON

Both these results were in marked contrast to the conclusions reached by the author
in a recent study (1948) of post-Glacial clays. Thus, either the Grangemouth clay is very
different from those previously investigated, or else the samples from the greater depths
were not truly representative.
To examine whether this latter explanation was correct it
became necessary to use some other method of measuring strength, and preferably one in
which the strength was measured in situ.
It was therefore decided to construct a vane test apparatus, similar in principle to
that developed by the Royal Swedish Geotechnical Institute (Carlson lot. cit.) ; especially
since a vane had been successfully used by the British Army for assessing the bearing capacity
of soft ground in connection with tank mobility* and it was known, from calibration tests,
that a vane does in fact give a close correlation with compression strength.
Above all the
author was led to make this decision largely as a result of stimulating discussions with
Professor Terzaghi at Rotterdam in June 1948, concerning the shear strength of clays in
general and the implications of the Swedish vane tests in particular.
Sir George Burt, Director of Messrs. Soil Mechanics, Ltd., who were carrying out the
site investigation, immediately agreed to make the necessary equipment ; while the clients,
the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, agreed to extend the original contract to include this
extra work.
DESCRIPTION
OF THE VANE AND TEST PROCEDURE
The Swedish type of vane is pushed or driven into the ground independently of a boring.
When at any required depth the vane is advanced for a short distance ahead of the casing
surrounding the torsion rods and the maximum torque required to turn the vane is measured.
The whole apparatus is then pushed on to the next depth and the test repeated.
In general,
however, it would seem desirable to use a vane in conjunction with the normal type of
boring from which samples are taken (at least for visual examination and identification
tests).
Moreover, at Grangemouth, it would have been impossible to drive a Swedish vane
through the bed of silt, sand and pebbles lying between 28 ft. and 32 ft.
Consequently an apparatus was designed, by the authors colleague Mr. A. W. Bishop,
which could be used in a boring. This apparatus? is sketched in Fig. 1. Two sizes of vane
were used, 2 in. and 3 in. diameter. Either can be attached to a rod of high tensile steel
iin. diameter which, at a distance of 3 ft. above the vane, passes through a guide in which
it can rotate freely. The top of the steel rod then screws into a socket on l&in. diameter
tubing which extends up the borehole. At intervals of about 30 ft. along this tubing further
guides are arranged, to preserve a vertical alignment.
A torsion head, 20 in. diameter, is attached to the top of the tubing, a thin wire passes
around this head, then through a pulley fastened to a spring balance, and finally to a tennisnet winder. By turning this winder the torsion head, and hence the vane, is rotated ;
while the tension in the wire is given by halving the spring balance reading. The rim of
the torsion head is graduated in degrees and it is an easy matter to turn the winder at such
a speed that the head rotates at a constant angular velocity.
The torsion apparatus is
shown in Plate I.
To carry out the test the lining tube of the borehole was driven to a level 2 ft. 6 in.
above the required depth, and the clay augered or shelled out until about 6 in. remained
above the bottom of the liners. The vane was then lowered until it had penetrated 3 ft.
into the clay and the lowest guide was resting on the bottom of the borehole. The vane
was thus at a depth below the liners equal to SD, where D is the diameter of the boring. At
this depth there should be little structural disturbance of the clay (Hvorslev 1948, Fig. la)
*The use of a vane for this purpose had been suggested to the Army Operational Research Group in
1944 by the Soil Mechanics Section of the Building Research Station.
The army vane, is described by
Smith (1945).
tA fuIl description

and drawings will be published elsewhere.

VANE

TESTS

IN THE

ALLUVIAL

PLAIN

OF THE

RIVER

FORTH

115

and the vertical pressure is only about 5 per cent less than that in the ground before the
boring was commenced.
Nevertheless,
some disturbance of the clay is inevitable ; and it is
to be noted that the area-ratio of the 3 in. vane (used in the Boreholes 3 and 14) is 8 per cent.
A rate of rotation equal to 0.1 per sec. was adopted as standard since at this rate the
shear strength of the clay is fully mobilized in between 3 mins. and 10 mins. : a time of
In some cases the test
loading comparable to that used in laboratory
compression tests.
was continued after the maximum had been reached in order to obtain the residual strength,
while in other cases the test was stopped and the relaxation of stress observed, with the
clay remaining at approximately
constant strain.
In all tests, except those in Borehole 14, the clay was then remoulded, by detaching the
wire from the torsion head and turning this head quite rapidly through six or more full
rotations.
The loss in strength of the clay was very noticeable
during this procedure.
In this
The wire was then replaced and a further standard rate of shear test carried out.
way the remoulded strength was measured in situ.
In addition to the normal procedure, tests were carried out at various depths using a
plain dummy rod in place of the vane.
By this means the sum of the mechanical friction
in the apparatus and the cohesive drag on the 3-ft. vane rod could be measured directly.
CALIBRATION

OF

THE VANE

As a first approximation
it may be assumed that the clay shears along the surface of a
It may further be assumed that
cylinder whose diameter and height equal that of the vane.
the distribution
of shear stress is uniform across the ends of the cylinder.
The moment
required to mobilize the shear strength of the clay is then :

where D and H are the diameter and height of the vane and c is the shear strength of the
clay* at the particular rate of rotation of the vane.
The mobilization of shearing resistance across the ends of the cylinder will probably be
greater at the edges than at the centre.
But even with the assumption of a triangular distribution the difference? in moment from that given above is only 44 per cent, and this
effect can therefore be neglected.
There is, however, no reason to suppose that shear takes
It must, thereplace along a cylindrical surface defined precisely by the radius of the vane.
fore, be assumed that there is an effective diameter equal to xD, where x is a coefficient
to be determined by calibration.
If B is the spring balance reading at the maximum torque in any given test and if f is
the friction force as determined by a test with the dummy rod then

M=Q

(B-f)

where R is the radius of the torsion head ; and the final expression
is thus:

c=

(B-f) R
T @D)H

or c=i

for the shear strength

(B-f)

(I+

z)

*i.e., the shear strength of an ideal cohesive material with a;ompression

strength equal to that of the
clay.
This definition can be applied to saturated clays in which the angle of undrained shearing resistance
q5,,is zero when the clay is tested under conditions of no water content change.
tThe difference, that is, for the case when g

=i

as with the vane used at Grangemouth.

A. W. SKEMPTON

116

_!;;I

III I

I
//
__ _

iI

+
0

.OL---

__

-._,_*

--*_

1331-

iii ______.*

__---

Q --

__Lo---~

Hld30

1339 -C(ld30

E
tJOllVUBllV3

Cl 31cpatloe

C 31OH3M.08
0

*urn

VANE TESTS IN THE ALLUVIAL

The relevant dimensions, and the values of
given in Table I.

PLAIN OF THE RIVER

FORTH

117

K for the apparatus used at Grangemouth are

TABLE

Vane

D
ins.

H
ins.

R
ins.

K
ft.-

2 in.
3 in.

1.99
3.01

2.90
4.40

10.0
10.0

32.5
9.4

In order to determine the coefficient x and also to investigate the influence of rate of
rotation a series of vane tests were made at a depth of 4 ft., and the results compared with
the compression strength of undisturbed samples taken adjacent to the vane tests and from
the same depth. The basic assumption underlying these calibration experiments was,
therefore, that the samples from a depth of 4 ft. were not only structurally undisturbed,
but also would have a shear strength essentially equal to the strength of the clay as would
be deduced from bearing capacity tests or from a slip with a shear surface in this zone. On
this point evidence is provided by a foundation failure of a footing 8 ft. x 9 ft. in area
(Skempton 1942) by the Chingford slip (Cooling and Golder 1942) by loading tests on a
plate 15 in. wide at a depth of 34 ft. in a soft clay (Odenstad 1948) and by the Waltham
Abbey slip (Skempton and Golder 1948) Moreover, the author is not aware of any cases
where the strength of undisturbed samples in non-fissured clay, taken from shallow depths,+
has been found to be incompatible with the strength deduced from full-scale failures. The
basic assumption would thus appear to be justified.
In all, eighteen vane tests were carried out at this depth of 4 ft. at six points, and
nine undisturbed sampIes were taken.
Sixteen laboratory compression tests were made,
with times of loading ranging from 1 min. to 50 min. ; and a similar range was used in the
vane tests. The angle of undrained shearing resistance 6 as measured in triaxial tests was
found to be zero, as would be expected with a saturated clay.
Comparisons between the vane and compression tests showed that, for any given time of
loading, reasonable agreement was obtained if x was made equal to l-05 and the calibration
2 in. vane
c=295 (B-A
factors are therefore :
3 in. vane
c= 85 (B--f)
where B and f are measured in lb. and c is expressed in lb. /ft.*
The consistency of the results obtained by using these expressions can be judged from
the summary in Table II.
In this Table the tests of Evans, et al. (1948), using a remoulded clay, have been recalculated with x=1 -05 and the results are concordant with those obtained at Grangemouth,
in spite of the differences in vane diameter. The observed values of c refer to the average
of one-half the compression strength (coefficient of variation f9 per cent for undisturbed
clay and f2 per cent for remoulded clay) while the calculated values of c refer to the
average values as found from the vane tests (coefficient of variation f7 per cent for undisturbed clay and &2 per cent for remoulded clay).
TABLE
Tests
Evans et al. (1948)
undisturbed

II

Observed c
lb. /ft.a

Diam. of
vane, ins.

c (calculated)
c (observed)

300 to 1,700

0.5

0.98

830

2.0
3.0

1.08
0:95

215

2.0
3.0

I.01
1 *OS

Grangemouth
remoulded

I~-~

*Reference to Reliability
of Sampling
from a depth where c/e is relatively high.

will show

that

the more

c&rect

statement

is Itaken

A. W. SKEMPTON

118

By plotting the vane and compression test results against time of loading it was found
that both types of test vary in a very similar manner.
The influence of the rate of loading
can be summarized as in Table III.
Since the range covered by these tests is considerably
wider than that used in normal testing practice, the influence of this variable is net of the
first importance.
TABLE III

Shear strength lb. /ft.l

Time of loadmg

Undisturbed
1 min. (fast)
.
10 mins. (standard)
50 mins. (slow)

.
.

_.
...

880
830
815

Remoulded
230
215
200

PROCEDURE OF SAMPLING AND TESTING

Undisturbed samples were taken with a coring tool 4 in. diameter and 3 ft. long.
This
had an area ratio of 25 per cent, and inside and outside clearances of 1.5 per cent and 2.5 per
cent respectively.*
Before sampling, the borehole was augured or shelled out to within
6 in. of the end of the lining tubes : the coring tool was then driven into the clay, left in
position for sev&ral minutes and then twisted (to shear the clay across the lower edge of
No special difficulties were encountered in sampling, but
the tool) and rapidly withdrawn.
since it was noted that in some instances slight plastic flow of the clay up into the borehole
was taking place, only the lower half of any sample was used for testing.
The sample was retained in the coring tool and 14 diam. specimens were prepared
from the sample for unconfined compression tests on the site. The ends of the sample were
then waxed and caps were screwed on the tube ; the space between the caps and the sample
being packed with sawdust.
In this form the samples were transported to the laboratory.
Here they were extracted from the coring tubes, and specimens prepared for triaxial and
consolidation tests, natural water content and Atterberg Limits, etc.
TEST RESULTS
The test results obtained from Borehole 14 (8 ft. to 43 ft.) and from Borehole 3 (47 ft.
to 97 ft.) together with the calibration tests (at a depth of 4 ft.) are assembled in Fig. 2.
It will be seen that in the upper clay the vane tests give results in close agreement with
those obtained by carrying out compression tests on undisturbed samples.
From the disof the Vane it may therefore be concluded that the samples
cussion given in Calibration
are truly representative
throughout the full depth of the upper clay.
It is worth noting that, in this clay, the value off, as measured from tests with the
dummy rod, was about 2 lb., while the balance reading B was about 40 lb.
Therefore,
if no correction was made for friction and if x was taken as 1-O instead of 1.05, the vane
A correction of this
strength would appear to exceed the sample strength by 20 per cent.
order would eliminate the apparent anomaly between the vane and sample strengths in the
upper 25 ft. of one of the borings described by Carlson (Zoc. cit.).
With regard to the lower clay it will be seen that in the top 10 ft. (between 32 ft. and
42 ft. below ground level) good agreement still holds between the two types of test.
Below
a depth of about 45 ft., however, there.is a significant divergence ; the vane strength increasing
with depth while the sample strength remains approximately
constant.
As will be seen in the following section the increase in strength
with depth is in
reasonable accord with data obtained from other late- or post-Glacial clays.
But it might,
perhaps, be felt that the observed increase in strength is due not to an actual increase in
strength of the clay, but to an increase in friction in the apparatus or some other cause.
This
possibility is, however, rendered unlikely by two facts.
First, a dummy rod test was
*For a full description

of this sampling tube, see. Cooling (1946).

VANE

TESTS

IN THE

ALLUVIAL

PLAIN

OF THE

RIVER

FORTH

119

carried out at a depth of 74 ft. and f was found to be only 3 lb. as compared with balance
readings B, obtained in the vane tests between 45 ft. and 97 ft., of between 60 lb. and 100 lb.
Secondly, an almost conclusive proof of the validity of the vane test is provided by the
close agreement between the remoulded stren,$hs as measured by the vane and by tests on
the samples (see Fig. 2).
The author attaches considerable importance to the technique for measuring remoulded
strength in situ with the vane.
In this way the sensitivity of clays can be readily determined without having recourse to removing a sample from the ground : a process which
must always be suspect to some extent where the effects of disturbance are being studied
in clays at a considerable depth below the surface.
In the Grangemouth
lower clay the sensitivity*
as measured by vane tests remains
approximately
constant with depth, having an average value of about 42.
It should be noted that sample 3-B was badly disturbed, while vane test 3-3 was carried
out (through an oversight) far too close to the depth from which sample 3-C had been
taken.
The undisturbed results of both these tests have consequently
been rejected.
In concluding this section on test results the data on two series of undrained triaxial
tests may be given.
The data is presented in Table IV, and it shows that the clay exhibits
an angle of shearing resistance & equal to zero when tested under conditions of no water
content change.
This justifies the use of the unconfined compression test in this clay and
also shows that the 4=0
analysis can be applied to stability problems in the clay in which
no water content changes take place under the applied stresses.
Other laboratory tests, including the measurement of drained and consolidated-undrained
shearing characteristics
and thixotropic hardening, are at present being carried out.
It is
hoped to publish full details of the investigations
at a later date.
TABLE IV
(+-us) =2c lb. /in.2

0, lb. /in2

I
0

20
40
60

Sample 14-D

/
I

Sample 3-D

4.6
4.4
3.9
4.5

(unconfined)

5.4
5.1
5.7

ANGLE OF SHEARING RESISTAK~E IN THE LOWER CLAY

It has been mentioned previously in the section Geology that on the basis of geological
evidence the lower clay is probably normally consolidated under its own weight ; except in
relation to the top 5 ft. of recently reclaimed land, the influence of which at considerable
This supposition receives support from the results of a
depths is likely to be negligible.
The $@E curve of this sample is typical
consolidation test carried out on sample 3-C.
of slightly disturbed clays, and it is not an easy matter to identify the Casagrande preNevertheless, from previous experience with such samples
consolidation load with accuracy.
it can be stated that the pre-consolidation
load lies within the range 2,500 to 3,300 lb. /ft .p;
while the effective overburden, pressure on this sample is approximately
equal to
(69-5)

x (112-62)

= 3,200 lb. /ft.

where the saturated density of the overburden is

is assumed to have occurred at this depth under
Moreover, it will be seen from Fig. 2 that the
close to a straight line extrapolated
back to zero
clay below this depth is normally consolidated
*Defined as the ratio

taken as 112 lb. /ft.* and no consolidation

the top 5 ft.
vane strengths below 45 ft. lie reasonably
If, then, the
strength at a depth of 5 ft.
under the existing overburden
pressure

undisturbed strength
Terzaghi (1944).
remoulded strength *

A. W. SKEMPTON

120

(neglecting the reclaimed land) the average rate of increase in strength c with effective
pressure p may be expressed by the ratio (c/p) ,, or by the consolidated-undrained angle of
shearing resistance # where
(c/P),=

0.17

(cI=&fi- p+c
c
-,=a3
-L
I
The maximum rate of increase in strength with pressure is given by vane-test 3-5. and is
represented by the following values :
(c/p)*=o*195)

Now this average value can be compared with those previously deduced (Skempton
1948) for other normally-consolidated clays,* as in Table V. From this Table it will be
seen that the Grangemouth result is lower than the corresponding values for these other
clays ; but this may be due to the relatively low liquid limit, water content and clay fraction
of the Grangemouth clay, since there appears to be a tendency for (c/$)~ to decrease with
decreasing values of these index properties. From a consideration of Table V it may therefore be concluded (i) that the Grangemouth vane tests lead to a result for the lower clay
which is reasonably in accord with existing data, and (ii) that the vane strengths in this clay
are certainly not fictitiously high.
TABLE
V
Average Values
Clay
WI
Grangemouth
Chicago
.
Gosport
.
Fens
Ktiping
..

.
..
.
.

.
.. .
..
.
..

34
51
55
58
102

LL

PI

41
55
80
85
110

22
29
50
53
77

Clay
fraction
30
63
48
51

(c/%

0.17
0.25
0.29
0.32
0.37

8)
114
13
1440
154

The published information on the consolidated-undrained angle of shearing resistance,

as deduced from field data, is not sufficient to permit any further generalizations to be made
on the manner in which this angle varies with different clay types. But, for the procedure
of assessing the reliability of samples, which is described later, it is necessary to have some
simple means of estimating the value of (~/p)~ for any given .cIay ; and for this purpose a
correlation with liquid limit is used, based on the data of Table V, see Fig. 3. It should be
emphasized that this graph is given solely as a result of the urgent need for having a criterion
for deciding whether samples are reliable or not ; and as further information is obtained
other relationshipst may well be found which are more satisfactory or, at least, the curve
of Fig. 3 may have to be modified. For the present, however, this ad hoc correlation will
have to suffice.
STRENGTH VARIATIONS IN THE UPPER CLAY
So far the discussion has centred around the deeper layer of clay. The upper clay is
also of interest, in showing a rapid decrease in strength from the surface to about 29 ft.,
followed by a zone of constant strength which appears to extend into the lower clay to a
*The Massena clay is not included since the author is not certain that it is normally consolidated in
An examination of field data for the Chicago clay (Terzaghi 1942)
the sense used in the present paper.
suggests that the value of (c/p), in Table V is more representative than that quoted in the previous paper.
tFor example, a correlation between (c/p)a and clay fraction,
meter, might prove to be more suitable.

with water content as a second para-

VANE TESTS IN THE ALLUVIAL

PLAIN OF THE RIVER

FORTH

121

&ANGLMOUTH
3
50- <

20

40

60

SO

100

LIQUID

I 0

LIMIT

FIG. 3

RELATION

BETWEEN

LIQUID

LIMIT AND (c/fi),, FOR FIVE NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED CLAY STRATA

depth of 40 ft. to 45 ft. This pattern is similar to that found in the Boston and Massena
clays by Casagrande (1944 A and B). He attributed the departure from a linear increase
with depth to over-consolidation caused by drying of the clay, either during the period of
deposition, in intervals of temporarily lowered water level, or subsequent to deposition after
uplift had brought the clay permanently above water.
This view of the matter is very helpful ; and the rapid increase in strength near the
surface is unquestionably due to drying. It is, however, not certain that the zone of sensibly
constant strength (which is well marked in several clays, including those at Grangemouth) is due in all cases to over-consolidation by drying ; and an alternative possibility
has been suggested by Terzaghi (1947) in which the measured strength of the clay is attributed
largely to thixotropic hardening. The overburden pressure at which the strength commences
rather suddenly to increase would then correspond to a limiting value above which consolidation is the controlling factor, and the strength is primarily a function of pressure.
THE STRENGTH PROFILE IN RECENT CLAYS

Whatever may prove to be the explanation of this region in which the strength remains
approximately constant, there can be little doubt that the three zones shown in Fig. 4 are
characteristic of a number of deep beds of geologically recent clays. In Zone I the clay
is normally consolidated under the effective overburden pressure and the increase in strength
with pressure may be defined by the angle of shearing resistance I/Ior the ratio of strength c
to overburden pressure p. This ratio, in Zone I, has an approximately constant value which
may be denoted by (c/P)~ . the suffix implying that the clay is normally consolidated.
In Zone II the strength remains almost constant, and in Zone I, where the clay is
definitely subjected to drying, the strength increases as the surface is approached. It is
clear that in Zones II and III the ratio of c /$Jis greater than (c/p), and increases progressively
as the depth is decreased, as shown in Fig. 4. Naturally, in a clay which hasnever been
exposed above water level, Zone III will be absent.
RELIABILITY OF SAMPLING

As mentioned in the Introduction there are a number of cases where the normal procedure of sampling and testing has given shear strengths in close agreement with the values

A. W. SKEMPTON

DRYING
-------_--

ZONE It
OVERCONSOLIDATION
THIXOTROPIC

DUE

HARDENING

__-_-----

NORMAL
CONSOLIDATION
UNDER
EFFECTIVE OVIRBURDLN
PRESSURE

,N ZONE I

THE RATIO OF SHEAR STRENGTH

EFFECTIVE OVERBURDEN

PRESSURE P,

OF SHEARING

RESISTANCE

IS

C, AT ANY

DCNOTED

IS

DEFINED

DEPTH. TO THC

BY (C,$),

. THE ANGLE

AS:

P-SIN-I{&}
FIG. 4.

SHEAR

SYR~NGTH

PROFILE

IN

A TYPICAL

LATE- OR POST-GLACIAL

CLAY

as calculated
from analyses of full-scale failures (of clay slopes or foundations on clay).
Yet it is clear from the three cases reported by Odenstad and Carlson, and from the GrangeIt already
mouth results that this normal procedure cannot hold good under all conditions.
seems probable that more factors are involved than structural disturbance of the samples,
since in the investigations
of Carlson a modern type of piston sampler was used and in
These
cores 3-C
and 3-D
from Grangemouth only slight distortions could be observed.
other factors may include a reduction in effective pressure between the particles due to the,
capillary forces in the pore water of the sample being less than the overburden pressure,
or due to a relative movement between the particles on sampling : a micro-structural
But the true cause of this loss in strength is not
disturbance not readily visible to the eye.
yet known, and consequently it is not possible to define the limiting conditions for obtaining
fully representative
samples.
Nevertheless,
the fact that such samples cannot always be obtained means that it is
imperative to have some criterion for assessing the reliability of any set of samples taken
from boreholes in a site investigation ; and the following suggestions are put forward in the
hope that they may prove helpful in this problem.
(i) As a first step an estimate should be made of the value of (c/e), for the clay. Until
more information is available the correlation in Fig. 3 may be used, from which an approximate value of (c/p), can be obtained from a knowledge of the liquid limit.
(ii) The ratio c/p is then calculated for each sample, where c is one-half the unconfined
compression strength of the undisturbed sample and p is the effective overburden pressure
at the depth from which the sample was taken.
(iii) As a general principle it is clear that samples in Zone I, if they are satisfactory,
must give values of c/p equal to (c/J~)~ for the particular clay.
The criterion of reliability
of the samples is thus to compare the actual value of c/p with the estimated value of (c/p),,.
If c/p is appreciably less than (c/p), then it is probable (a) that the sample has been taken

VANE

TESTS

IN THE

ALLUVIAL

PLAIN

in Zone I, and (b) that it is not truly representative.

for example with a vane test, would be advisable.*

OF THE

RIVER

FORTH

123

In such a case, further investigations,

(iv) If c /$ is found to be appreciably greater than (c /p)n the sample has probably been
taken in Zones II or III.
The value of c/p in these zones cannot, in itself, provide sufficient
evidence of the reliability of the sample.
On the other hand, it is likely that the sample is
satisfactory,
since an examination of the cases where samples are known to have been taken
in Zones II and III shows that good agreement has been obtained between sample strengths
and the strengths calculated from full-scale failures.
That is to say, the evidence available
at present suggests that truly representative
samples can usually be obtained in these zones.
Clearly this statement can be no more than a working hypothesis ; but, as such, it would
seem to be at least a useful guide.
The relevant data is given in Table VI.
TARLE VI
--Location

References

Chingford
...
Sweden . . .
..
Waltham Abbey
Kippen . . .
.
Albany :..
. . . c.

1.05
0.95
1.06
0.95
I.0

145
85
70
c. 40

6. 0.38
0.3:
0.31
0.27
c. 0.2

0.88
0.57
1.7
0.39
0.53

4
4
5
14
31

Cooling & Golder (1942)

Odenstad (1948)
Skempton & Golder (1948)
Skempton (1942)
Tschebotarioff & Bavliss 11948)

*Rough estimate.

Either (a) the sample

(v)
If c/p is of the same order as (c/p), two possibilities exist.
has been taken in Zone I and is satisfactory,
or (b) the sample has been taken in Zone II
or III and is not satisfactory.
For the reasons given above the former is the more probable,
Five examples7
and can be fully accepted if the strength increases uniformly with depth.
in which c/p is of the same order as (c/p), and in which the samples were satisfactory
(as
proved by the calculated factor of safety) are summarized in Table VII.
TABLE

Brightlingsea
Huntspill
Fens
. ..
Gosport . .
Newport

.
.

..

0.99

__.

0.90
1.02
0.93
1.08

85
80
60

VII

0.29
0.26
0.27

0.33
0.28
0.31
0.29
0.24

I
I

30
32
38

As more information is obtained on the properties of normally consolidated clays the

correlation between (c/p), and liquid limit (or some other properties of the clay which may
prove to be more suitable) will become more clearly defined, and the application of the
criterion given in (iii) above will become increasingly satisfactory.
It is to be hoped, however,
that the limiting conditions under which truly representative
samples of clay can be taken
will ultimately be understood. ; and the foregoing suggestions for checking the probable
reliability of samples will then be superseded.
*This criterion would obviously show that the samples below 45ft. at Grangemouth were unsatisfactory.
Unfortunately, neither Carlson nor Odenstad quote the liquid limit of their clays ; but the values of c/p,
as deduced from the sample strengths, are less than 0.17 in all three cases, and since this is the value of
(c/P)~ for a low liquid limit clay (see Fig. 3) it seems reasonable to assume that the criterion would successfully eliminate these samples from the reliable category.
tA brief description of these examples will be found in Skempton
the p=O analysis was used.

and Golder (1948).

In all cases

A. W. SKEMPTON

124

SUMMARY

1.
2.

3.
4.

5.
1
6.
7.

A vane test apparatus is described for use in conjunction with the normal procedure
of boring.
This apparatus has been used to measure the shear strength, from the surface to
a depth of 199 ft., in two beds of silty clay, underlying the alluvial plain of the
River Forth, near Grangemouth.
In this investigation a technique was developed for measuring the remoulded
strength of a clay in sitzc by the vane test.
The vane tests and unconfined compression tests on undisturbed samples were in
close agreement to a depth of 45 ft. At greater depths the vane gave increasing
strengths while the sample strengths remained essentially constant.
It is concluded that the samples below this depth were not reliable.
The consolidated-undrained angle of shearing resistance of the deeper bed of clay,
as found by the vane test, was equal to about 9, or (~/$)~=0.17
At all depths the remoulded strengths as measured by the vane were approximately equal to the values obtained by compression tests on remoulded clay.
Suggestions are tentatively put forward which may be helpful in deciding whether
any particular set of undisturbed samples are reliable.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author is indebted to Messrs. Soil Mechanics Ltd., for the opportunity of carrying
out the tests described in this paper, and for constructing the apparatus. He is also indebted
to Mr. R. M. Johnson, who gave valuable assistance in the field, and to the Anglo-Iranian
OS Company for permission to publish the results.
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CASAGRANDE.
A. (1944) A.
Foundations. Tr. Am. Sot. C.E. Vol. 109, p. 463.
CASAGRANDE,
A. (1944) B. Seventh Progress Report on Triaxial Shear Research. Harvard University
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CASAGRANDE,
A. (1947). Chapter V in Triaxial Shear Research. Waterways Expt. Station.
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(1948).

Determination

in

Vicksburg.

COOLING,
L. F. (1946). Development and Scope of Soil Mechanics. The Principles and Application
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