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Engineers, Ethics and Sustainable Development

SharonBeder
Citation:SharonBeder.'Engineers,EthicsandSustainableDevelopment',Paperpresentedtothe10th
InternationalCongressofLogic,MethodologyandPhiloshopyofScience,Florence,1995.
Thisisafinalversionsubmittedforpublication.
Minoreditorialchangesmayhavesubsequentlybeenmade.
SharonBeder'sOtherPublications

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

ABSTRACT
ProfessionalInterests,BusinessInterests
PublicInterest,SelfInterest
EnvironmentalInterestACaseStudy
WhatisEthicalBehaviourinThisSituation?
(i)ValueJudgementsinScientificStudies
(ii)Thefocusonindividualpeopleandprojects
6. TheEthicofSustainableDevelopment
(i)CostBenefitAnalysis(CBA)
(ii)EconomicInstruments
7. Conclusions

ABSTRACT
Mostengineeringcodesofethicsworldwideexhortengineerstoconsciouslyputthepublic
interestaboveallothers.Thisseemstoruncountertothemarketphilosophythatthe
publicinterestwillbeachievedbyindividualspursuingtheirownselfinterest.Itisthis
latterphilosophythatisattheheartofsustainabledevelopmentwithitsemphasison
economicvaluationandeconomicinstrumentstoachieveenvironmentalprotection.
Sustainabledevelopmentpoliciesgenerallyembodyaneconomicdeterminismwith
respecttotechnologicalchange.Itavoidstheissueofethicsandassumesenvironmental
andeconomicgoalsarecompatible.Yetengineerstodayaregrapplingwiththeethical
dilemmasposedbyeverydayconflictsbetweentheeconomicandenvironmental
requirementsoftheirwork.
Inthepastconflictbetweenselfinterestandpublicinterestwasseldomaproblemfor
engineers,sinceengineeringworkswerealmostsynonymouswithhumanprogress.Today
environmentalissueshavecreatedadivergencebetweenselfinterest,employerinterest,
professionalinterestandpublicinterest.Buthowrealisticisittoexpectengineersto
displayhigherethicalstandardsthanthosenormallyexpectedofthewidercommunity?
Andcanindividualethicsplayasignificantroleininfluencingtechnologiesthatare
collectivelyshapedbyprofessionalparadigmsandphilosophies?
Modernengineeringcodesofethicsrequireengineerstoputthepublicinterestbefore
professionalinterestsandbusinessinterests.InthefirstpartofthispaperIwillshowthat
professionalinterestsandbusinessinterestshavealwaysbeenalignedandthatcodesof
ethicshavebeendevelopedtoserveprofessionalinterestswithinthiscontext.Inthe
secondpartofthepaperIwillconsidertheethicalrequirementforengineerstoservethe
publicinterestcomparingthiswiththeprevailingethicofthemarketwhichstressesself
interestasthenorm.InthethirdpartofthepaperIwillconsider,withtheuseofacase
study,howthealignmentofbusinessinterestsandprofessionalinterestsandtheconflict
betweenselfinterestandpublicinterestareexacerbatedbyenvironmentalcontroversies
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andhowtheenvironmentinevitablysuffersasaresult.FinallyIwillshowthatsustainable
developmentdoesnotprovideanewsupportingethicforengineeringcodesofethicsthat
willprotecttheenvironmentbyraisingpublicinterestaboveprofessionalinterests,
businessinterestsandselfinterest.

ProfessionalInterests,BusinessInterests
ThefirstengineeringsocietytoadoptacodeofethicswastheInstitutionofCivil
EngineersinEnglandin1910.TheAmericanInstituteofConsultingEngineersusedthe
BritishCodetoderivetheirownwhichtheyformallyadoptedthefollowingyear.Other
engineeringsocietiesquicklyfollowed.Suchcodeswere,andstillare,amixtureofmoral
valuesandrulesofbusinessetiquettegoverninghowengineersshouldrelatetoeach
otherintheirbusinessdealings,acodeofgentlemanlyconductratherthanacodeof
ethicstoprotectthepublicwelfare.
Codesofethicsserveseveralpurposes.Firstlytheyarethehallmarkoftheprofessions.
Engineers"layclaimtoprofessionalstanding"todistinguishthemselvesfromworkersin
generalandtoshareintheprestigeoftheoldermorerespectedprofessionsofmedicine
andlaw.[1]EdwinLayton[2]claimedthattheemergenceofaprofessionalidentitywas
alsoareactiontothelargeauthoritarianbureaucraticstructureswhichengineerswere
increasinglyfindingthemselvesworkingin.Theidealofprofessionalismwasbasedon
esotericknowledgeandsocialserviceandLaytonidentifiesthreethemestothenew
ideology.Firstly,theengineerwasidentifiedastheagentoftechnologicalchangeandso
essentialtohumanprogress.Secondly,theengineerwasconsidereda"logicalthinker
freeofbias"andthereforeabletoleadandarbitratebetweenclasses.Thirdly,the
engineerwasthoughttobesociallyresponsibleforensuringprogressandthe
benevolenceoftechnologicalchange.[3]
Theclaimtoprofessionalismandsocialresponsibilityalsoenabledengineerstoassert
theirindependencefrombusiness,[4]atleastrhetoricallyifnotinpractice.Engineershad
readilyalignedthemselveswithbusinessandcapitalistvaluesbecauseitwasbusiness
peopleandtheircapitalwhichenabledthemtobuildtheirgreatworks.[5]Laytonpoints
out"Engineersacceptedwithoutquestionthestructure,power,andbasicideological
principlesofbusiness."[6]DavidNoblesuggeststhatthemodernengineercameinto
beingtoservethepurposesofthecapitalist.
Fromtheoutset,therefore,theengineerwasattheserviceofcapitaland,not
surprisingly,itslawsweretohimasnaturalasthelawsofscience.Ifsome
politicaleconomistsdrewadistinctionbetweentechnologyandcapitalism,that
distinctioncollapsedinthepersonoftheengineerandinhiswork,
engineering.[7]
Engineers,atleastintheWest,havethereforeincorporatedbusinessvaluesintotheir
engineeringactivities.Zussmanarguesthat"costisitselfacriterionoftechnical
efficiency"whichmustbeconsideredalongwiththephysicalpropertiesofthematerials.
Thepurposeoftechnology,inacapitalistsociety,isdeterminedbythemarketand
engineeringisseenasameans,notanend.[8]Ritti'sstudyofanAmericansystems
designcompanyalsofoundthatengineersplacedgreatimportanceonhavingthe
opportunitytohelptheiremployingcompanyincreaseitsprofits.[9]Whalleysuggests
thatengineeringemployees"aresocialisedandselected"fromthebeginningtoacceptthe
legitimacyofbothbureaucraticauthorityandthedominanceofbusinessvalues.These
aresecuredbyacareerstructurewhichrewardsthetrustworthy.[10]
Businessinterestsandengineeringinterestshavealwaysbeenalignedandinthepast
therehasbeenlittleconflictbetweenengineeringinterestsandthepublicinterestsince
engineeringworkswereperceivedtobealmostsynonymouswithhumanprogress.
However,asthecommunitybegantoquestionwhethernewtechnologywasalwaysin
theirinterestsoengineeringinterestshavebeenseentooccassionallyconflictwiththe
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publicinterestandinrecentyearsengineeringcodesofethicshavestressedthe
importanceofprioritisingthepublicinterest.Thiselementofthecodeofethicscanbest
beunderstoodintermsofasocialcontactbetweentheengineeringprofessionandthe
communityinwhichtheengineeringprofessionpromisespublicserviceinreturnfor
professionalstatus.

PublicInterest,SelfInterest
Mostmodernengineeringcodesofethicsstatethatengineersshouldholdparamountthe
healthandsafetyofthepublicor,inthewordsoftheAustralianCodeofEthics,
engineers:
shallatalltimesplacetheirresponsibilityforthewelfare,healthandsafetyof
thecommunitybeforetheirresponsibilitytosectionalorprivateinterests...
[11]
Inarecentlyreleaseddiscussionpaperon"DealingwithRisk"theInstitutionofEngineers,
Australia,arguedthatitscodeofethicsispartofalongstandingagreementthe
engineeringprofessionhaswiththecommunity"itstermsarethatengineerswillputthe
health,welfareandsafetyofthecommunitybeforeallotherconsiderationsandthequid
proquois,andshouldcontinuetobe,thatthecommunityallowsustoregulatethe
professionourselves."
Traditionallymoralityhasbeendefinedbyreligion,lawsandculturalconventions.In
today'ssocietymanypeoplearenotreligiousandreligiousmoralityseemstobeconfined
toissuesoflife,deathandsexualitynotreachingfarintopeople'severydayworking
lives.Lawsalso,necessarilyonlyhavelimitedjurisdiction.Theycancoverblatantfraud
anddeceptionbutarenotabletoforceengineerstomake"good"judgements.
Increasinglyinamarketeconomy,themoralityofworkinglife(apartfromaworkethic
thatstemsfromProtestantism[12])isbasedonculturalconventionswhichoftenfall
withinthecategoryofethicalegoismorselfinterest.Ethicalegoismisaminimalistform
ofmoralreasoningwhichsomewouldarguehasnothingtodowithmorality.Itreasons
thateachindividualshouldlookafterthemselves.Somearguethatthisformofreasoning
involvesconsideringotherpeople'sinterestsaswellbecauseinthelongtermitserves
one'sownselfinteresttodoso.AdamSmith,demonstratedethicalegoisminhis
argumentthatsocialwelfareisbestservedbyindividualspursuingtheirowninterestsand
companiespursuingmaximumprofitsinafreemarket.
Engineeringethicsnormallygobeyondethicalegoism,atleastinprinciple.Theethical
principlethatengineersputthepublicinterestbeforeotherinterestsseeminglyworks
againsttheirselfinterest.Howeversomephilosphers,suchasHobbesandRousseau,
discussethicsandmoralityintermsofasocialcontractthatservesselfinterestinthe
longterm.Thetermsofthiscontractarethatifeveryonefollowstherulesofmorality
ratherthanactingonpersonalselfinterest,theneveryonewillbebetteroff,societywill
beabetterplacetolivein.
Moralityconsistsinthesetofrules,governinghowpeoplearetotreatone
another,thatrationalpeoplewillagreetoaccept,oftheirmutualbenefit,on
theconditionthatotherswillfollowtheserulesaswell.[13]
However,asRachelspointsout,thereisanaturallimittothesocialcontract.Ifpeople
obeytheserulessothattheywillbebetteroffthen,incaseswhereobeyingtherules
meanstheywillbeworseoff,theywon'tdoit."Wemaynotexactasacrificesoprofound
thatitnegatestheverypointofthecontract."[14]
Thisisparticularlyrelevanttotheengineeringcodeofethicsbecauseifitisaformof
socialcontractwhichprovidessocialstatustoengineersthenitisnotreasonableto
expectengineerstoobeyanyrulesinthecodeofethicswhichrequiresthemtoforfeit
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theirstatusasengineers.Ifputtingthepublicinterestfirstrequiresthemtorisktheirjobs
andcareerthenthiswillbeseenastoogreatasacrificebymostengineers.Andbecause
theindividualstatusofengineersissodependentontheiremployers,thissocialcontract
haslittlepowerforengineers.
Variousstudieshaveconfirmedthatcodesofethicandconducthavelittlepower.[15]
Engineersareessentiallysubordinateandtheirstatusderivesfromorganisationalmobility
ratherthantechnicalexpertise.AstheAustralianInstitutionofEngineers'Professional
PracticesOfficer,DerekBaldwin,readilyadmits,"ittakesamanorwomenofconsiderable
strengthandcourage"toobeythecodeofethicsratherthanhisorheremployer.And
MichaelDack,aDirectoroftheInstitution,admitsthatthecodeofethicshasa"very
weakmoralpower"comparedtotheemployerwhohasthe"powerofeconomiclifeand
deathoveranemployee".[16]

EnvironmentalInterestACaseStudy
Fordecadesacombinationofremnantreligiousbeliefs,lawandacultureofethical
egoismhasservedWesternsocietiesfairlywell.Averagestandardsoflivinghave
increasedandnationshavebecomewealthierandmorepowerful.Butinrecenttimes
environmentalissueshavehighlightedaconflictbetweenselfinterest,employerinterest,
professionalinterestandpublicinterest.AnAustraliancasestudywillillustratesomeof
theissuesinvolved.
In1985anengineeringfirm,approachedconstructioncompanyTransfieldwithanideafor
acartunneltocrossSydneyHarbour.TheSydneyHarbourBridgesufferedtraffic
congestionatpeakhoursandtheTunnelwouldprovideanalternativeroutebetween
NorthSydneyandtheCityBusinessDistrict(CBD).TransfieldjoinedwiththeJapanese
firmKumagaiGumitoformaconsortiumthatthensoldtheideaofatollfinancedtunnel,
whichtheywouldbuild,totheDepartmentofMainRoads.TheMinisterforMainRoads
wasparticularlykeenontheidea.
BeforeapprovalcouldbegiventotheTunnelanenvironmentalimpactstatement(EIS)
hadtobeprepared.AnEIS,whichisrequiredbylawinNewSouthWales(NSW)for
majorroadproposals,issupposedtoprovideajustificationfortheproject,adetailed
assessmentofthepotentialenvironmentaleffectsoftheprojectandconsiderother
alternatives.TheaimofanEISistoensurethatdevelopmentdecisionstakeaccountof
andwherepossiblemitigateenvironmentalimpacts.TransfieldKumagaihiredengineering
consultantsCameronMcNamarratopreparetheEISontheirbehalf.
InAustraliatherehasbeenaprogressivelossoffaithintheenvironmentalimpact
assessmentprocess.Communitieslikelytobeaffectedbyproposedengineeringprojects
suchasfreeways,chemicalplantsandwastefacilitiesareoftendisappointedtofindthat
EISsarenottheindependent,objectiveassessmentofenvironmentalimpactsthatthey
expected.Increasinglysuchdocumentsarebeingviewedbythelocalresidentsassales
documentsfortheprojectandtheengineerswhopreparethemasmouthpiecesforthe
proponents.SubconsultantsworkingonEISshavealsobecomeconcernedthattheir
findingsareeditedandselectivelyreportedinthefinaldocument.
TheHarbourTunnelEIS,asinmostcases,supportedtheprojectandarguedthatthere
wouldbenoadverseenvironmentaleffects.Howeverinthiscasetheconsultantswere
accusedofbreachingtheEngineeringCodeofEthics,byNorthSydneyMunicipalCouncil
andtheSocietyforSocialResponsibilityinEngineering,fornotputtingthepublicinterest
first.TheseorganisationsmaderepresentationstotheInstitutionofEngineers,Australia
(IEAust)allegingthattheconsultantshadoverestimatedthebenefitsandunderestimated
theenvironmentalcostsoftheTunnelproject.JohnGerofi,anengineerwhoconductedan
inquiryintothetunnelproposalfortheCouncil,statedthat"Theinquirycanfindno
rationalexplanationastowhycompetentandrespectedconsultantsemploying
professionalengineersandotherqualifiedstaffwouldhaveproducedanEISwithsomany
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questionableassumptionswhichfavouredtheproject,andwithsomanydeficiencies."[17]
TheInstitutionneverproceededwithaninvestigationoftheengineeringconsultantswho
authoredtheHarbourTunnelEIS.BillRourke,theInstitution'schiefexecutiveatthetime,
saidthatithadnotbeengivenevidencethatconstitutedaprimafaciecaseagainstany
individualmemberoftheInstitution.TheNorthSydneyCouncildecidednottoassemblea
caseagainstindividuals.GerofilaterstatedinalettertoEngineersAustralia,that"the
defamationlaws,plusalackofresourcesandareluctancetoaccuseindividualswill
preventallbutthemostblatantethicaltransgressionsfrombeingraised"iftheInstitution
continuestoconfineitsattentiontoindividuals.[18]
Thiscaseraisesvariousquestionsaboutethics,engineeringandtheenvironment.Doesa
favourableinterpretationofthedataconsistofunethicalconduct?Isitfairtosingleout
individualengineerswhoaredoingthejobastheiremployersrequirethemtoandwho
arenotactingverydifferentlyfromotherengineersinsimilarpositions?Canthe
environmentbeprotectedbyethicalconduct?

WhatisEthicalBehaviourinThisSituation?
AnEIS,whichincludesscientificstudiesandeconomicanalyses,purportstobean
objectivestatementofenvironmentalimpacts.Howeverthegoalofanobjective
documentisillusoryifweassumethatscienceitselfissociallyconstructed.Thisis
exacerbatedbythecircumstancesofEISpreparationwherelargeinvestments,careers
andtheviabilityofbusinessesareatstake.Itisthereforeinevitablethatthevaluesand
goalsofthosepreparinganEIS,andthosewhoemploythem,willshapeitscontentsand
conclusionsthroughthewayscientificdataiscollected,analysed,interpretedand
presented.
InAustraliaenvironmentalimpactstatementsaredonebyorcommissionedbythe
proponentofaprojectordevelopment.Theengineerworkingonthatimpactstatementis
therefore,eitherdirectlyorindirectly,employedbyapartywhoseinterestsmaydifferin
significantwaysfromthepublicinterest.[19]Theimmediateobjectiveoftheiremployer
orclientwillbetogetapprovalfortheprojecttogoaheadeventhoughthatprojectmay
haveanadverseimpactontheenvironmentandonlocalresidents.
BecausetheEISisdoneratherlateintheplanningprocesstheprojectproponentwill
almostcertainlyhavecommittedconsiderablefinancialresourcestoaparticularoptionat
aparticularsite.Fromtheirpointofviewtheywillhavebalancedthecommunitycosts
againsttheirbenefitsanddecidedtheprojectshouldgoahead.TheEISatthisstage
becomesanotherobstacleinafieldofbureaucratichurdlesonthewaytotheirendgoal.
Butontopofthisitisapublicdocumentthatwillbescrutinisedbylocalresidents,
bureaucrats,politiciansandenvironmentalists.
(i)ValueJudgementsinScientificStudies
Naturally,projectproponentswillwantthatdocumenttoemphasisetheadvantagesofthe
projecttothecommunityandtodownplaythedisadvantages.Toalargeextentthat
environmentalimpactstatementislikeapublicrelationsdocumentfortheproject.Any
expressionofpossibleadverseenvironmentaleffectorevenanymentionofuncertainty
willcertainlybemagnifiedbyopponentsoftheprojectandusedinargumentagainstthe
project.[20]
ValuesandjudgementsenterateverystageofthepreparationofanEISbeginningwith
definitionoftheproblem.Bothjustificationandtheframingofalternativeswillbeshaped
bythewaytheproblemthattheprojectissupposedtobesolvingisdefined.For
example,intheSydneyHarbourTunnelEIS,theproblemwassaidtobetraffic
congestion.TrafficbuiltupandsloweddownontheapproachestotheSydneyHarbour
Bridge,causingdelaystopeopletryingtocrosstheHarbourbymotorvehicle.Asecond
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crossingwasthereforejustifiedonthegroundsoftrafficcongestion,andalternatives
framed,intermsofprovidingbetterroadaccessacrosstheHarbour.[21]
OpponentstotheTunneldidnotperceivecongestiontobeaproblematall.TedMack,
MayorofNorthSydneyatthetimetheTunnelwasproposed,arguedthatcongestion
shapedacitybyencouragingthemovementofpeopleandbusinessestootherpartsof
themetropolitanareasothatnewcentresofactivitywereestablished.RossBlunden,
emeritusprofessoroftrafficengineering,arguedthatcongestionencouragedpeopleto
changetheirjourneytimesortakepublictransport.Bothmenconcludedthatasecond
crossing,farfromremovingcongestion,wouldmerelyattractmorecartrafficandthat
congestiononbothcrossingswouldbetheeventualoutcome.[22]
ThescopeofwhatistobecoveredintheEISisalsoamatterofjudgementandthewayit
isdecidedvariesfromstatetostate.Anarrowscopecanmakeaprojectappearmore
desirable.WiththeSydneyHarbourTunnel,onecanseethat,whilsttheproponents
arguedthatpollutionwouldbereducedintheimmediatevicinityoftheHarbourbecause
ofthesmootherflowingtraffic,abroaderscopewouldhaveensuredthatthewider
impactsofincreasedcarusageencouragedbytheTunnelgreenhouseemissions,smog
productionandoilusagewerealsotakenintoaccount.
ThedesignofanEISrequiresjudgementsofwhattypesofimpactswillbesignificantand
thecollectionofdatarequiresdecisionsaboutthetimeperiodandareaoverwhich
samplesarecollected,thespeciestobestudiedandthequantitiesofindividualspecimens
tobecollected,andmoregenerallythescaleofstudy.Suchdecisionsarenotmadeonly
onthebasisofwhatmightbeconsideredbyascientisttobeappropriate,butwillalsobe
affectedbyconsiderationsofcost,timeavailability,previousstudiesandperhapseven
likelyoutcome.InthecaseoftheSydneyHarbourTunnelEISmanyofthesedecisions
werecriticised.[23]
Similarly,methodsofanalysingdatacanvaryinthesortsofresultstheyproduceand
datatheyrequireandthosepreparinganEISwillchoosethemethodsusingmany
criteria,apartfromthe`purelyscientific'.Evenwherethemethodofanalysisis
uncontroversial,assumptionsandjudgementswillneedtobefedintotheanalysis.Most
EISsrequiresomeformofforecastingofpopulationnumbersorotherhumanactivities
andthisrequiresassumptionssuchaswherepeoplearelikelytoliveandworkandwhat
theirhabitswillbeinthefuture.
PerhapsthemostcontentiousanalysisinanEISisthecostbenefitanalysis.Acost
benefitanalysis(CBA)foraroadprojectwillrequireestimatesofthevalueoftimesaved
andmayrequireestimatesofthevalueofbushlandoropenspacelosttothecommunity.
InthecaseoftheHarbourTunnel,anumberofCBAsweredonebyvariousconsultants.
Thosecommissionedbyproponentsofthetunnelallshowedthatbenefitsoutweighed
costsandthosecommissionedbytheopponentstothetunnelallshowedthatthecosts
outweighedthebenefits.
InanEISdatacollectedandtheresultsofanalysescanbeinterpretedandpresentedina
numberofways.Eventhoughrealworldengineeringandenvironmentalscienceisfraught
withuncertaintiesanEIScanbecarefullywordedtoavoidanyimpressionthatanythingis
uncertain.
TheamountofjudgementrequiredinputtingtogetheranEISraisesthequestionof
whetheraperson'sethicalstancewillaffecttheoutcome.HereIamnottalkingabout
outrightfalsificationoromission(whichofcoursedoeshappenoccasionally).Iamtalking
aboutsubtlejudgementswithinarangeoflegitimateandvalidchoices.Inevitablythere
willbeagreyareabetweenwhatisacceptedasscientificallycredibleandoutright
deceptionwhichwilldependonaperson'sviewpoint.(Seediagrambelow)

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Engineershavealegalobligationtoavoidtheouterareaoffalsehoods,omissionsand
deliberatedistortions.Sodoesethicalreasoningonlyapplytothegreyareawherethey
cangetawaywithslightdistortions?Ordotheyalsohaveanethicalobligation,when
operatingwithintherangeofscientificcredibility,tomakejudgementsinfavourofthe
publicinterestandenvironmentalprotection?Isitreasonabletoexpectpeopletobe
consciousofthewaytheyshapescientificstudiesandtoendeavournottobeinfluenced
byvestedinterestsinthatshaping?
FromthestandpointofethicalegoismitmakessensefortheengineertoprepareanEIS
whichfavourstheproject.Anengineer'scareerprospectsaredependentonanemployer's
assessmentoftheirloyaltyandreliability.Theemployee/employerrelationshipis
necessarilyonebasedontrust.[24]Theemployer'sjudgementinthisregardcrosses
organisationalboundariesbecausejobapplicantsneedfavourablereferencesfrom
previousemployers.Engineersseldomhavethesortofindependentreputationsthat
scientistssometimesbuildupthroughpublications.
Evenasselfemployedconsultants,engineersaredependentonthejudgementofclients
andthatjudgementisbasedonwhethertheyareperceivedtobeabletodeliverwhatis
requiredbytheclient.Consultantswith`overdeveloped'consciences,whodonotputthe
client'sprioritiesfirst,arelesslikelytobegivenworkinfuture.Inmanyfieldsthenumber
ofpotentialclientsisverylimitedandconsultantswithtroublingtendenciestowardsocial
responsibilitywillsoonbewellknown.
Ifengineersreliedsolelyonethicalegoismformoralreasoningthenthereisnoreason
whytheyshouldlookbeyondtheiremployer'sinterestinpreparinganEISunlessthey
themselveswouldbeadverselyaffectedbytheproject.However,engineersareexpected
bythecommunitytogobeyondselfinterest.Ataminimum,thecodeofethicsshould
preventanengineerfromproducingafavourableEISfortheclient/employerifthiswill
meanthatpublicwelfareisendangered.
However,ifanengineerbelievestheprojectdoesnotendangerthewelfare,healthand
safetyofthecommunitythens/hemayfeeljustifiedinensuringthattheEISis
supportive,whetherornotthishasinvolvedconsciouslymakingfavourablejudgementsin
favouroftheprojectwithintherangeofscientificalcredibilityorthegreyareas
surroundingit.Thisisespeciallysosincemostengineeringcodesofethicsalsoincludea
tenetrequiringthemtoapplytheirskillandknowledgeintheinterestoftheclient.
DespitedebatewithintheAustralianInstitutionofEngineers,theCodeofEthics
deliberatelyleavesoutspecificmentionofenvironmentinthetenetaboveleavingitupto
theindividualengineertodecidewhetherenvironmentalprotectionisanessential
ingredientofcommunitywelfare.
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IndiscussionsabouttheirroleinpreparingEISsmostengineeringconsultantsrefertoa
differentkindofmoralreasoning,theyarguethattheyhaveintegrity(avirtuebased
ethic)andthatthereforetheirEISreportsarenotbiasedinfavouroftheproponent.
Engineeringcodesofethicsalsogenerallyincludetenetssuchas"engineersshallactwith
fairness,honestyandingoodfaith..."However,mostengineerspreparinganEISwould
notconsidermakingajudgementwithintherangeofscientificcredibilityasbeingunfair
ordishonest.Thisethicmay,however,preventsuchanengineerfromknowingly
wanderingintothegreyarea.
IwouldarguethatmostengineersarequiteconsciousofthewaytheymanipulateanEIS
togiveafavourableoutcomeandthattheirclaimofintegrityhasmoretodowith
reputationthanethicalbehaviour.Engineeringconsultantsthatearnareputationwiththe
publicformisleadinganddistortedEISswillbealiabilitytoprojectproponentswhowant
togainpublicapprovalfortheirprojects.Ontheotherhandconsultantswhopreparean
EISthatgivestheoppositionplentyofammunitionagainstaprojectorcausesapprovalto
bedeniedwouldalsonotgetfurtherwork.Integrityforengineeringconsultantsinvolves
treadingthatfinelinethatenablesafavourableEIStobepreparedwithoutresortingto
blatantbiasthatisbyremainingwithinorclosetotheareaofscientificcredibility.
(ii)Thefocusonindividualpeopleandprojects
Despitetheprevailingethicofselfinterestandtheemphasisonindividualismthat
moderncapitalistsocietiesconvey,theydependonasharingofvaluesandcollective
activity.Engineeringisoneexampleofacollectiveactivitythatisbuiltupontheworkof
pastengineersandaconsensuswithintheprofessionaboutwhatareappropriate
technologicalsolutions.Thetermstechnologicalsystems[25],technologicaltraditions[26],
technologicalparadigms[27],technologicalregimes[28]andtechnologicaltrajectories
usedbyscholarsoftechnologyallrefertothewaytechnologicaldevelopmentisasocial
enterpriseshapedbythecontextwithinwhichitoccurs.
Thedesign,choiceandimplementationoftechnologyisseldomanindividualendeavour.
Mostengineeringprojectsrelyuponteamsofengineersworkingtogetherandnosingle
engineerfeelsindividuallyresponsiblefortheoutcome,norisanyprojectdependenton
thewillingnessandcooperationofanyoneengineer.AsCohenandGracepointout:
"groupthink"typicallyisresponsibleforperceivingandarticulatingwhatever
justificationthereisforaproject.Acriticalperspectiveisdifficultforan
individualtotake,letalonesustain,inthecourseof"normal"engineering
workunderanacceptedparadigm.[29]
Mertonobservedmanyyearsagothatengineerswereunlikelytotakefullresponsibility
fortheirworkandallitsconsequencesbecauseasemployeestheyare"knitintoa
bureaucraticapparatus"withfixedspheresofcompetenceandauthority,andare
"rewardedforviewingthemselvesastechnicalauxiliaries."[30]
Moreovertheemphasisonindividualethics,whichaprofessionalcodeentails,tendsto
containethicswithinthemicrosphereofindividualprojects.InthiscaseanEISappliesto
asingleprojectwhichonitsownmayhavequiteminorenvironmentalimpacts.Itisoften
thecumulativeimpactofsuchprojectsthatdegradestheenvironment.Thereforean
engineerworkingonaparticularEISmayfeelsatisfiedthattheprojectwillnot
significantlyharmtheenvironmentbuttowhatextentcansuchanengineerbeexpected
toconsiderthecumulativeimpactofmanysuchprojects?
TheInstitutionofEngineers,Australiaclearlydoesnotbelievethatthisispossible.Ithas
arguedthatEISscannotadequatelyassessthecumulativeimpactsofprojectsandthat"it
wasnaivetoexpecttheEIA[EnvironmentalImpactAssessment]processtoaddress
longertermsustainabilityissues."[31]
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"ImagineforonemomentanEIAontheimpactofacoalpowerstationonthe
localenvironment,"DrWebster[IEAustchiefexecutive]said."AnEIAwould
notconsiderthepossibilitythatalternativeenergysourcescouldbedeveloped
elsewhere,andassessthenettenvironmentalimpactofthevariousoptions."
[32]
Whatismore,anEISismerelyatoolforidentifyingenvironmentalimpactsandadverse
environmentalconsequencesdonotmeanaprojectwillnotbeapproved.These
consequencesareweighedagainstthewealthtobecreatedbytheprojectandinmost
nationspriorityisgiventothewealthgeneratingpotentialoftheproject.
Clearlyitisunrealisticandperhapsevenunreasonabletorelyontheethicsofindividual
engineersappliedtoindividualprojectstoprotecttheenvironmentfromtheimpactof
engineeringworks,particularlywithinamarketeconomywheretheselfinterestethicof
themarketdominates.However,agrowingrecognitionofenvironmentaldeclinehas
promptedgovernmentsallovertheworldtoturntosustainabledevelopmentasawayof
managingtheenvironment.Butdoessustainabledevelopmentsupplyasocialethicto
replacetheindividualisticethicofthemarketwhichwouldbemoresupportivefor
engineerswhoactethically?

TheEthicofSustainableDevelopment
Thecentralethicalprinciplebehindsustainabledevelopmentisintergenerationalequity.
TheBrundtlandCommissiondefinedsustainabledevelopmentas:"developmentthat
meetstheneedsofthepresentwithoutcompromisingtheabilityoffuturegenerationsto
meettheirownneeds."[33]
Intergenerationalequitycanbedefendedinbothconsequentialistanddeontological
terms.Firstlyitcanbeconsideredintermsofensuringlongtermconsequencesoftoday's
actions.Thisutilitarianviewpointfitsthepragmaticconcernsofsomebusinessinterests.
Theenvironmentalcrisisthreatensthesustainabilityofeconomicactivity.Manyactivities
suchasagriculture,forestry,fishing,tourismandrecreationaredependentonahealthy
environment.Othersareindirectlyaffectedasitbecomesmoreexpensivetoobtain
resourcesandbecausepollutiondecreasesthehealthoftheworkforce.Lookingaheadto
thefutureensuresthesustainabilityofbusinessactivities.
Intergenerationalequitycanalsobeconsideredadutythatcurrentgenerationshaveto
futuregenerationsorarightoffuturegenerations.However,ifweexaminethewaythat
sustainabledevelopmentisoperationalisedweseethatitisdoneinawaythatprotects
themarketsystemandperpetuatesindividualismandselfinterestaboveanyethicof
equity.
DavidPearcearguesthatifwearetoensureintergenerationalequitythenfuture
generationsneedtobecompensatedforanyenvironmentaldamagedonebycurrent
generationsandthatthisisbestdonebyensuringthatdamageismadeupforby
increasedwealthandhumanmadeassets.Inotherwordsnaturalcapital(the
environment)canberundownifhumanmadecapital(money,equipment,infrastructure,
knowledgeetc)areincreased.[34]Inordertocompensatefuturegenerationsweneedto
valueoftheenvironmentinthesamewayaswevaluehumanmadeassetsthatiswe
needtogiveitamonetaryprice.[35]
Environmentaleconomists,suchasPearce,alsoclaimthatenvironmentaldegradationhas
resultedfromthefailureofthemarketsystemtoputanyvalueontheenvironment.They
arguethatbecauseenvironmental`assets'arefreeorunderpricedtheytendtobe
overusedorabused,resultinginenvironmentaldamage.Becausetheyarenotownedand
donothavepricetagsthenthereisnoincentivetoprotectthem.Thisisaviewsharedby
businesspeople.TheBusinessCouncilofAustraliaclaimsthattheenvironmental
problem
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isthatimportantenvironmentalassetstendnottobepricedinamarketlike
otherassets.Theseassetsarecommonpropertytheybelongtoeverybody,
andtonobody.Withoutownershiprightsthereisnottheincentiveforany
personorgrouptolookafterthemproperly...iftheenvironmenthasazero
pricetousersitwilleventuallybeusedup.[36]
Theseviews,whichhavebeenincorporatedintosustainabledevelopmentrhetoricand
sustainabledevelopmentpolicies,callforputtingapriceontheenvironment.Howeverthe
wholeprocessofpricingtheenvironmenttoensurethatdecisionstakeaccountof
environmentaldegradationworksagainstintergenerationalequityandinsteadextends
marketlogicandmarketmoralityintoawidersphereofoperation.
Therearetwomainwaysofoperationalisingtheideaofputtingapriceonthe
environment.Thefirstisthroughcostbenefitanalyses.Thesecondisthroughtheuseof
economicinstruments.
(i)CostBenefitAnalysis(CBA)
CBAhastraditionallybeenusedbygovernmentsaspartoftheirdecisionmaking
processesbutinthepastenvironmentalcostsandbenefitshaveusuallynotbeen
quantifiedandincorporatedintotheanalysesbutlistedseparatelyinaqualitativeformfor
consideration.Thesustainabledevelopmentapproachistoincorporatethese
environmentalcostsandbenefitsbypricingthemandincorporatingthemintothe
calculations.
InawayCBAistheultimateembodimentofconsequentialistethicsinthatitseeksto
ensurethatgoodconsequencesoutweighbadconsequencesandconsequencesare
measuresinmoneyterms.InrealityhoweverCBAworksagainsttheethicofequityand
themeasuringofconsequencesinfinancialtermsfailstocapturetheconsequencesfully.
CBAisaboutaggregatedcostsandbenefitsanddoesnotdealwiththeissueofhowthey
aredistributedyetdistributionofcostsandbenefitsisofisofprimeconcernwhen
consideringequity.Aslongasthesumofbenefitsoutweighsthesumofthecosts,evenif
asmallgroupsofpeoplegetthebenefitsandawholecommunitysuffersthecosts,the
societyasawholeisassumedtobebetteroffbyCBA.Itissometimesarguedby
economiststhat,ifthetotalbenefitsoutweighthetotalcosts,thewinnerscould
compensatethelosersandstillbebetteroffbutthisisonlytheoreticalreasoningand
seldomhappens.
InaCBA,thevalueoffutureconsequencesisdiscounted(reduced)becauseitisassumed
thatcostsandbenefitsinthefuturearenotworthasmuchtopeopletoday.Thisisa
directresultofusingmoneyasameasure.Thelogicbehinddiscountingderivesfromthe
logicofmoneythatapersonwouldprefertoreceivemoneynowthanthesameamount
inthefuture.DalyandCobbpointoutthattheideaofdiscountingcomesfromthefact
thatmoneycanbeputinthebanktogetinterestandthatpeoplehaveachoicebetween
puttingtheirmoneyinabankorinvestingintheprojectinquestion.Economistsforget
thiswhentheyapplytheirmodelstothingsthatdon'tgrowlikemoneyinabank,suchas
theenvironment.[37]
Theuseofadiscountratemeansthatthefurtherintothefuturethatthecostsorbenefits
are,thelesstheywillbeworthintheCBAcalculations.Normaldiscountratesensurethat
anycostsorbenefitsmorethan30yearsinthefuturearealmostvaluelessforthe
purposesofaCBA.Discountingthereforediscriminatesagainstfuturegenerationsby
sayingthatenvironmentaldamageinthelongtermfuturecaneffectivelybeignored.
CBAalsorestsontheassumptionthatenvironmentalassetscanbesubstitutedby
humanmadeassetsandallthatmattersintheendisthattheaggregategainsoutweigh
theaggregatedlosses.Ifaprojectgeneratesmorewealththanwhatitiscalculatedthe
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environmentaldamagethatiscausedisworth,thentheprojectshouldgoahead.Theloss
ofenvironmentalamenityismadeupforbythewealththatisgenerated.Asmentioned
beforeCBAtakesnoaccountofwhogainsandwholosesfromtheexhangeofshared
resourcesforprofitsthatisthesubstitutionofcommonenvironmentalamenitythatis
accessibletothewholecommunitywithprivatecapitalthatbelongstothedevelopers.
Themethodofcalculatingthevalueoftheenvironmentincorporatesmarketvalues.The
mostpopularmethodcurrentlyistousecontingentvaluation,orwillingnesstopay
surveys.Peopleareaskedhowmuchtheywouldbewillingtopaytopreserveaparticular
environmentortheirwillingnesstopayisinferredfromtheirbehaviourinthemarketsuch
astheextrapricetheyarewillingtopayforrealestateinnonpollutedareas(hedonic
pricing).
Usingthemarket,whetheranactualmarketoracontrivedone,tovaluetheenvironment
tendstoproducevaluesthatreflectandthereforemaintaintheprevailingdistributionof
income.Wealthierpeoplearewillingtoandabletopaymoreforwhattheywantsotheir
preferenceswillhavemoreweightinanysurvey.MoreoveraccordingtoaCBAsitinga
dirtyindustryinanalreadydirtyareawillbelesscostlythansitingitinacleanarea
wherewealthierpeoplecanaffordtolive.Thisisbecausethedeclineinpropertyvalues
willbelessasaresultoftheresultingpollution.
Thevaluationoftheenvironmentintermsofthetotalofwhateachindividualiswillingto
paydeniesaseparateconceptofpublicinterest.AsLenihanandFletcherstate"The
welfareofsocietyhasmeaningonlyasthesummationofthewelfareofitsindividual
members"[38]DalyandCobbalsopointoutthattheeconomicviewofvalueisbasedona
reductionofhumanvaluestoindividualismandreducestheworldtooneinwhich
"individualsallseektheirowngoodandareindifferenttothesuccessorfailureorother
individuals'isfundamentaltoeconomics..."[39]Thereforevaluationoftheenvironment
throughCBAisaconceptthatembracesthevaluesofethicalegoismandisinfact
antitheticaltoanethicofequity.
(ii)EconomicInstruments
Anotherincreasinglypopularwayofincorporatingenvironmentalvaluesintodecision
makingisthroughtheuseofeconomicinstruments.Theideaisthatpricesofresources
shouldreflectthetruecost,includingenvironmentalcostsinvolvedintheirextractionand
manufacture.Ifthiswerethecasethen,theeconomistsargue,peoplewoulduse
environmentalresourcesmorewisely.
Ofcourseputtingamonetaryvalueonthesecostssuffersthesameproblemsinvolvedin
costbenefitanalysis.Howeverinpractice,economicinstrumentsseldominvolve
calculatingtherealvalueofenvironmentaldamage.Rather,inthecaseofpricebased
measuressuchaspollutioncharges,anextraamountischarged,chosensomewhat
arbitrarilybythegovernment,thatissupposedtoprovideanincentivetochange
environmentallydamagingbehaviour.Inthecaseoftradeablepollutionrights,alevelof
emissionsischosenandrightstoemituptothatlevelaretradedbetweencompaniesor
auctionedoffbythegovernment.Inbothcasestheideaisthatbymakingeconomic
adjustments,individualsandfirmscancontinuetopursuetheirselfinterestandthe
environmentwillbeprotectedatthesametime.
Advocatesclaimthateconomicinstrumentsprovideawaythatthepowerofthemarket
canbeharnessedtoenvironmentalgoals[40].Theyalsoserveapoliticalpurposeinthat
theyreinforcetheroleofthe`freemarket'atatimewhenenvironmentalismmost
threatensit.Chantetalarguethat"contrarytothepopularviewthatamarketsystem
leadstotheabuseoftheenvironment"itisinfacttheabsenceofamarketwhichleadsto
environmentaldegradation.[41]Economicinstrumentsattempttomakeavirtueoutof
theprofitmotiveandethicalegoism:
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Theeconomists'preferenceformarketsolutionsisanideologicallybasedone:
Itsfirstpillarcomessquarelyoutofaphilosophicaltraditionthatgrewfrom
AdamSmith'snotionthatindividualpursuitofselfinterestwould,inaregime
ofcompetitivemarkets,maximisethesocialgood.Thattraditionissofirmly
embeddedineconomicsbynowthatmosteconomistsprobablydonotrealize,
unlesstheyventureoutintotheworldofnoneconomists,thatitisa
propositionofmoralphilosophy...(Kelman1983,p.297)

Conclusions
Arevolutioninethicsisneededtodisplacesthepowerfulethicalegoismthatrationalises
themarketasthepredominantdecisionmakingtoolinoursociety.Itisunrealisticto
expectengineerstomanifesthigherethicalconductthanisthenormthroughoutthe
communityinwhichtheylive.Sustainabledevelopment,withitsrhetoricof
intergenerationalequity,isinrealityawayofendorsingmarketmoralityandis
inadequatetothesolutionofmodernenvironmentalproblems.

Endnotes
1RobertZussman,MechanicsoftheMiddleClass:WorkandPoliticsAmomgAmericanEngineers,
UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1985,p.10.
2

EdwinLaytonJr,TheRevoltoftheEngineers:SocialResponsibilityandtheAmericanEngineering
Profession,ThePressofCapeWesternReserveUniversity,ClevelandandLondon,1971.
3Layton,op.cit.
4DavidNoble,AmericaByDesiqn:Science.TechnoloqyandtheRiseofCorporateCapitalism,AlfredA

Knopf,NewYork,1977Layton,op.cit.
5

DavidNoble,TheForcesofProduction:ASocialHistoryofIndustrialAutomation,Knopf,NewYork,
1984,p.44Whalley,op.cit.,1986,Zussman,op.cit.,1985,RichardRitti,TheEngineerintheIndustrial
Corporation,ColumbiaUniversityPress,1971,pp.545.
6Layton,op.cit.,p.67.
7Noble1977,op.cit.,p.34.

[8]Zussman,op.cit.
[9]Ritti,op.cit.,p.54
[10]PeterWhalley,TheSocialProductionofTechnicalWork:TheCaseofBritishEngineers,MacMillan,
1986RobertZussman,MechanicsoftheMiddleClass:WorkandPoliticsAmomgAmericanEngineers,
UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1985.
[11]InstitutionofEngineersAustralia,CodeofEthics,Canberra1995.
12

MaxWeber,TheProtestantEthicandtheSpiritofCapitalism,transTalcottParsons,UnwinUniversity
Books,London,1967.
13

Rachels,op.cit.,p.143.

14

Ibid.,p.151.

15

KennethPrandy,ProfessionalEmployees:AStudyofScientistsandEnqineers,Faber&FaberLtd,
London,1965WilliamRothstein,'EngineersandtheFunctionalistModelofProfessions',inRobert
Perrucci&JoelGerstl,eds,TheEngineersandtheSocialSystem,JohnWiley&Sons,1969William
Kornhauser,ScientistsinIndustry:ConflictAccomodation,UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1962Robert
PerucciandJoelGerstl,ProfessionWithoutCommunity:EngineersinAmericanSociety,RandomHouse,
NewYork.1969.
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16SharonBeder,`Engineers,EthicsandEtiquette',NewScientist,25September1993,pp.3641.
17Anon,`Wasthereunethicalbehaviourintunnelproject',EngineersAustralia,14July1989,p.10.
18J.P.Gerofi,`SydneyHarbourTunnelandtheCodeofEthics',EngineersAustralia,20October1989,p.

4.
19

Thereasonforthisisthatitisassumedthattheconsultantneedstoworkcloselywiththeproponent
tounderstandtheprojectandbeabletorecommendchangestotheprojectasenvironmentalimpacts
becomeevident.
20

SharonBeder,"TheRoleoftheProfessional',inEnvironmentalImpactStatements:Selected
Readings,ed.bySharonBeder,EnvironmentalEducationProject,SydneyUniversity,1990,pp.4548
SharonBeder,"Biasandcredibilityinenvironmentalimpactassessment",ChainReaction,No68,
February1993,pp.2830.
21CameronMcNamara,SydneyHarbourTunnel:EnvironmentalImpactStatement,TransfieldKumagai

JointVenture,November1986.
22

SydneyHarbourTunnel,EnvironmentalImpactStatement,videoproducedbySydneyUniversity
TelevisionServices,1991.
23SydneyHarbourTunnel,EnvironmentalImpactStatement,videoproducedbySydneyUniversity

TelevisionServices,1991personalcommunication,AlanJones,AustralianMuseum,1990.
24

PeterWhalley,TheSocialProductionofTechnicalWork:TheCaseofBritishEngineers,MacMillan,
1986RobertZussman,MechanicsoftheMiddleClass:WorkandPoliticsAmomgAmericanEngineers,
UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1985.
[25]ThomasHughes,NetworksofPower:ElectrificationinWesternSociety,18801930,JohnHopkins
UniversityPress,BaltimoreandLondon,1983.
[26]EdwardConstant,`Communitiesandhierarchies:Structureinthepracticeofscienceand
technology',inTheNatureofTechnologicalKnowledge.AreModelsofScientificChangeRelevant?,ed.R.
Laudan,D.ReidelPublishingCo,Holland,1984.
[27]GiovanniDosi,`Technologicalparadigmsandtechnologicaltrajectories',ResearchPolicy,no.11,
1982,pp.147162SharonBeder,`PipelinesandParadigms'......
[28]RichardNelsonandSidneyWinter,`Insearchofusefultheoryofinnovation',ResearchPolicy,vol.
6,1977,pp.3676.
29StephenCohenandDamianGrace,`Engineersandsocialresponsibility:Anobligationtodogood',

IEEETechnologyandSocietyMagazine,Fall1994,p13.
[30]R.K.Merton,'TheMachine,theWorkerandtheEngineer',Science,Jan1947,p.82.
31

"IEAustrejectsgovernmentproposalsforenvironmentalimpactassessments",EngineeringTimes,
June1995,p.1.
32Ibid.
33WorldCommissiononEnvironmentandDevelopment,OurCommonFuture,Australianedn,Oxford

UniversityPress,Melbourne,1990,p.85.
[34]Pearceadmitsthattherearesomeenvironmentalassetsthatcannotbereplacedbyhumanmade
capital.
35

DavidPearce,ed.Blueprint2:GreeningtheWorldEconomy,Earthscan,London,1991,p.

36

BusinessCouncilofAustralia,AchievingSustainableDevelopment:APracticalFramework,BCA,1991,
p.9.
37HermanDalyandJohnCobb,FortheCommonGood:RedirectingtheEconomytowardCommunity,

theEnvironment,andaSustainableFuture,BeaconPress,Boston,1989,pp.1534.
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38

JohnLenihanandWilliamFletcher,EconomicsoftheEnvironment,Blackie,GlasgowandLondon,
1979,p.4.
39DalyandCobb,op.cit.,p.159.
40RobertStavins,`Harnessingmarketforcestoprotecttheenvironment',Environment31(1):57,28

35T.H.Tietenberg`Usingeconomicincentivestomaintainourenvironment',Challenge,
March/Apr.,1990,p.42.
41JohnChant,DonaldMcFetridgeandDouglasSmith,`Theeconomicsoftheconserversociety',In

EconomicsandtheEnvironment:AReconciliationeditedbyWalterBlock.Canada:FraserInstitute,1990,
p.62.
ProfessorSharonBederisavisitingprofessorialfellowattheUniversityofWollongong.
SharonBeder'sPublicationscanbefoundathttp://www.uow.edu.au/~sharonb

https://www.uow.edu.au/~sharonb/esd/Florencetalk-2.html

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