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Argument Errors

Critical thinking as an across the curriculum course

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Contents

Introduction

Structural Fallacies

Content Fallacies

Argument Refutation

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Elements of argument

factual errors

factual errors

1.

Premise

2.

Premise

3.

Premise

4.

Conclusion

Inference
logical errors
(structure/formal and
content/informal)

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Types of Fallacies
Structural Fallacies
 logical errors that
cause the invalidity of
the argument

Content Fallacies
 logical and factual
errors that weaken the
inductive strength or
cause the
unsoundness of the
argument
 dubious and clearly
false premises

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Ex: structural fallacy/ formal logical fallacy

invalid

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Ex: content fallacy/ informal logical fallacy


"It is a truth universally
acknowledged, that a
single man in possession
of a good fortune, must be
in want of a wife." (Jane
Austen wrote this in her
novel Pride and Prejudice)
Alleged certainty: dubious
premise
invalid weak argument
http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/resources/educational/handouts/online_hate/logical_fallacies_handout.cfm

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Ex: content fallacy/ factual fallacy


valid, but unsound

1. All kangaroos have two heads.


2. All bats are kangaroos.
3. All bats have two heads.

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Contents

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Introduction
Structural Fallacies

Content Fallacies

Argument Refutation

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If the dog barks, then I will wake up.


I didnt wake up.
So the dog didnt bark.

If the dog barks, then I will wake up.


I woke up.
So the dog barked.

If the dog barks, then I will wake up.


The dog didnt bark.
So I didnt wake up.

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All beagles are dogs.


All dogs have bark.
So all beagles bark.

Some students at HULIS are Chinese.


Some Chinese people are enjoying their
holidays in the North Pole.
So some students at HULIS are enjoying
their holidays in the North Pole.

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All dogs bark.


No professor is a dog.
So no professor barks.
All dogs bark.
No professor barks.
No professor is a dog.
Most dogs bark.
Fido is a dog.
Fido barks.
Most dogs bark.
Fido barks.
Fido is a dog.

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Almost all dogs like peanut butter.


Almost all things that like peanut
butter dont bark.
So almost all dogs dont bark.

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Structural Fallacies
If you have
Gucci bags,
youll look
cool.
If you dont
have Gucci
bags, you
wont look
cool.
You may still
look cool,
probably not
like this
http://www.vnexpress.net/Vietnam/Kinh-doanh/2007/10/3B9FB08B/

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Structural Fallacies

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Structural Fallacies
A: I cant stand Siamese cats.
Ugh. They have those
strange blue eyes.
B: Mary Ellen has a kitten
with blue eyes. I didnt
know its was Siamese.
Siamese cats have strange
blue eyes.
Ellens kitten has blue eyes.
Ellens kitten is Siamese.

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Contents

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Introduction
Structural Fallacies
Content Fallacies
Argument Refutation

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Content Fallacies

Fallacies of Presumption
Fallacies of Relevance
Fallacies of Ambiguity

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Fallacies of presumption

Arguments that commit fallacies of


presumption contain false premises or lack
premises, and so fail to establish their
conclusion.

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Fallacies of presumption
"You are either with us or against us. You
have refused to join our cause, therefore
you must be working against our cause.
False
False dilemma = there are not only 2
choices (false premise)

http://onegoodmove.org/fallacy/ig.htm

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Fallacies of presumption
 Residents of this state should
vote to elect Kravitz as state
governor in the upcoming
election. During Kravitzs final
term as a state senator, she was
a member of a special legislative
committee that explored ways the
state can reduce its escalating
rate of violent crime. Elect Kravitz
for governor, and our cities
streets will be safer than ever.
 Hasty generalization: Assuming
that all things remain unchanged
over time (false premise)

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Fallacies of presumption
 At the local Viewer Choice video store,
the number of available movies in VHStape format remains about the same as
three years ago, even though the number
of available movies on DVD has
increased tenfold over the past three
years. People who predict the impending
obsolescence of the VHS format are
mistaken, since demand for VHS movie
rentals today clearly remains just as
strong as ever.
 Hasty generalization: Whats true for a
member is true for the whole group (false
premise)

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Fallacies of presumption
- Mom: For a marriage to work, people have to
have a lot in common
- Daughter: Wrong! I know a lot of miserable
marriages where the people had a lot in
common.
People have a lot in common

People have a lot in common

The marriage will work.

The marriage will be miserable.

misunderstanding between mother and daughter; mother only mentions a


necessary condition, but daughter mistakes it for that her mother thinks that its
sufficient.
Necessary and Sufficient Conditions: Mistaking a necessary condition for a
sufficient condition (dubious premise)

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Necessary and sufficient Conditions


(National Public Radio)
 Interviewer: So, will we continue to see home
schooling in America?
 Interviewee: As long as there are parents who
love their kids and are willing to work hard,
yes.
 That parents love their kids and are will to
work hard is sufficient for home schooling in
America.

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Fallacies of presumption
- Maria: Professor, professor, why wouldnt you
answer my question in class?
- Professor Zzzyyxx: Questions in my class I do
not allow. If one student I am allowing to ask a
question, then others I must allow. And then I
will have lots and lots of questions to answer.
And time I wont have for my lecture.

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Fallacies of presumption
If a student is allowed to ask question.
hidden premise: all students are equal
then all students are allowed to ask questions.
(if you add a premise here, Ull change the context)
??? insufficient to conclude that
then all students will ask questions.
(if you add a premise here, Ull change the context)
??? insufficient to conclude that
then the questions will be answered.
hidden premise: the time I spend answering all
the questions will be at least equal to all the time I
have.
then I will have no time for my lecture.

 an example the fallacy of slippery slope (insufficient premises leading


to false premises)

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Fallacies of presumption
-

Dont go out with a football player.


Why not?
Youre crazy about football players, and if
you go out with one, youre sure to sleep
with him
So?
Then youll get pregnant. And youll marry
the guy. But those guys are jerks. Youll end
up cooking and cleaning for him while he
and his buddies watch football on TV. In
twenty years youll have five kids, no life and
lots of regrets
Gosh, I guess youre right. Ill go out with a
basketball player instead

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Fallacies of presumption
ng ng cng khng
nh, mm tm chnh l
nguyn nhn u tin gy
bnh t trong v dch va
qua. Cc An ton v sinh
thc phm iu tra 61
trng hp mc t u
tin v nhn thy, tt c
h u n mm tm.
Post-hoc fallacy: after
this therefore because
of this: false premise

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Fallacies of presumption
Ti TP HCM, Khoa cp
cu ca cc bnh vin
Ch Ry, Trng Vng,
Nhn dn Gia nh,
Nhn dn, s ca nhp
vin b chn thng s
no do tai nn giao
thng gim gn 50%, so
vi trc khi thc hin
i m bo him.
http://www.vnexpress.net/Vietnam/Xa-hoi/2007/12/3B9FD676/

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Fallacies of relevance

the considerations that they offer in


support of their conclusion are irrelevant to
determining whether that conclusion is
true
 personal attack
 irrelevant appeals
 weak analogy

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Fallacies of relevance
I hear that Brigitte Bardot is
campaigning for animals rights.
But shes the one who used to
do advertisements for fur
coats.
personal attack

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The Presidential IQ Report


WASHINGTON --In a published report, the Lovenstein
Institute of Scranton, Pennsylvania has detailed
147 Franklin D. Roosevelt (D)
132 Harry Truman (D)
122 Dwight D. Eisenhower (R)
174 John F. Kennedy (D)
126 Lyndon B. Johnson (D)
155 Richard M. Nixon (R)
121 Gerald R. Ford (R)
176 James E. Carter (D)
105 Ronald W. Reagan (R)
98 George H. W. Bush (R)
182 William J. Clinton (D)
91 George W. Bush (R)

http://lovenstein.org/

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Fallacies of relevance
 Ti cng khng hon ton ng tnh
vi quan im l vic quan h trc
hn nhn l hon ton hp t nhin
nu tnh yu chn. Vi vng g
nh? Ti sao cc bn tr khng i
thm thi gian xy dng tnh cm
c ln dn, ln dn m hoa, kt
tri bng mt cuc hn nhn, em
li hnh phc cho c hai h, li hp
vi thun phong m tc ca ngi
Vit.
 Appeal to traditions

http://www.vnexpress.net/Vietnam/Ban-doc-viet/Tam-su/2007/12/3B9FD84A/

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Fallacies of relevance
Nu khng i m bo him, bn s thy
mnh lc lng
Appeal to popularity

Dont be the last to buy

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Fallacies of relevance
Appeal to Novelty

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Fallacies of relevance
Do you believe in
God?
No, I dont like the
thought that Im
not in control.
Appeal to
consequences

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Fallacies of relevance
"During her 17 years as a professor of botany,
Professor Thomas has proved herself to be well
worth her annual salary of $50,000. Her classes
are among the largest at the university,
demonstrating her popularity among students.
Moreover, the money she has brought to the
university in research grants has exceeded her
salary in each of the last two years. Therefore, in
consideration of Professor Thomas'
demonstrated teaching and research abilities, we
recommend that she receive a $10,000 raise and
a promotion to Department Chairperson; without
such a raise and promotion, we fear that
Professor Thomas will leave Elm City University
for another college."

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Fallacies of Relevance
Wherever there's a pool there's always a flirt
wherever there's school there'll always be homework
wherever there's a beat there's always a drum
wherever theres fun there's always coca cola
doo doo doo doo doo doo doo doo doo dooo. doo doo
doo doo doo always coca cola
The stars will always shine, the birds will always sing
As long as there's thirst, there's always the real thing
Coca-cola is always the one
Wherever there is fun there's always Coca-cola
Weak analogy

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Fallacies of ambiguity

Fallacies of ambiguity appear to support


their conclusions only due to their
imprecise use of language.
Once
Once terms are clarified, fallacies of
ambiguity are exposed.

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Contents

1
2
3
4






Introduction
Structural Fallacies
Content Fallacies
Argument Refutation

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Elements of argument

factual errors

factual errors

1.

Premise

2.

Premise

3.

Premise

4.

Conclusion

Inference
logical errors
(structure/formal and
content/informal)

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Argument by Jennifer
 Premise 1: In a debate debaters argue as hard as they
can while in a deliberation it is easy for them to give up
their side earlier than they should.
 Premise 2: The debating style is used in crucial
argument.
 Premise 3: The debating style may let people get hurt
but that does not have a considerable effect on the
effectiveness of the style.
 Conclusion: A debate is better than a deliberation in
getting us to the truth.
 Evaluation: Premise 2: appeal to popularity; Premise 1 &
3: no evidence to support these premises.

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Argument by Mark
Premise 1: The pressure to save face or to
win distracts debaters from the truth.
Premise 2: Getting at the truth is much
more important than winning.
Premise 3: Because of the possible pain,
people are afraid of debating over issues
they really care.
Conclusion: A deliberation is better than a
debate in getting us at the truth.
Evaluation: Premise 1 & 3: no evidence

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Counter Arguing Strategies


Asking for clarification of terms:
 I'd like a definition of flashiest arguments,
What do you mean by at the beginning?,

Giving counter examples:


 What if it's a presidential debate and the
Democrat suddenly says, "Oh, I see you've
been right all along, I'm going to go out and
register Republican."

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Counter Arguing Strategies


Asking for evidence:
 Aren't we missing a central piece of
evidence? We don't know whether people
would be more willing to deliberate than
debate. Would you be willing to try an
experiment? We would poll whatever number
of people you think would make a convincing
sample to at least see what people think
they'd prefer.

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