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BiomedicalSignalProcessing

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Lecture0
INTRODUCTION
Dr.R.B.Ghongade
DepartmentofE&TC
Vishwakarma InstituteofInformationTechnology,Pune
INDIA

Syllabus

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1)Introduction: cell structure, basic cell function, origin of biopotentials,


electric activity of cells.
2)Biotransducers: Physiological parameters and suitable transducers for its
measurements, operating principles and specifications for the transducers to
measure parameters like blood flow, blood pressure, electrode sensor,
temperature, displacement transducers.
3)Cardiovascular system: Heart structure, cardiac cycle, ECG
(electrocardiogram) theory (B.D.), PCG (phonocardiogram).EEG, XRay,
Sonography, CTScan, The nature of biomedical signals.
4)Analog signal processing of Biosignals, Amplifiers, Transient Protection,
Interference Reduction, Movement Artifact Circuits, Active filters, Rate
Measurement. Averaging and Integrator Circuits, Transient Protection
circuits.
5)Introduction to timefrequency representations e.g. shorttime Fourier
transform,
spectrogram
,
wavelet
signal
decomposition.
6)Biomedical
applications:
Fourier,
Laplace
and
ztransforms,
autocorrelation, crosscorrelation, power spectral density.
7)Different sources of noise, Noise removal and signal compensation.
8)Software based medical signal detection and pattern recognition.

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Texts/References

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1. Handbook of Biomedical Instrumentation,second


edition,R S Khandpur,TMH Publication,2003
2. E. N. Bruce, Biomedical signal processing and
signal modelling, New York: John Wiley, 2001.
3. Wills J. Tompkins, biomedical digital signal
processing, PHI.
4. M.Akay, Time frequency and wavelets in
biomedical signal processing, Piscataway, NJ:
IEEE Press, 1998.
5. Biomedical instrumentation and measurements
by Cromwell, 2nd edition, Pearson education.

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2.

Jaakko Malmivuo;RobertPlonsey;Bioelectromagnetism :
PrinciplesandApplicationsofBioelectricandBiomagnetic
Fields,OxfordUniversityPress
Antoun Khawaja
;AutomaticECGAnalysisusingPrincipal
ComponentAnalysisandWaveletTransformation,Karlsruhe
TransactionsonBiomedicalEngineering,2006
JohnL.Semmlow;Biosignal andBiomedicalImageProcessing:
MATLABBasedApplications,MarcelDekker,Inc.,2004
Rezaul Begg;Joarder Kamruzzaman;Ruhul Sarker;Neural
networksinhealthcare:potentialandchallenges,IdeaGroup
Publishing,2006
Lief Sornmo;PabloLaguna;BioelectricalSignalProcessingin
CardiacandNeurologicalApplications,Elsevier,2005,First
Edition

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AdditionalTexts/References

LecturePlan

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Lecture1:IntroductiontoBiomedicalInstrumentationand safety
considerations
Lecture2:Biopotentials
Lecture3:BioelectrodesandPhysicalMeasurements
Lecture4a:CardiovascularSystem
Lecture4b:Phonocardiography,EEG
Lecture5:XRayImaging,ComputedTomography,DiagnosticUltrasound
Imaging
Lecture6:AnalogSignalProcessingofBiosignals(NOPPT)
Lecture7:DigitalsignalprocessingofBiosignals
Lecture8:Software basedmedicalsignaldetectionandpatternrecognition
CaseStudy(NOPPT)

Assignments

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PARTI
Assig.1:SurveyofBiomedicalsensors
Assig.2:Designandsimulationofinstrumentationamplifier
Assig.3:DesignandsimulationofActiveFilters

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PARTII
Assig.4:MATLABexercise(basicoperations,commands)
Assig.5:ECGSignalprocessingusingFFTandWavelets
Assig.6:ECGPatternclassification

Lecture1

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PARTI:IntroductiontoBiomedical
Instrumentation
PARTII:Safetyconsiderations

Dr.R.B.Ghongade
DepartmentofE&TC,
V.I.I.T.,Pune411048

BiomedicalInstrumentation

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Amedicaldeviceis

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anyitempromotedforamedicalpurposethat
doesnotrelyonchemicalactiontoachieveits
intendedeffect

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Differencefromanyconventionalinstrument

sourceofsignalsislivingtissue
energyisappliedtothelivingtissue

Howdoesthisimpactdesignrequirements?
Reliability,Reliability,Reliability!!!

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Timelineofmajor
inventions

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Generalizedinstrumentationsystem

Measurand

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Physicalquantity,propertyorconditionthatthe
systemmeasures
Typesofmeasurands
InternalBloodpressure
BodysurfaceECGorEEGpotentials
PeripheralInfraredradiation
OfflineExtracttissuesample,bloodorbiopsy

Categoriesofmeasurands
Biopotential,pressure,flow,dimensions
(imaging),displacement(velocity,acceleration
andforce),impedance,temperatureand
chemicalconcentration

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Sensor

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Asensorconvertsphysicalmeasurand toan
electricaloutput
Sensorrequirements
Selective shouldrespondtoaspecificform
ofenergyinthemeasurand
Minimallyinvasive shouldnotaffectthe
responseofthelivingtissue
Mostimportanttypesofsensorsinbiomedical
systems
displacement
pressure

SignalConditioning

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SignalConditioning:Amplificationandfiltering
ofthesignalacquiredfromthesensortomake
itsuitableforprocessing/display
Generalcategories
Analog,digitalormixedsignal
Timedomainprocessing
Frequencydomainprocessing
Spatialdomainprocessing

OperationalModes
Directvs.Indirect

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Directmode:measuredesiredmeasurand directly
ifthesensorisinvasive,directcontactwiththe
measurand ispossiblebutexpensive,riskyandleast
acceptable
Indirectmode:measureaquantitythatisaccessibleand
relatedtothedesiredmeasurand
assumption:therelationshipbetweenthemeasurands is
alreadyknown
oftenchosenwhenthemeasurand requiresinvasive
procedurestomeasuredirectly
Exampleindirectmode
Cardiacoutput(volumeofbloodpumpedperminutebythe
heart)canbedeterminedfrommeasurementofrespiration,
bloodgasconcentration&dyedilution
Organmorphologycanbedeterminedfromxrayshadows

OperationalModes
Samplingvs.Continuousmode

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Sampling:forslowvaryingmeasurands thataresensed
infrequentlylikebodytemperature&ionconcentrations
Continuous:forcriticalmeasurementsrequiringconstant
monitoringlikeelectrocardiogramandrespiratorygas
flow

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Generatingvs.Modulating

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Generating:alsoknownasselfpoweredmodederive
theiroperationalenergyfromthemeasurand itself
Example:piezoelectricsensors,solarcells
Modulating:measurand modulatestheelectricalsignal
whichissuppliedexternallymodulationaffectsoutputof
thesensor
Example:photoconductiveorpiezoresistive sensor

MeasurementConstraints

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Otherthandevicefunctionality,thesignaltobemeasured
imposesconstraintsonhowitshouldbeacquiredand
processed
Measurementandfrequencyranges
Mostmedicalmeasurands aretypicallymuchlowerthan
conventionalsensingparameters(microvolts,mmHg,low
frequency)
Interferenceandcrosstalk
Notpossibletoisolateeffectsofothermeasurands
CannotmeasureEEGwithoutinterferencefromEMG
Placementofsensorsandcompensation/calibration
processplayakeyroleinanybioinstrumentationdesign

MeasurementConstraints
Measurementvariabilityisinherentatmolecular,organandbodylevel
Primarycause
interactionbetweendifferentphysiologicalsystems
existenceofnumerousfeedbackloopswhosepropertiesare
poorlyunderstood
Thereforeevaluationofbiomedicaldevicesrelyonprobabilistic/statistical
methods(biostatistics)
SAFETY
Duetointeractionofsensorwithlivingtissue,safetyisaprimary
considerationinallphasesofthedesign&testingprocessthe
damagecausedcouldbeirreversible
Inmanycases,safelevelsofenergyisdifficulttoestablish
Safetyofmedicalpersonnelalsomustbeconsidered
Operatorconstraints
Reliable,easytooperate,ruggedanddurable

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Classificationofbiomedicalinstruments

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Quantitybeingsensed
pressure,flowortemperature
makescomparisonofdifferenttechnologieseasy
Principleoftransduction
resistive,inductive,capacitive,ultrasonicor
electrochemical
makesdevelopmentofnewapplicationseasy
Organsystems
cardiovascular,pulmonary,nervous,endocrine
isolatesallimportantmeasurementsforspecialists
whoneedtoknowaboutaspecificarea
Clinicalspecialties
pediatrics,obstetrics,cardiologyorradiology
easyformedicalpersonnelinterestedinspecialized
equipment.

MeasurementInputSources

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Desiredinputs
measurands thattheinstrumentis
designedtoisolate
Interferinginputs
quantitiesthatinadvertentlyaffectthe
instrumentasaconsequenceofthe
principlesusedtoacquireandprocess
thedesiredinputs
Modifyinginputs
undesiredquantitiesthatindirectly
affecttheoutputbyalteringthe
performanceoftheinstrumentitself
ECGexample
Desiredinput ECGvoltage
Interferinginput 50Hznoisevoltage,
displacementcurrents
Modifyinginput orientationofthepatient Interferinginputsgenerallynot
cables
correlatedtomeasurand
whentheplaneofthecableis
ofteneasytoremove/cancel
perpendiculartothemagnetic
Modifyinginputsmaybecorrelatedto
fieldthemagneticinterferenceis
themeasurand
maximal
moredifficulttoremove

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DesignCriteriaandProcess

RegulationofMedicalDevices

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Regulatorydivisionofmedicaldevices:classI,IIandIII
moreregulationfordevicesthatposegreaterrisk
ClassI(Generalcontrols)
Manufacturersarerequiredtoperformregistration,
premarketingnotification,recordkeeping,labeling,
reportingofadverseexperiencesandgood
manufacturingpractices
ClassII(Performancestandards)
800standardsneededtobemet!
ClassIII(Premarketingapproval)
Manufacturershavetoprovethesafetyofthesedevices
priortomarketrelease
Implanteddevices(pacemakersetc.)aretypically
designatedclassIII
Investigationaldevicesaretypicallyexempt

CompensationTechniques

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Compensation:eliminationorreductionofinterferingand
modifyinginputs
Techniques
Alteringthedesignofessentialinstrumentcomponents
simpletoimplement
Addingnewcomponentstooffsettheundesiredinputs
Methods
Reducesensitivitytointerferingandmodifyinginputs
Example:usetwistedcablesandreducenumberof
electricalloops
SignalFiltering
temporal,frequencyandspatialseparationofsignal
fromnoise

Compensation:NegativeFeedback

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Whenmodifyinginputcannotbeavoided,negativefeedbackisused
tomaketheoutputlessdependentonthetransferfunctionofthe
device

Feedbackdevicesmustbeaccurateandlinear

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Feedback

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OtherCompensationTechniques
Opposinginputsornoisecancellation

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Wheninterferingandmodifyinginputs
cannotbefiltered

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additionalinputscanbeusedtocancel
undesiredoutputcomponents
similartodifferentialsignalrepresentation

Biostatistics

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Usedtodesignexperimentsandclinical
studies:

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Tosummarize,explore,analyzeandpresentdata
Todrawinferencesfromdatabyestimationorby
hypothesistesting
Toevaluatediagnosticprocedures
Toassistclinicaldecisionmaking

Medicalresearchstudiescanbeclassifiedas:

Observationalstudies:Characteristicsofoneormore
groupsofpatientsareobservedandrecorded.
Experimentalinterventionstudies:Effectofamedical
procedureortreatmentisinvestigated.

BiostatisticsStudies
Observationalstudies caseseriesstudies

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Crosssectionalstudies:

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Casecontrolstudies
useofindividualsselectedbecausetheyhavesome
outcomeordisease
thenlookbackwardtodeterminepossiblecauses

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Analyzecharacteristicsofpatientsatoneparticulartime
todeterminethestatusofadisease orcondition.

Cohortobservationalstudies:

Aparticularcharacteristicsisaprecursorforanoutcome
ordisease

Controlledstudies:
Ifprocedurescomparedtotheoutcomeforpatients
givenaplaceboorotheracceptedtreatment

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BiostatisticsStudiesII

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Concurrentcontrol:

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Doubleblindstudy:

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Patientsareselectedinthesamewayandforthesame
duration

Randomizedselectionofpatientstotreatmentoptions
tominimizeinvestigatororpatientbias

Biostatistics:DataAnalysis

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Distributionsofdatareflectthevaluesofavariable/
characteristicandfrequencyofoccurrenceofthosevalues

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Mean:(X)averageofNvalues(arithmeticorgeometric
mean)

Median:middleofrankedvalues
Mode:mostfrequentvalue

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Biostatistics:DataAnalysis

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Standarddeviation:(s)spreadofdata
75%ofvaluesliebetween

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CoefficientofVariation:(CV)
permitscomparisonofdifferentscales

Percentile
Percentageofdistributionthatislessthanor
equaltothepercentilenumber

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Measure of the relationship


between two numerical variables
for paired observations
values between +1 and 1 (+1
means strong correlation)

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Correlation coefficient(r)

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EstimationandHypothesisTesting

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Confidenceintervals
indicatesthedegreeofconfidencethatdatacontainsthetruemean
Hypothesistesting
revealswhetherthesamplegivesenoughevidenceforustorejectthe
nullhypothesis(statementexpressingtheoppositeofwhatwethinkis
true)
Pvalue:
howoftentheobserveddifferencewouldoccurbychancealone

MoreBiostatistics

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Methodsformeasuringtheaccuracyofadiagnostic
procedure:

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Sensitivity:probabilityofthetestyieldingpositiveresultsinpatients
whoactuallyhavethedisease
opposite:falsenegativerate
Specificity:probabilityofthetestyieldingnegativeresultsinpatients
whodonothavethedisease
opposite:falsepositiverate

InstrumentCharacterization

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Enablecomparisonofavailableinstruments
Permitevaluationofnewinstrumentdesigns

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Generalizedstaticcharacteristics

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Staticcharacteristics:
performanceofinstrumentsfordcorverylow
frequencyinputs
somesensorsrespondonlytotimevaryinginputsand
havenostaticcharacteristics
Dynamiccharacteristics:
requiretemporalrelationshipstodescribethequality
ofmeasurements

StaticCharacteristics

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Accuracy

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Differencebetweenthetruevalueandthemeasuredvalue
normalizedbythemagnitudeofthetruevalue
Severalwaystoexpressaccuracy
mostpopularisintermsofpercentageoffullscale
measurement

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Precision

Resolution

Expressesnumberofdistinguishablealternativesfromwhichagiven
resultisselected
Highprecisiondoesnotmeanhighaccuracy.
Smallestincrementalquantitythatcanbemeasuredwithcertainty

Reproducibility
Abilityofaninstrumenttogivethesameoutputforequalinputs
appliedoversomeperiodoftime

StatisticalControlandStaticSensitivity

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Measurementconditionshavetotakeintoaccountrandomnessintroducedby
environmentalconditions
Ifthesourceofvariationcannotberemoved,thenuseaveraging

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Statisticsensitivity(dcgain)
Toperformcalibrationbetweenoutputandinput
Forlinearcalibration

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Astaticcalibrationisperformedbyholdingallinputs(desired,interfering,
andmodifying)constantexceptone

Thisoneinputisvariedincrementallyover
thenormaloperatingrange,resultingina
rangeofincrementaloutputs.
Thestaticsensitivityofaninstrumentor
systemistheratiooftheincremental
outputquantitytotheincrementalinput
quantity

StaticCharacteristics
Zerodrift(offseterror)
Whenallmeasurements
increasesordecreasebythe
sameabsoluteamount
Causes:manufacturing
misalignment,variationsin
ambienttemperature,
hysteresisvibration,shock,dc
offsetvoltageatelectrodes
Sensitivitydrift(gainerror)
Whentheslopeofthe
calibrationcurvechangesasa
resultofinterferingor
modifyinginput
Causes:manufacturing
tolerances,variationsinpower
supply,nonlinearity
Example:ECGamplifiergainchanges
duetodcpowersupplyvariation

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Linearity

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Linearity:Asystemthatdemonstratessuperpositionprinciple

Measureoflinearity:

a)maximaldeviationofpointsfromtheregressionline
expressedaspercentageofthefullrangeor
b)harmonicdistortionmeasure.

MoreStaticCharacteristics
Inputranges

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Inputimpedance(Z)

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Constraintsonlinearityimposesanoperationalrangefortheinput
parameters
Inputrangeisalsoapplicabletointerferinginputs(usedforshieldingof
instruments)

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Measuresthedegreetowhichinstruments
disturbthequantitybeingmeasured
effortvariable:examplesvoltage,pressure,
force
flowvariable:examplescurrent,flow,velocity
whenmeasuringeffortvariables,inputimpedance
shouldverylarge
whenmeasuringflowvariables,inputimpedance
shouldverysmall

DynamicCharacteristics

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Quantifyresponseofmedicalequipmentwithrespectto
timevaryinginputs
Manyengineeringinstrumentscanbedescribedbyordinary
lineardifferentialequations

Mostpracticalinstrumentshaveafirstorsecondorder
response
Practicalevaluationofasystem
Applyinputasaunitstepfunction,sinusoidalfunctionor
whitenoise

DynamicCharacteristics

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Operationaltransferfunction:

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Frequencyresponseofasystem

Forasinusoidalinput
theoutputisasinusoidwithdifferentmagnitudeand
phase
Magnitude:
Phase:

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Linear
potentiometerisan
exampleofazero
orderinstrument
Inpractice,athigh
frequencies
parasitic
capacitanceand
inductancewill
causedistortion

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ZeroorderInstrument

FirstorderInstrument

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Staticsensitivity(dcgain):

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Firstorderinstrumentcontainsasingleenergystorage
element

Timeconstantofthesystem:

Afrequencytransferfunctionisgivenby

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FirstorderInstrument

SecondorderInstrument

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Secondorderinstrumentcontainsaminimumoftwo
energystorageelement

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Staticsensitivity(dcgain):

Undampednaturalfrequency:
Dampingratio:

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SecondorderInstrument

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MedicalInstrumentElectricalSafety

Significanceofsafety

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Tensofthousandsdevicerelatedpatient
injuriesinU.Severyyear.
Evenasingleharmfuleventcanleadto
significantdamageintermsofreputationand
legalaction.
Differentlevelofprotectionrequiredas
comparedtohouseholdequipment.
Minimumperformancestandardsintroduced
in1980srelativelynewpractice.

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PhysiologicalEffectsofElectricity

Experimentsfrom160lbhumanwith60Hzcurrent

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Meanthresholdofperception

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SusceptibilityParameters

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Minimumthresholdofperception500A

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80A withgelelectrodes(reducesskinimpedance)

Meanletgocurrent

16.5mAformen
10.5mAforwomen

Letgocurrentvs.frequency
Minimalletgocurrentoccursatcommercialpowerlinefrequenciesof
5060Hz

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FromexperimentsperformedbyCharlesDalziel (1940to1950

Shock(stimulation)duration

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SusceptibilityFactors

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Fibrillationcurrentisinverselyproportionaltotheshockpulseduration
longerpulses>lowercurrentdoesdamage

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Bodyweight

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Fibrillationcurrentincreaseswithbodyweight

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50mARMSfor6Kgdogs
130mARMSfor24Kgdogs

Pointsofentry

Skinimpedancevaries:15k to1M
Resistivebarrierthatlimitscurrentflow

Tissue(beneathskin)haslowimpedance

Macrovs.MicroShock
Macroshock

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externallyappliedcurrent
spreadsthroughthebodysolessconcentrated

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Microshock

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appliedcurrentisconcentratedataninvasivepoint
acceptedsafetylimitisonly10A
generallyonlydangerousifcurrentflowsthroughtheheart

Macroshock Hazards
Mostprobablecauseofdeathduetomacroshock
ventricularfibrillation
Factors
skin/bodyresistance
designofelectricalequipment
Skinandbodyresistance
dryskinhashighresistance(~15k1Mohm)
limitscurrentthroughbody
wet/brokenskinhaslowresistance(~1%thatofdryskin)
internalbodyresistance
~200ohmforeachlimb
~100ohmfortrunkofbody
resistancebetweentwolimbs=~500ohm
proceduresthatbypassskinresistancecanbedangerous
example:gelelectrodes,surgery,oral/rectalthermometers

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Microshock Hazards
Maincauses

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leakagecurrentsinlineoperatedequipment
undesiredcurrentsthroughinsolatedconductorsatdifferent
potentials
differencesinvoltagebetweengroundedconductivesurfaces

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Leakagecurrents

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iflowresistancegroundisavailable>noproblem
ifgroundisbroken>currentflowsthroughpatient

ConductivePaths

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Directconnectiontoaninternalorgan(during
measurementorsurgery)makespatientssusceptible
tomircoshock

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Externalelectrodesoftemporarycardiacpacemakers
Electrodesforintracardiacmeasuringdevices
Liquidfilledcathetersplacedintheheart
liquidfilledcathetershavemuchgreaterresistancethan
electrodes

Worst!danger!

currentsflowingthroughtheheart

Electrodecurrentdensity
experimentssuggestsmallerelectrodearemoredangerous

PowerDistribution
ElectricalpowersysteminHealthcareFacility
mustcontrolavailablepower(fuse/breakertosetmaxcurrent)
mustprovidegoodground
PatientsElectricalEnvironmentGrounding
NECcode:maxpotentialbetweentwosurfaces
generalcareareas:500mVundernormaloperation
criticalcareareas:40mVundernormaloperation
IsolatedPowerSystems
Groundfault
shortcircuitbetweenhotconductorandground
injectslargecurrentintogroundingsystem
cancreatehazardouspotentialsongroundedsurfaces
Isolationtransformer
isolatesconductorsagainstgroundfaults
mayincludegroundfaultmonitor/alarm

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GroundLoops

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allintensivecareunitsmust
havesinglegroundforeach
patientisolatedfrom
hospitalground
40mVlimitonpotentialof
anyconductivesurfaces

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Differencesinground
potential:majorsourceof
microshock

Example:currentdueto

groundloopflowsthrough
patient

ElectricalIsolation

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Barrierisolation

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transformer,opticalorcapacitive
isolation

nocurrentacrossbarrier

Implants

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devicesthatbreakohmiccontinuityof
electricsignalsbetweeninputand
outputoftheamplifier
differentsupplyvoltagesourcesand
differentgroundsoneachsideofthe
barrier

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Isolationamplifiers

properinsulationrequiredtoprevent

Reviewquestions

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1. Drawtheblockdiagramofatypicalbiomedical
instrumentationsystem.
2. Enlistthedesigncriteriaforbiomedicalinstrumentation
system.
3. Classifybiomedicalinstruments.
4. Enlistvariousphysiologicalprocesses/parametersandtheir
ranges.
5. Whatdoyoumeanbybiostatistics?
6. Whatarethecharacteristicsofabiomedicalinstrumentation
system?
7. Commentonthesafetyaspectsofabiomedicalsystem.

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NextClassBiopotentials

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(Ithasalotofpotential!)

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Lecture2

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Biopotentials

Dr.R.B.Ghongade
DepartmentofE&TC,
V.I.I.T.,Pune411048

Cells

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Cellthebasicunitoflivingtissue
Specializedintheiranatomyandphysiologytoperformdifferent
tasks
Allcellsexhibitavoltagedifferenceacrossthecellmembrane.
Nervecellsandmusclecellsareexcitable
Theircellmembranecanproduceelectrochemicalimpulsesand
conductthemalongthemembrane.
Inmusclecells,thiselectricphenomenonisalsoassociatedwiththe
contractionofthecell
Inothercells,suchasglandcells,itisbelievedthatthemembrane
voltageisimportanttotheexecutionofcellfunction
Theoriginofthemembranevoltageisthesameinnervecellsasin
musclecells.
Inbothcelltypes,themembranegeneratesanimpulseasa
consequenceofexcitation.
Thisimpulsepropagatesinbothcelltypesinthesamemanner

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PartsoftheNerveCell
Thenervecellmaybe
dividedonthebasisofits
structureandfunctioninto
threemainparts:
(1)thecellbody,alsocalledthe
soma
(2)numerousshortprocesses
ofthesoma,calledthe
dendrites
(3)thesinglelongnervefiber,
theaxon

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StructureofNerveCell

StructureofNerveCell

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The body of a nerve cell is similar to that of all other cells.


The cell body generally includes the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum,
ribosomes, and other organelles.
Nerve cells are about 70 80% water; the dry material is about 80% protein and 20% lipid.
The cell volume varies between 600 and 70,000 m
The short processes of the cell body, the dendrites, receive impulses from other cells and
transfer them to the cell body (afferent signals).
The effect of these impulses may be excitatory or inhibitory.
A neuron may receive impulses from tens or even hundreds of thousands of neurons
The long nerve fiber, the axon, transfers the signal from the cell body to another nerve or to a
muscle cell
Mammalian axons are usually about 1 20 m in diameter.
Some axons in larger animals may be several meters in length.
The axon may be covered with an insulating layer called the myelin sheath, which is formed
by Schwann cells (named for the German physiologist Theodor Schwann, 18101882, who
first observed the myelin sheath in 1838).
The myelin sheath is not continuous but divided into sections, separated at regular intervals
by the nodes of Ranvier (named for the French anatomist Louis Antoine Ranvier, 18341922,
who observed them in 1878).

TheCellMembrane

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Thecellisenclosedbyacellmembranewhosethicknessisabout7.5 10.0nm
Itsstructureandcompositionresembleasoapbubblefilm,sinceoneofitsmajor
constituents,fattyacids,hasthatappearance
Thefattyacidsthatconstitutemostofthecellmembranearecalled
phosphoglycerides
Aphosphoglyceride consistsofphosphoricacidandfattyacidscalledglycerides
Theheadofthismolecule,thephosphoglyceride,ishydrophilic (attractedto
water)
Thefattyacidshavetailsconsistingofhydrocarbonchainswhicharehydrophobic
(repelledbywater)
Iffattyacidmoleculesareplacedinwater,theyformlittleclumps,withtheacid
headsthatareattractedtowaterontheoutside,andthehydrocarbontailsthat
arerepelledbywaterontheinside.

TheCellMembrane

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Ifthesemoleculesareverycarefullyplacedonawatersurface,theyorient
themselvessothatallacidheadsareinthewaterandallhydrocarbontails
protrudefromit.
Ifanotherlayerofmoleculeswereaddedandmorewaterputontop,the
hydrocarbontailswouldlineupwiththosefromthefirstlayer,toformadouble
(twomoleculesthick)layer.
Theacidheadswouldprotrudeintothewateroneachsideandthehydrocarbons
wouldfillthespacebetween.
Thisbilayeristhebasicstructureofthecellmembrane.
Fromthebioelectricviewpoint,theionicchannels constituteanimportantpartof
thecellmembrane
Thesearemacromolecularporesthroughwhichsodium,potassium,andchloride
ionsflowthroughthemembrane.
Theflowoftheseionsformsthebasisofbioelectricphenomena.

TheCellMembrane

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D

Theconstructionofacellmembrane
Themainconstituentsaretwolipidlayers,withthehydrophobictailspointinginsidethe
membrane(awayfromtheaqueousintracellularandinterstitialmediums).
Themacromolecularporesinthecellmembraneformtheionicchannelsthroughwhich
sodium,potassium,andchloridemoleculesflowthroughthemembraneandgeneratethe
bioelectricphenomena

TheSynapse

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Between these terminals, there


exists a gap, the synaptic cleft, with a
thickness of 10 50 nm
The fact that the impulse transfers
across the synapse only in one
direction, from the presynaptic
terminal to the postsynaptic
terminal, is due to the release of a
chemical
transmitter
by
the
presynaptic cell
This transmitter, when released,
activates the postsynaptic terminal

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The junction between an axon and the next cell with which it communicates is called the
synapse.
Information proceeds from the cell body unidirectionally over the synapse, first along
the axon and then across the synapse to the next nerve or muscle cell.
The part of the synapse that is on the side of the axon is called the presynaptic terminal;
that part on the side of the adjacent cell is called the postsynaptic terminal

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Thesynapsebetweenamotornerveandthemuscleitinnervatesiscalledthe
neuromuscularjunction

MuscleCell

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smoothmuscle
striatedmuscle(skeletalmuscle)
cardiacmuscle

Smoothmuscles
Theyareinvoluntary(i.e.,theycannotbecontrolledvoluntarily)
cellshaveavariablelengthbutareintheorderof0.1mmexist,for
example,inthedigestivetract,inthewallofthetrachea,uterus,
andbladder
Thecontractionofsmoothmuscleiscontrolledfromthebrain
throughtheautonomicnervoussystem

Striatedmuscles

Cardiacmuscle

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alsocalledskeletalmuscles becauseoftheiranatomicallocation,areformedfroma
largenumberofmusclefibers,thatrangeinlengthfrom1to40mmandindiameter
from0.01to0.1mm.
Eachfiberformsa(muscle)cellandisdistinguishedbythepresenceofalternatingdark
andlightbands.
Thestriatedmusclefibercorrespondstoan(unmyelinated)nervefiberbutis
distinguishedelectrophysiologically fromnervebythepresenceofaperiodictransverse
tubularsystem(TTS),acomplexstructurethat,ineffect,continuesthesurface
membraneintotheinteriorofthemuscle.
Propagationoftheimpulseoverthesurfacemembranecontinuesradiallyintothefiber
viatheTTS,andformsthetriggerofmyofibrillar contraction.
ThepresenceoftheTTSaffectsconductionofthemusclefibersothatitdiffers
(althoughonlyslightly)frompropagationonan(unmyelinated)nervefiber.
Striatedmusclesareconnectedtothebonesviatendons.
Suchmusclesarevoluntaryandformanessentialpartoftheorganofsupportand
motion.
alsostriated,butdiffersinotherwaysfromskeletalmuscle
Notonlyisitinvoluntary,butalsowhenexcited,itgeneratesamuchlongerelectric
impulsethandoesskeletalmuscle,lastingabout300ms
Correspondingly,themechanicalcontractionalsolastslonger
cardiacmusclehasaspecialproperty:Theelectricactivityofonemusclecellspreadsto
allothersurroundingmusclecells,owingtoanelaboratesystemofintercellular
junctions.

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StructureofMuscleCell

Biopotentials

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Certainsystemsofthebodycreatetheirown"monitoring"
signals,whichconveyusefulinformationregardingthe
functionstheyrepresent.

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ThesesignalsaretheBiopotentials BPassociatedwiththe
conductionalongthesensoryandmotornervoussystem,
muscularcontractions,brainactivity,heartcontractions,etc.

Thesepotentialsarearesultoftheelectrochemicalactivity
occurringincertainclassesofcellswithinthebody
ExcitableCells.
MeasurementsoftheseBiopotentialscanprovideclinicians
withinvaluablediagnosticinformation

Biopotentials

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Fromthebiologicalcell,electricalpotentialsaregeneratedduetothe
electrolytesinsideandoutsideofthecell
Abioelectricpotentialmaybedefinedasthedifferenceinpotential
betweentheinsideandtheoutsideofacell;thereexistsadifferencein
potentialexistingacrossthecellwallormembrane.
Acellconsistsofanionicconductorseparatedfromtheoutside
environmentbyasemipermeableorselectivelypermeablecell
membrane
Humancellsmayvaryfrom1micronto100micronsindiameter,from1
millimeterto1meterinlengthandhaveatypicalmembranethicknessof
100Angstromunits
Bioelectricityisstudiedbothfromtheviewpointofthesourceofelectrical
energywithinthecellandalsofromtheviewpointofthelawsof
electrolyticcurrentflowrelativetotheremoteionicfieldsproduced
currentsbythecell.
Wemakemeasurementsexternaltoagroupofcellswhilethesecellsare
supplyingelectrolyticcurrentflow.

CellPotentialGenesis

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Experimentalinvestigationswithmicroelectrodeshaveshown
thattheinternalrestingpotentialwithinacellis60mVto90
mV(typically 70mV)withreferencetotheoutsideofthecell
Byconvention,theoutsideisdefinedas0mV(ground)

Thispotentialchangestoapproximately+20mVforashort
periodduringcelldepolarisation
Cellactivityresultsfromsomeformofstimulation

CellMembranePotentials

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Cellmembranes ingeneral,andmembranesofnervecellsinparticular,
maintainasmallvoltageor"potential"acrossthemembraneinitsnormal
orrestingstate.
Inthereststate,theinsideofthenervecellmembraneisnegativewith
respecttotheoutside(typicallyabout70millivolts).
Thevoltagearisesfromdifferencesinconcentration oftheelectrolyte
ionsK+andNa+.
ThereisaprocesswhichutilizesATP(adenosinetriphosphate Active
transportofionsagainst anestablishedelectrochemicalgradient )to
pumpoutthreeNa+ionsandpumpintwoK+ions.Thecollectiveactionof
thesemechanismsleavestheinteriorofthemembraneabout70mVwith
respecttotheoutside.
Iftheequilibriumofthenervecellisdisturbedbythearrivalofasuitable
stimulus dynamicchanges inthemembranepotentialinresponseto
thestimulusiscalledanActionPotential.
Aftertheactionpotentialthemechanismsdescribedabovebringthecell
membranebacktoitsrestingstate

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ExcitableCells

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Excitablecellsareaclassofcellsthatproducebioelectric
potentialsasaresultofelectrochemicalactivity.

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Atanygiventime,thesecellscanexistinoneoftwostates,
resting andactive.

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Chemicalandelectricalstimulicanforceanexcitablecellfrom
therestingtotheactivestate.

Whiletherearenumerousionicspeciespresentbothinside
andoutsidethecell,onlythreeions(forwhichthecell
membraneinitsrestingstateispermeable) playakeyrolein
thebehaviorofthesecells:K+,Na+ andCl.

RestingPotential,IonicConcentrations,andChannels

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Theneuroncellmembraneisapproximately10nmthickand,becauseitconsistsofalipid
bilayer(i.e.,twoplatesseparatedbyaninsulator),hascapacitiveproperties.
TheextracellularfluidiscomposedofprimarilyNa+ andCl,andtheintracellularfluid
(cytoplasm)iscomposedofprimarilyK+ andA
Thelargeorganicanions(A)areprimarilyaminoacidsandproteinsanddonotcrossthe
membrane.
Almostwithoutexception,ionscannotpassthroughthecellmembraneexceptthrougha
channel

Channelsallowionstopassthroughthemembrane,areselective,andare
eitherpassiveoractive
Passivechannelsarealwaysopenandareionspecific
Aparticularchannelallowsonlyoneiontypetopassthroughthe
membraneandpreventsallotherionsfromcrossingthemembrane
throughthatchannel.
PassivechannelsexistforCl,K+,andNa+

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Activechannels,orgates,areeitheropenedorclosedin
responsetoanexternalelectricalorchemicalstimulation.
Theactivechannelsarealsoselectiveandallowonlyspecific
ionstopassthroughthemembrane.
Typically,activegatesopeninresponsetoneurotransmitters
andanappropriatechangeinmembranepotential.

ActiveState

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Ifadequatelystimulated,eitherelectricallyor
chemically,theexcitablecellwillenterintotheactive
state.
Thetransmembranepotentialvarieswithtimeand
positionwithinthecellinthisstate,andiscalledan
actionpotential.
Thefollowingsequenceofeventsoccurswhenthe
cellenterstheactivestate:

Thechemicalorelectricalstimuliincreasesthe
permeabilityofthemembranetoNa+
Na+ rushesintothecellduetothelargeconcentration
gradient.

ActiveState(cont.)

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Thesepositivelychargedionsenteringthecellcausethe
transmembranepotentialtobecomelessnegative,and
eventuallyslightlypositive
Thischangeisoftenreferredtoasadepolarization
Ashorttime(tenthsofmicroseconds)laterthemembranes
permeabilitytoK + increases,whichresultsinanoutflowofK+
TheoutflowofK + causesthetransmembranepotentialto
decrease
Thisdecreaseinpotentialcausesthemembranes
permeabilitytobothNa +,andeventuallyK +,todecreaseto
theirrestinglevels
Thereisonlyarelativelysmall(immeasurable)netflowof
ionsacrossthemembraneduringanactionpotential.
TheNaKpumprestorestheconcentrations(pumpsNaout
andKin)oftheionstotheirrestinglevels.

Theresultofthetransitionfromtherestingtothe
activestateistheActionPotential

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Inresponsetotheappropriatestimulus,thecell
membraneofanervecellgoesthroughasequenceof
depolarizationfromitsreststatetotheactivestate
followedbyrepolarizationtothereststateonceagain

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Thecellmembraneactuallyreversesitsnormalpolarity
forabriefperiodbeforereestablishingtherest
potential

Theactionpotentialsequenceisessentialforneural
communication.
Thesimplestactioninresponsetothoughtrequires
manysuchactionpotentialsforitscommunicationand
performance

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Theprocesssummary

5.
6.

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2.

Astimulus isreceivedbythedendritesofanervecell.ThiscausestheNa+
channelstoopen.Iftheopeningissufficienttodrivetheinteriorpotential
from70mVupto55mV,theprocesscontinues.
Havingreachedtheactionthreshold,moreNa+channels(sometimescalled
voltagegatedchannels)open TheNa+influxdrivestheinteriorofthecell
membraneuptoabout+30mV.Theprocesstothispointiscalled
DEPOLARIZATION.
TheNa+channelscloseandtheK+channelsopen.HavingbothNa+andK+
channelsopenatthesametimewoulddrivethesystemtowardneutrality
andpreventthecreationoftheactionpotential.
WiththeK+channelsopen,themembranebeginstoREPOLARIZE back
towarditsrestpotential.
Therepolarizationtypicallyovershootstherestpotentialtoabout90mV.
Thisiscalledhyperpolarization. Hyperpolarization preventstheneuronfrom
receivinganotherstimulusduringthistime.
Afterhyperpolarization,theNa+/K+pumpseventuallybringthemembrane
backtoitsrestingstate of70mV.

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Absolute&RelativeRefractoryPeriod
ARP&RRP

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DuringtheinitialportionoftheActionpotential
membranedoesnotrespond Absoluterefractory
period

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DuringtheRelativeRefractoryPeriod RRPtheaction
potentialtakesaction

Therefractoryperiod limitsthefrequencyofa
repetitiveexcitationprocedure

e.g.ARP=1ms
upperlimitofrepetitivedischarge
<1000impulses/s

Absolute&RelativeRefractoryPeriod
ARP&RRP(cont.)

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Nernstequil.PotforNa

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v:actionpot.

Nernstequil.PotforK

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ElectricalCircuitModelofNerveMembrane

AlanHodgkinandAndrewHuxley Neural Model


NobelPrizein1963

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Bioelectricphenomena

Lecture3

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Biotransducers
PartI:BioElectrodes
PartII:PhysicalMeasurements

Dr.R.B.Ghongade
DepartmentofE&TC,
V.I.I.T.,Pune411048

Introduction

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Biomedicalsensorsareusedroutinelyinclinical
medicineandbiologicalresearchformeasuringa
widerangeofphysiologicalvariables
Oftencalledbiomedicaltransducersandarethe
mainbuildingblocksofdiagnosticmedical
instrumentation
Usedinvivotoperformcontinuousinvasiveand
noninvasivemonitoringofcriticalphysiological
variables
Alsousedinvitrotohelpcliniciansinvarious
diagnosticprocedures

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Somesensorsareusedprimarilyinclinical
laboratoriestomeasureinvitrophysiological
quantitiessuchaselectrolytes,enzymes,and
otherbiochemicalmetabolitesinblood
Otherbiomedicalsensorsformeasuring
pressure,flow,andtheconcentrationsof
gasessuchasoxygenandcarbondioxideare
usedinvivotofollowcontinuously(monitor)
theconditionofapatient

RequirementsofBiomedicalSensors

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accuracy,
operatingrange
responsetime
Sensitivity
Resolution
Reproducibility

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Stringentrequirements
Assessinvitrothe

Later,dependingontheintendedapplication,similarin
vivotestsmayberequiredtoconfirmthespecificationsof
thesensorandtoassurethatthemeasurementremains
Sensitive
Stable
Safe
costeffective

SensorClassifications

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Geometric
Mechanical
Thermal
Hydraulic
Electric
Optical

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Physicalsensors

Chemicalsensors

Gas
Electrochemical
Photometric
Otherphysicalchemicalmethods
Bioanalytic

SensorClassifications

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Classifiedaccordingtothequantitytobemeasuredandare
typicallycategorizedasphysical,electrical,orchemical
dependingontheirspecificapplications
Biosensors areaspecialsubclassificationofbiomedical
sensors
Theyhavetwodistinctcomponents:

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abiologicalrecognitionelementsuchasapurifiedenzyme,antibody,
orreceptor,(whichfunctionsasamediatorandprovidestheselectivity
thatisneededtosensethechemicalcomponent (usuallyreferredtoas
theanalyte)ofinterest)
asupportingstructure,whichalsoactsasatransducerandisin
intimatecontactwiththebiologicalcomponent.(Thepurposeofthe
transduceristoconvertthebiochemicalreactionintotheformofan
optical,electrical,orphysicalsignalthatisproportionaltothe
concentrationofaspecificchemical)

Anotherwayofclassifyingbiomedicaltransducers!

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Onecanalsolookatbiomedicalsensorsfromthestandpoint
oftheirapplications
Thesecanbegenerallydividedaccordingtowhetherasensor
isusedfor
diagnostic
therapeutic*purposes
Sensorsforclinicalstudiessuchasthosecarriedoutinthe
clinicalchemistrylaboratorymustbestandardizedinsucha
waythaterrorsthatcouldresultinanincorrectdiagnosisor
inappropriatetherapyarekepttoanabsoluteminimum
Thesesensorsmustnotonlybereliablethemselves,but
appropriatemethodsmustexistfortestingthesensorsthat
areapartoftheroutineuseofthesensorsformaking
biomedicalmeasurements
*Havingorexhibitinghealingpowers

Onemorewayofclassifyingbiomedicaltransducers!

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Standpointofhowtheyareappliedtothe
patientorresearchsubject

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Noncontacting(noninvasive)
Skinsurface(contacting)
Indwelling(minimallyinvasive)
Implantable(invasive)

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PartI:BioElectrodes

BIOPOTENTIALMEASUREMENTS

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Biopotential measurementsaremadeusing
differentkindsofspecializedelectrodes
Thefunctionoftheseelectrodesistocouple
theionicpotentialsgeneratedinsidethebody
toanelectronicinstrument
Biopotential electrodesareclassifiedeitheras

noninvasive(skinsurface)
invasive(e.g.,microelectrodesorwireelectrodes)

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BioelectricSignalsSensedbyBiopotential Electrodes
andTheirSources

TheElectrolyte/MetalElectrode
Interface

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A metal when placed in an electrolyte (i.e., an


ionizable) solution, develops a charge distribution
is created next to the metal/electrolyte interface

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Thislocalizedchargedistributioncausesanelectricpotential,
calledahalfcellpotential,tobedevelopedacrossthe
interfacebetweenthemetalandtheelectrolytesolution

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Biopotential measurementsaremadebyutilizingtwosimilarelectrodes
composedofthesamemetal.
Therefore,thetwohalfcellpotentialsfortheseelectrodeswouldbeequal
inmagnitude.
Forexample,twosimilarbiopotential electrodescanbetapedtothechest
nearthehearttomeasuretheelectricalpotentialsgeneratedbytheheart
(electrocardiogram,orECG)
Ideally,assumingthattheskintoelectrodeinterfacesareelectrically
identical,thedifferentialamplifierattachedtothesetwoelectrodeswould
amplifythebiopotential (ECG)signalbutthehalfcellpotentialswouldbe
canceledout
Inpracticedisparityinelectrodematerialorskincontactresistancecould
causeasignificantDCoffsetvoltagethatwouldcauseacurrenttoflow
throughthetwoelectrodes.
Thiscurrentwillproduceavoltagedropacrossthebody
Theoffsetvoltagewillappearsuperimposedattheoutputoftheamplifier
andmaycauseinstabilityorbaselinedriftintherecordedbiopotential

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Electrode Electrolyte Interface


GeneralIonicEquations

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b)

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a)Ifelectrodehassamematerialascation,thenthismaterialgetsoxidizedandenters
theelectrolyteasacationandelectronsremainattheelectrodeandflowinthe
externalcircuit.

b)Ifanioncanbeoxidizedattheelectrodetoformaneutralatom,oneortwoelectrons
aregiventotheelectrode.

Thedominatingreactioncanbeinferredfromthefollowing:
Currentflowfromelectrodetoelectrolyte:Oxidation (Lossofe)
Currentflowfromelectrolytetoelectrode:Reduction (Gainofe)

Half Cell Potential

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Acharacteristicpotentialdifferenceestablishedbytheelectrodeandits
surroundingelectrolytewhichdependsonthemetal,concentrationofions
insolutionandtemperature(andsomesecondorderfactors).

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Halfcellpotentialcannotbemeasuredwithoutasecondelectrode.

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Thehalfcellpotentialofthestandardhydrogenelectrodehasbeen
arbitrarilysettozero.Otherhalfcellpotentialsareexpressedasapotential
differencewiththiselectrode.

ReasonforHalfCellPotential:ChargeSeparationatInterface
Oxidationorreductionreactionsattheelectrodeelectrolyteinterfaceleadtoadouble
chargelayer,similartothatwhichexistsalongelectricallyactivebiologicalcellmembranes.

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Measuring Half Cell Potential

Note:Electrodematerialismetal+saltorpolymerselectivemembrane

Polarization

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Ifthereisacurrentbetweentheelectrodeandelectrolyte,theobservedhalfcell
potentialisoftenalteredduetopolarization.

Resistance
Currentchangesresistance
ofelectrolyteandthus,
avoltagedropresults.

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Overpotential
Differencebetweenobserved
andzerocurrenthalfcell
potentials

Concentration
Changesindistribution
ofionsattheelectrode
electrolyteinterface

Activation
Theactivationenergy
barrierdependsonthe
directionofcurrentand
determineskinetics

Note:Polarizationandimpedanceoftheelectrodearetwoofthemostimportant
electrodepropertiestoconsider.

Nernst Equation

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Forthegeneraloxidationreductionreaction

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Whentwoaqueousionicsolutionsofdifferentconcentrationareseparatedbyanion
selectivesemipermeablemembrane,anelectricpotentialexistsacrossthemembrane.

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Note:interestedin
ionicactivityatthe
electrode
(butnotetemp
dependence

TheNernstequationforhalfcellpotentialis

whereE0 :StandardHalfCellPotential

E:HalfCellPotential

a:IonicActivity(generallysameasconcentration)
n:Numberofvalenceelectronsinvolved

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Polarizable and Non-Polarizable


Electrodes
PerfectlyPolarizableElectrodes

Useforrecording

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PerfectlyNonPolarizableElectrode

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Theseareelectrodesinwhichnoactualchargecrossestheelectrodeelectrolyteinterface
whenacurrentisapplied.Thecurrentacrosstheinterfaceisadisplacementcurrentandthe
electrodebehaveslikeacapacitor.Example:Ag/AgClElectrode

Theseareelectrodeswherecurrentpassesfreelyacrosstheelectrodeelectrolyteinterface,
requiringnoenergytomakethetransition.Theseelectrodesseenooverpotentials.Example
:Platinumelectrode

Example:AgAgClisusedinrecordingwhilePtisuseinstimulation

Useforstimulation

Ag/AgCl Electrode

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Relevantionicequations

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GoverningNernstEquation

Ag+Cl

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Cl2

Fabrication of Ag/AgCl electrodes


1. Electrolytic deposition of AgCl
2. Sintering process forming pellet electrodes

Solubility
productofAgCl

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Equivalent Circuit

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Cd :capacitanceofelectrodeeletrolyteinterface
Rd :resistanceofelectrodeeletrolyteinterface
Rs:resistanceofelectrodeleadwire
Ecell :cellpotentialforelectrode

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Rd+Rs

Cornerfrequency

Rs

FrequencyResponse

Electrode Skin Interface


Cd

Rd

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Sweatglands
andducts

Rs

Gel

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100

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StratumCorneum
Epidermis

Nerve
endings

Re

Dermisand
subcutaneouslayer

100

Ce

Capillary

ng

Electrode

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Ehe

EP
CP

RP

Alterskin
transport(or
deliverdrugs)
by:
Pores
producedby
laser,
ultrasoundor
by
iontophoresis

Ru

Skinimpedancefor1cm2patch:
200k @1Hz
200 @1MHz

Motion Artifact

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Whentheelectrodemoveswithrespecttotheelectrolyte,thedistributionofthe
doublelayerofchargeonpolarizableelectrodeinterfacechanges.Thischangesthehalf
cellpotentialtemporarily.

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What

Ifapairofelectrodesisinanelectrolyteandonemoveswithrespecttotheother,
apotentialdifferenceappearsacrosstheelectrodesknownasthemotionartifact.
Thisisasourceofnoiseandinterferenceinbiopotentialmeasurements

Motionartifactisminimalfornonpolarizableelectrodes

Body Surface Recording Electrodes


Electrodemetal

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Electrolyte

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1. Metal Plate Electrodes (historic)

(historic interest)

2. Suction Electrodes

3. Floating Electrodes
4. Flexible Electrodes

Thinkofthe
constructionof
electrosurgical
electrode
And,howdoes
electrosurgery
work?

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Metal plate electrodes


Large surface: Ancient,
therefore still used, ECG
Metal disk with stainless steel;
platinum or gold coated
EMG, EEG
smaller diameters
motion artifacts
Disposable foam-pad: Cheap!

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Commonly Used Biopotential Electrodes

(a)Metalplateelectrodeusedforapplicationtolimbs.
(b)Metaldiskelectrodeappliedwithsurgicaltape.
(c)Disposablefoampadelectrodes,oftenusedwithECG

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Suctionelectrodes
Nostrapsoradhesivesrequired
precordial(chest)ECG
canonlybeusedforshortperiods

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CommonlyUsedBiopotential
Electrodes

Floatingelectrodes
metaldiskisrecessed
swimmingintheelectrolytegel
notincontactwiththeskin
reducesmotionartifact

SuctionElectrode

Insulating
package

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Doublesided
Adhesivetape
ring

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CommonlyUsedBiopotential
Electrodes Metaldisk

(a)

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SnapcoatedwithAgAgCl

(b)

Externalsnap
Gelcoatedsponge
Plasticdisk

Reusable
Disposable

Plasticcup

Electrolytegel
inrecess

Foampad

Deadcellularmaterial
Tack
Capillaryloops Germinatinglayer
(c)

FloatingElectrodes

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Flexibleelectrodes
Bodycontoursareoftenirregular
Regularlyshapedrigidelectrodes
maynotalwayswork.
Specialcase:infants
Material:
Polymerornylonwithsilver
Carbonfilledsiliconrubber
(Mylarfilm)

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Commonly Used Biopotential Electrodes

(a)Carbonfilledsiliconerubberelectrode.
(b)Flexiblethinfilmneonatalelectrode.
(c)Crosssectionalviewofthethinfilm
electrodein(b).

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Internal Electrodes

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(a)Insulatedneedleelectrode.
(b)Coaxialneedleelectrode.
(c)Bipolarcoaxialelectrode.
(d)Finewireelectrodeconnected
tohypodermicneedle,before
beinginserted.
(e)Crosssectionalviewofskin
andmuscle,showingcoiled
finewireelectrodeinplace.

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Needleandwireelectrodesfor
percutaneousmeasurementof
biopotentials

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Biopotential microelectrodes:
(a)capillaryglassmicroelectrode
(b)insulatedmetalmicroelectrode
(c)solidstatemultisiterecordingmicroelectrode

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Fetal ECG Electrodes

Electrodesfordetectingfetalelectrocardiogramduringlabor,bymeans
ofintracutaneousneedles(a)Suctionelectrode.(b)Crosssectionalviewof
suctionelectrodeinplace,showingpenetrationofprobethroughepidermis.
(c)Helicalelectrode,whichisattachedtofetalskinbycorkscrewtypeaction.

Electrode Arrays
Insulated leads

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Contacts

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(a)
Tines

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Exposed tip

Base
(c)

Ag/AgCl electrodes

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Insulated leads

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Contacts

Ag/AgCl electrodes

Base
(b)

Examplesofmicrofabricatedelectrodearrays.
(a)Onedimensionalplungeelectrodearray,
(b)Twodimensionalarray,and
(c)Threedimensionalarray

Microelectrodes

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Why
Measure potential difference across cell membrane

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Requirements
Small enough to be placed into cell
Intracellular
Strong enough to penetrate cell membrane
Extracellular
Typical tip diameter: 0.05 10 microns
Types
Solid metal -> Tungsten microelectrodes
Supported metal (metal contained within/outside glass needle)
Glass micropipette -> with Ag-AgCl electrode metal

Metal Microelectrodes

Microns!

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Extracellularrecording typicallyinbrainwhereyouareinterestedin
recordingthefiringofneurons(spikes).
Usemetalelectrode+insulation>goestohighimpedance
amplifiernegativecapacitanceamplifier!

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Metal Supported Microelectrodes

(a)Metalinsideglass

(b)Glassinsidemetal

Glass Micropipette
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pull

AgAgClwire+3M
KClhasverylow
junctionpotential
andhencevery
accuratefordc
measurements
(e.g.action
potential)

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Aglassmicropipetelectrodefilled
withanelectrolyticsolution
(a)Sectionoffineboreglass
capillary.
(b)Capillarynarrowedthrough
heatingandstretching.
(c)Finalstructureofglasspipet
microelectrode.

Fillwith
intracellularfluid
or3MKCl

Intracellularrecording typicallyforrecordingfromcells,suchascardiacmyocyte
Needhighimpedanceamplifiernegativecapacitanceamplifier!

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Electrical Properties of
Microelectrodes

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MetalMicroelectrode

Metalmicroelectrodewithtipplaced
withincell
Usemetalelectrode+insulation>goestohighimpedance
amplifiernegativecapacitanceamplifier!

Equivalentcircuits

ElectricalPropertiesofGlassIntracellular
Microelectrodes

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GlassMicropipetteMicroelectrode

Stimulating Electrodes

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Features

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Cannotbemodeledasaseriesresistanceandcapacitance
(thereisnosingleusefulmodel)
Thebody/electrodehasahighlynonlinearresponseto
stimulation
Largecurrentscancause
Platinumelectrodes:
Cavitation
Applications:neuralstimulation
Celldamage
Heating

Types of stimulating electrodes


1. Pacing
2. Ablation
3. Defibrillation

ModerndayPtIrandotherexotic
metalcombinationstoreduce
polarization,improveconductance
andlonglife/biocompatibility
Steelelectrodesforpacemakersand
defibrillators

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IntraocularStimulationElectrodes

Microelectronic technology
for Microelectrodes
Bondingpads

Sisubstrate

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Exposedtips

Siliconprobe

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Exposed
electrodes

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Insulated
leadvias

SiO2 insulated
Auprobes

Channels

Siliconchip

Leadvia

Hole

(b) Multielectrodesiliconprobe

Miniature
insulating
chamber

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(a) Beamleadmultipleelectrode.

Siliconprobe

Electrode
(c) Multiplechamberelectrode

Contact
metalfilm

(d)

Peripheralnerveelectrode

Differenttypesofmicroelectrodesfabricatedusingmicrofabrication/MEMS
technology

Practical Hints in Using Electrodes


Ensurethatallpartsofametalelectrodethatwilltouchthe
electrolytearemadeofthesamemetal.

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Dissimilarmetalshavedifferenthalfcellpotentialsmakingan
electricallyunstable,noisyjunction.
Iftheleadwireisadifferentmetal,besurethatitiswellinsulated.
Donotletasolderjunctiontouchtheelectrolyte.Ifthejunctionmust
touchtheelectrolyte,fabricatethejunctionbyweldingormechanical
clampingorcrimping.

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Fordifferentialmeasurements,usethesamematerialfor
eachelectrode.

Ifthehalfcellpotentialsarenearlyequal,theywillcancelandminimize
thesaturationeffectsofhighgain,dccoupledamplifiers.

Electrodesattachedtotheskinfrequentlyfalloff.
Useveryflexibleleadwiresarrangedinamannertominimizetheforce
exertedontheelectrode.
Tapetheflexiblewiretotheskinashortdistancefromtheelectrode,
makingthisastressreliefpoint.

Practical Hints in Using Electrodes


Acommonfailurepointinthesiteatwhichtheleadwireisattachedtothe
electrode.

Matchtheleadwireinsulationtothespecificapplication.

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Repeatedflexingcanbreakthewireinsideitsinsulation.
Provestrainreliefbycreatingagradualmechanicaltransitionbetweenthewire
andtheelectrode.
Useataperedregionofinsulationthatgraduallyincreasesindiameterfromthat
ofthewiretowardsthatoftheelectrodeasonegetscloserandclosertothe
electrode.

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Iftheleadwiresandtheirjunctionstotheelectrodearesoakedinextracellular
fluidoracleaningsolutionforlongperiodsoftime,waterandothersolventscan
penetratethepolymericcoatingandreducetheeffectiveresistance,makingthe
leadwirebecomepartoftheelectrode.
Suchanelectrodecapturesothersignalsintroducingunwantednoise.

Matchyouramplifierdesigntothesignalsource.
Besurethatyouramplifiercircuithasaninputimpedancethatismuchgreater
thanthesourceimpedanceoftheelectrodes.

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PartII:PhysicalMeasurements

ConventionalTransducers

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PrimaryTransducers
large,butgenerallyreliable,basedonoldertechnology

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MicroelectronicSensors

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thermocouple:temperaturedifference
compass(magnetic):direction

millimetersized,highlysensitive,lessrobust

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photodiode/phototransistor:photonenergy(light)
infrareddetectors,proximity/intrusionalarms

piezoresisitve pressuresensor:air/fluidpressure
microaccelerometers:vibration,velocity(carcrash)
chemicalsensors:O2,CO2,Cl,Nitrates(explosives)
DNAarrays:matchDNAsequences

Directvs.IndirectMeasurement

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DirectMeasurement:

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Whensensordirectlymeasuresparameterofinterest
Example,displacementsensormeasuringdiameterof
bloodvessel

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IndirectMeasurement:

Whensensormeasuresaparameterthatcanbe
translatedintotheparameterofinterest
Example,displacementsensormeasuringmovement
ofamicrophonediaphragmtoquantifyblood
movementthroughtheheart

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PhysicalVariablesandSensors

DisplacementMeasurements

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requiredisplacementsensors

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Manybiomedicalparametersrelyonmeasurementsofsize,
shape,andpositionoforgans,tissue,etc.

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Examples(direct)diameterofbloodvessel

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(indirect)movementofamicrophonediaphragmtoquantify
bloodmovementthroughtheheart

ResistiveSensors(Potentiometers&StrainGages)
InductiveSensors
CapacitiveSensors
PiezoelectricSensors

PrimaryTransducerTypes

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DisplacementSensors

VariableResistanceSensor(Potentiometer)

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Potentiometersproduceoutputpotential
(voltage)changeinresponsetoinput
(e.g.,displacement)changes
typicallyformedwithresistive
elementse.g.carbon/metalfilm
V=IR
producelinearoutputinresponseto
displacement
Examplepotentiometricdisplacement
sensors
Translational:small(~mm)linear
displacements
Vo increasesasxi increases
SingleTurn:small(1050)rotational
displacements
Vo increasesas increases

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Apotentiometerisaresistivetypetransducerthatconvertseither
linearorangulardisplacementintoanoutputvoltagebymovinga
slidingcontactalongthesurfaceofaresistiveelement

xi

VariableResistanceSensor(StrainGauge)
Straingaugesaredisplacementtypetransducersthatmeasurechangesin
thelengthofanobjectasaresultofanappliedforce
Thesetransducersproducearesistancechangethatisproportionaltothe
fractionalchangeinthelengthoftheobject,alsocalledstrain
Therelativesensitivityofthisdeviceisgivenbyitsgaugefactor,

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WhereRisthechangeinresistancewhenthe
structureisstretchedbyanamountl

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(a)Bondedtypestrain
gaugetransducer

(b) Resistivestraingauge
(unbondedtype)blood
pressuretransducer

Straingaugesonacantileverstructuretoprovide
temperaturecompensation

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(a)crosssectional
viewofthecantilever

(b)placementofthestraingaugesinahalfbridgeorfullbridgefor
temperaturecompensationandenhancedsensitivity

Liquidmetalstraingauge
Insteadofusingasolidelectricconductorsuchasthewireormetalfoil,
mercuryconfinedtoacompliant,thinwall,narrowboreelastomerictube
isused
Thecomplianceofthisstraingaugeisdeterminedbytheelastic
propertiesofthetube
Sinceonlytheelasticlimitofthetubeisofconcern,thissensorcanbe
usedtodetectmuchlargerdisplacementsthanconventionalstrain
gauges
Itssensitivityisroughlythesameasafoilorwirestraingauge,butitis
notasreliable

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Elasticresistancestraingagesareextensivelyusedin
biomedicalapplications,especiallyincardiovascularand
respiratorydimensionalandplethysmographic (volume
measuring)determinations
Elasticstraingageistypicallylinearwith1%for10%of
maximalextensionthus,straingagesareonlygoodmeasuring
smalldisplacements

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Mercuryinrubberstraingageplethysmography

(a) Fourleadgageappliedtohumancalf
(b) Bridgeoutputforvenousocclusionplethysmography
(c)Bridgeoutputforarterialpulseplethysmography

Semiconductorstraingauge

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Thesedevicesarefrequentlymadeoutofpieces
ofsiliconwithstraingaugepatternsformedusing
semiconductormicroelectronictechnology.
Theprincipaladvantageofthesedevicesisthat
theirgaugefactorscanbemorethan50times
greaterthanthatofthesolidandliquidmetal
devices

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StrainGauge:Materials

Gforsemiconductormaterials~5070xthatofmetalsduetostrongerpiezo
resistiveeffect
semiconductorshavemuchhigherTCR,requirestemperaturecompensationin
straingauge

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Disposablebloodpressuresensor

Madeofclearplasticsothatairbubblescanbeseen
SalineflowsfromintravenousbagthroughclearIVtubeandthesensorto
thepatient
Thisflushesbloodoutofthetipofthecathetertopreventclotting
Alevercanopenorclosetheflushvalve
ThesiliconchiphassilicondiaphragmwithfourresistorWheatstonebridge
diffusedtoit
Itsisisolatedelectricallybyasiliconeelastomergel

InductiveSensors

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AninductanceLcanbeusedtomeasure
displacementbyvaryinganythreeofthecoil
parameters:

where
n=numberofturnsofcoil
G=geometricformfactor
=effectivepermeabilityofthe
medium
Eachoftheseparameterscanbechangedbymechanical
means

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Inductivedisplacementsensors

(a)selfinductance,(b)mutualinductance,(c)differentialtransformer

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The
linear
variable
differential
transformer (LVDT) is widely used in
physiological research and clinical
medicine to measure pressure,
displacement, and force
The LVDT is composed of a primary coil
and two secondary coils connected in
series
The coupling between these two coils is
changed by the motion of a high
permeability alloy slug between them
The two secondary coils are connected
in opposition in order to achieve a
wider region of linearity
The primary coil is sinusoidally excited,
with a frequency between 60 Hz and 20
kHz.

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LVDT

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Thealternatingmagneticfieldinducesnearlyequal
voltages and
inthesecondarycoils
Theoutputvoltage
=

Whentheslugissymmetricallyplaced,thetwosecondary
voltagesareequalandtheoutputsignaliszero
Linearvariabledifferentialtransformercharacteristics
includelinearity
overalargerange,achangeofphaseby180 whenthe
corepassesthroughthecenterposition,andsaturationon
theends
SpecificationsofcommerciallyavailableLVDTsinclude
sensitivitiesontheorderof0.5to2mVforadisplacement
of0.01mm/Vofprimaryvoltage,fullscaledisplacementof
0.1to250mm,andlinearityof0.25%
SensitivityforLVDTsismuchhigherthanthatforstrain
gauges

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(a)As movesthroughthe
nullposition,thephase
changes180,
whilethemagnitudeof is
proportionaltothe
magnitudeof
(b)Anordinaryrectifier
demodulatorcannot
distinguishbetween(a)and
(b),soaphasesensitive
demodulatorisrequired

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Bloodflowthroughanexposedvesselcan
bemeasuredbymeansofan
electromagneticflowtransducer
Considerabloodvesselofdiameter filled
withbloodflowingwithauniformvelocity

Bloodvesselisplacedinauniform
magneticfield thatisperpendicularto
thedirectionofbloodflow
Negativelychargedanionandpositively
chargedcation particlesinthebloodwill
experienceaforce thatisnormalto
boththemagneticfieldandbloodflow
directions

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Electromagneticbloodflowtransducer

whereqistheelementarycharge(1.6x10

C)

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Thesechargedparticleswillbedeflectedinopposite
directionsandwillmovealongthediameterofthe
bloodvesselsaccordingtothedirectionoftheforce
vector
Thismovementwillproduceanopposingforce
whichisequalto

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where isthenetelectricalfieldproducedbythe
displacementofthechargedparticlesand isthepotential
producedacrossthebloodvessel
Atequilibrium,thesetwoforceswillbeequal,hencethe
potentialdifference isgivenby

isproportionaltothevelocityofbloodthroughthevessel

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Electromagneticflowmeter

CapacitiveSensors
ThecapacitancebetweentwoparallelplatesofareaAseparatedby
distance is

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.(1)

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Where isthedielectricconstantoffreespaceand istherelative


dielectricconstantoftheinsulator

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ThesensitivityK ofacapacitivesensortochangesinplate
separation isfoundbydifferentiating(1)

Notethatthesensitivityincreasesastheplateseparationdecreases

ThepercentchangeinCaboutanyneutralpointisequaltothe
perunitchangein forsmalldisplacementsis

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Capacitancesensorformeasuringdynamicdisplacement
changesandpressure

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Compliantplasticsofdifferentdielectricconstantsmay
beplacedbetweenfoillayerstoformacapacitivematto
beplacedonabed
Patientmovementgeneratescharge,whichisamplified
andfilteredtodisplayrespiratorymovementsfromthe
lungsandballistographic movementsfromtheheart

PiezoelectricSensors

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Piezoelectricsensorsareusedtomeasurephysiological
displacementsandrecordheartsounds
Piezoelectricmaterialsgenerateanelectricpotentialwhen
mechanicallystrained,andconverselyanelectricpotential
cancausephysicaldeformationofthematerial
Theprincipleofoperation:whenanasymmetricalcrystal
latticeisdistorted,achargereorientationtakesplace,
causingarelativedisplacementofnegativeandpositive
charges
Thedisplacedinternalchargesinducesurfacechargesof
oppositepolarityonoppositesidesofthecrystal
Surfacechargecanbedeterminedbymeasuringthe
differenceinvoltagebetweenelectrodesattachedtothe
surfaces

Where isthepiezoelectricconstant, /

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Assumeinfiniteleakageresistance,thetotalinducedcharge
isdirectlyproportionaltotheappliedforce

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Thechangeinvoltagecanbefoundbyassumingthatthe
systemactslikeaparallelplatecapacitorwherethevoltage
acrossthecapacitorischarge dividedbycapacitance

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Typicalvaluesfor are2.3pC/N forquartzand140pC/Nfor


bariumtitanate
Forapiezoelectricsensorof1cm areaand1mmthickness
withanappliedforceduetoa10gweight,theoutputvoltage
vis0.23mVand14mVforthequartzandbariumtitanate
crystals,respectively

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Therearevariousmodesof
operationofpiezoelectricsensors,
dependingonthematerialandthe
crystallographicorientationofthe
plate
Thesemodesincludethethickness
orlongitudinalcompression,
transversalcompression,thickness
shearaction,andfaceshearaction
Alsoavailablearepiezoelectric
polymericfilms,suchas
polyvinylidene fluoride(PVDF)
Thesefilmsareverythin,
lightweightandpliant(easilyflexed
orbent),andtheycanbecuteasily
andadaptedtounevensurfaces

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(a) Equivalentcircuitofpiezoelectricsensor,whereRs =sensorleakageresistance,Cs=


sensorcapacitance,Cc=cablecapacitance,Ca =amplifierinputcapacitance,Ra=
amplifierinputresistance,andq=chargegenerator
(b) Modifiedequivalentcircuitwithcurrentgeneratorreplacingchargegenerator

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TemperatureMeasurements

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Temperatureisextremelyimportanttohuman
physiology

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example:lowtemperaturecanindicateonsetof
problems,e.g.,stroke
example:hightemperaturecanindicateinfection

Temperaturesensitiveenzymesandproteinscan
bedestroyedbyadversetemperatures
Temperaturemeasurementandregulationis
criticalinmanytreatmentplans

TemperatureSensorOptions

ThermoelectricDevices

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mostcommontypeiscalledThermocouple
canbemadesmallenoughtoplaceinsidecathetersorhypodermicneedles

ResistanceTemperatureDetectors(RTDs)

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metalresistancechangeswithtemperature
Platinum,Nickel,Coppermetalsaretypicallyused
positivetemperaturecoefficients

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Thermistors(thermallysensitiveresistor)

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formedfromsemiconductormaterials,notmetals
oftencompositeofaceramicandametallicoxide(Mn,Co,CuorFe)
typicallyhavenegativetemperaturecoefficients

RadiantTemperatureSensors
photonenergychangeswithtemperature
measuredoptically(byphotodetector)

IntegratedCircuit(IC)TemperatureSensors
varioustemperatureeffectsinsiliconmanipulatedbycircuits
proportionaltoabsolutetemperature(PTAT)circuit:Sibandgap=

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PropertiesofTemperatureSensors

MetallicResistanceThermometers

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Theelectricresistanceofapieceofmetalorwiregenerally
increasesasthetemperatureofthatelectricconductor
increases
Alinearapproximationtothisrelationshipisgivenby

Where istheresistanceattemperature , isthetemperaturecoefficient


ofresistance,and isthetemperatureatwhichtheresistanceisbeing
measured

Itisimportanttomakesurethattheelectroniccircuitdoes
notpassalargecurrentthroughtheresistance
thermometertoprovideselfheatingduetotheJoule
conversionofelectricenergytoheat

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TemperatureCoefficientofResistancefor
CommonMetalsandAlloys

Thermocouples
Thermoelectricthermometryisbasedonthediscoveryof
Seebeck

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dissimilarmetalsatdiff.temps.>signal
electromotiveforce(emf)isestablishedbythecontactoftwo
dissimilarmetalsatdifferenttemperatures

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Empiricalcalibrationdataareusuallycurvefittedwitha
powerseriesexpansionthatyieldstheSeebeck voltage

where isindegreesCelsiusand
thereferencejunctionismaintained
at0

Thermocouplefeatures:
ruggedandgoodforveryhightemperatures
notasaccurateasotherTempsensors(alsononlinearanddrift)

(a) Peltier emf

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ThermocoupleCircuits

(b)Thefirstlaw,homogeneouscircuits,statesthatinacircuit
composedofasinglehomogeneousmetal,onecannotmaintainan
electriccurrentbytheapplicationofheatalone
In(b)thenetemf atcdisthesameasin(a),regardlessofthefact
thatatemperaturedistribution(T3)existsalongoneofthewires
(A)

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Thesecondlaw,intermediatemetals,statesthatthe
netemf inacircuitconsistingofaninterconnectionof
anumberofunlikemetals,maintainedatthesame
temperature,iszero
Thepracticalimplicationofthisprincipleisthatlead
wiresmaybeattachedtothethermocouplewithout
affectingtheaccuracyofthemeasuredemf,provided
thatthenewlyformedjunctionsareatthesame
temperature

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Thethirdlaw,successiveorintermediatetemperatures,isillustratedin(d),
whereemf E1isgeneratedwhentwodissimilarmetalshavejunctionsat
temperaturesT1andT2andemf E2resultsfortemperaturesT2andT3.
Itfollowsthatanemf E1+E2resultsatcdwhenthejunctionsareat
temperaturesT1andT3
Thisprinciplemakesitpossibleforcalibrationcurvesderivedforagiven
referencejunctiontemperaturetobeusedtodeterminethecalibration
curvesforanotherreferencetemperature

Thethermoelectricsensitivity (alsocalledthe
thermoelectricpowerortheSeebeck coefficient)is

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UsingthermocouplewithcoldjunctioncompensatorLT1025

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CommonThermocouples

Thermistors

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Heavilyusedinbiomedicalapplications

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baseresistivity:0.1to100ohmmeters
canbemadeverysmall,~500umdiameter
largesensitivitytotemperature(34%/C)
excellentlongtermstability

Resistancevs.temperature

keepcurrentlowtoavoidselfheating

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D

Thediagonallineswithapositiveslopegivelinearresistancevaluesandshowthe
degreeofthermistorlinearityatlowcurrents.
Theintersectionofthethermistorcurvesandthediagonallineswithnegativeslope
givethedevicepowerdissipation

SemiconductorThermometers
ThePTATVoltageandElectronicThermometry

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Thewelldefinedtemperaturedependenceofthe
diodevoltageisactuallyusedasthebasisformost
digitalthermometers
Wecanbuildasimpleelectronicthermometerin
whichtwoidenticaldiodesarebiasedbycurrent
sources and

Ifwecalculatethedifferencebetweenthediodevoltages
using

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wediscoveravoltagethatisdirectlyproportionaltoabsolute
temperature(PTAT),referredtoasthePTATvoltageVPTAT

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ThePTATvoltagehasatemperaturecoefficientgivenby

Byusingtwodiodes,thetemperaturedependenceof has
beeneliminatedfromtheequation
Forexample,supposeT=295K,
=250A,and
=50
A,thenVPTAT=40.9mVwithatemperaturecoefficientof
+0.139mV/K.

ElectromagneticRadiationSpectrum
Visiblelightwavelength
~400700nm
Shorterwavelengths
ultraviolet,~100nm
xray,~1nm
gammarays,~0.1nm(=1)
Longerwavelengths
infraredIR:broadspectrum
nearIR,~1000nm=1m
thermalIR,~100m
farIR,~1mm
microwave,~1cm
radar,~110cm
TV&FMradio,~1m
AMradio,~100m

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RadiationThermometry

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Thereisaknownrelationshipbetweenthesurfacetemperatureof
anobjectanditsradiantpower
possibletomeasurethetemperatureofabodywithoutphysical
contactwithit
Atbodytemperatures,radiantspectruminfarinfrared
Medicalthermographyisatechniquewherebythetemperature
distributionofthebodyismappedwithasensitivityofafewtenths
ofakelvin.
Itisbasedontherecognitionthatskintemperaturecanvaryfrom
placetoplacedependingonthecellularorcirculatoryprocesses
occurringateachlocationinthebody.
Thermographyhasbeenusedfortheearlydetectionofbreast
cancer,butthemethodiscontroversial
Ithasalsobeenusedfordeterminingthelocationandextentof
arthriticdisturbances,forgaugingthedepthoftissuedestruction
fromfrostbiteandburns,andfordetectingvariousperipheral
circulatorydisorders(venousthrombosis,carotidarteryocclusions)

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(a) Spectralradiantemittance versuswavelengthforablackbodyat300Kontheleft


verticalaxis;percentageoftotalenergyontherightverticalaxis
(b) Spectraltransmissionforanumberofopticalmaterials
(c) Spectralsensitivityofphotonandthermaldetectors

HumanTemperatureMeasurement
Radiationthermometryisgoodfordetermining
internal(corebody)temperature

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measuresmagnitudeofinfraredradiationfromtympanic
membrane&surroundingearcanal

.G

tympanicmembraneisperfusedbythesamevasculatureasthe
hypothalamus,thebodysmainthermostat

doesnotneedtomakecontacttosettemperatureofthesensor
fastresponsetime,~0.1sec
accuracy~0.1C
independentofusertechniqueorpatientactivity

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advantagesoverthermometers,thermocouplesor
thermistors

requirescalibrationtargettomaintainaccuracy

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radiationthermometryisaninstrumentthatdeterminestheinternalorcorebody
temperatureofthehumanbymeasuringthemagnitudeofinfraredradiation
emittedfromthetympanicmembraneandsurroundingearcanal

FiberopticTemperatureSensor

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Sensoroperation

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smallprismshapedsampleofsinglecrystalundoped GaAs attachedto


endsoftwoopticalfibers
lightenergyabsorbedbytheGaAs crystaldependsontemperature
percentageofreceivedvs.transmittedenergyisafunctionof
temperature

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Canbemadesmallenoughforbiologicalimplantation

OpticalMeasurement
Widelyusedinmedicaldiagnosis

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clinicalchemistrylab:bloodandtissueanalysis
cardiaccatheterization:measureoxygensaturationofhemoglobin
source
filter
detector

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Opticalsystemcomponents

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Conventionalopticalsystem

Solidstate(semiconductor)opticalsystem

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miniaturizeandsimplify

Optical/RadiationSources
Tungstenlamp
verycommonradiationsource
emissivityisfunctionofwavelength,
~40%for<1m(1000nm)
outputvariessignificantlywithtemperature
note2000Kand3000Kspectraonnextslide
highertemperatureshortenslifeoflampfilament
Arcdischargelamps
fluorescentlampsfilledwith,e.g.,carbon,mercury,sodium,xenon
morecompactw/highoutputperunitarea
Lightemittingdiodes(LED)
siliconbandgap~1.1eVnotveryefficientfordetection
GaAs,higherenergy(lowerwavelength),fast(~10ns)switching
GaP &GaAsP haveevenhigherenergy
LASER
commonlasers:HeNe,Argon(highpower,visualspectrum),CO2
semiconductorlasernotpreferred;energytoolow(infrared)
lasersalsousedtomendtears,e.g.,inretina

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Spectralcharacteristicsofsources,filters,detectors

3.
4.

2.

ACorning556glassfilterpassesa
bluewavelengthband
AKodak87gelatinfilterpasses
infraredandblocksvisible
wavelengths.
Germaniumlensespasslong
wavelengthsthatcannotbepassed
byglass
HemoglobinHb and
Oxyhemoglobin HbO passequally
at805nmandhavemaximal
differenceat660nm

1.

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(b) Filters

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3.

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2.

tungsten(W)at3000Khasabroad
spectraloutput.At2000K,outputis
loweratallwavelengthsandpeak
outputshiftstolongerwavelengths
Lightemittingdiodesyieldanarrow
spectraloutputwithGaAs inthe
infrared,GaP inthered,andGaAsP in
thegreen
Monochromaticoutputsfrom
commonlasersareshownbydashed
lines

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(a) Lightsources:

Spectralcharacteristicsofsources,filters,detectors

4.
5.
6.

d) Combination

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3.

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2.

TheS4responseisatypical
phototuberesponse.
Theeyehasarelatively
narrowresponse,withcolors
indicatedbyVBGYOR.
CdS plusafilterhasa
responsethatclosely
matchesthatoftheeye.
Sipnjunctionsarewidely
used.
PbS isasensitiveinfrared
detector.
InSb isusefulinfarinfrared

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Detectors

c)

Indicatedcurvesfrom(a),(b),and
(c)aremultipliedateach

wavelengthtoyield(d),which
showshowwellsource,filter,
anddetectorarematched

focusenergyfromsourceintosmallerarea
placedtocollimateradiation(raysareparallel)
focusenergyfromtargetintodetector

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FiberOptics

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efficienttransmissionofopticalsignalsover
distance
examplemedicalapplication:endoscope

Filters

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GeometricalOptics:Lenses

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OpticalTransmitter&Filters

controltransmittedpower
determinewavelengths(colors)transmitted
producewavelengthspectrum(diffraction
grating)

RadiationSensors

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Spectralresponse
Si,noresponseabove1100nm
specialmaterials(InSb)
monitorskinradiation(300K)
Thermalsensors
transformsradiationintoheat
flatspectralresponsebutslow
subjecttoerrorfromchangesinambienttemperature
examplethermalsensors:thermistors,thermocouples
Quantumsensors
transformphotonenergyintoelectronrelease
sensitiveoveralimitedspectrumofwavelengths
examplequantumsensors:eye,photographicemulsion,sensorsbelow
Photoemissive sensors,e.g.phototube
Photoconductivecells
Photojunction sensors
Photovoltaicsensors

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Photoemissive Sensors
Construction&Operation

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photocathodecoatedwithalkalimetal
incomingphotons(withenoughenergy,>1eVor1200nm)release
electronsfromphotocathode
releasedelectronsattractedtoanodeandformacurrentproportional
toincomingphotonenergy

ho

Example:phototube,liketheS4inthespectrumplots
Photomultiplier:phototubecombinedwithelectronamplifier

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very(themost?)sensitivephotodetector

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cooledtopreventthermalexcitationofelectrons
cancountindividualphotons

fastresponse,~10ns
comparetotheeye,whichcandetect~6photonswithin100ms

SolidStatePhotoelectricSensors
Photoconductivecells
Photoresistor
photosensitivecrystallinematerialsuchasCdS orPbS
incomingradiationcauseselectronstojumpbandgapand
produceelectronholepairs>lowerresistance
Photojunction sensors
incomingradiationgenerateselectronholepairsindiodedepletion
region
minimumdetectableenergybasedonbandgapofthediodesubstrate
(e.g.,Si)
canbeusedinphotovoltaicmodechange inopencircuitvoltageis
monitored
Photoncoupler
LEDphotodiodecombination
usedtoisolateelectricalcircuits
preventcurrentfromleakingoutofequipmentandintotheheart
ofapatient

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MEMSTransducers

MEMS=micro
electromechanical
system

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Microaccelerometer

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miniature
transducerscreated
usingICfabrication
processes

Pressure

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gyroscope

Rotation

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cantileverbeam
suspendedmass

SensorCalibration
Sensorscanexhibitnonidealeffects
offset:nominaloutputnominalparametervalue
nonlinearity:outputnotlinearwithparameterchanges
crossparametersensitivity:secondaryoutputvariationwith,e.g.,
temperature
Calibration=adjustingoutputtomatchparameter
analogsignalconditioning
lookuptable
digitalcalibration
T=a+bV +cV2,T=temperature;V=sensorvoltage;
a,b,c =calibrationcoefficients
Compensation
removesecondarysensitivities
musthavesensitivitiescharacterized
canremovewithpolynomialevaluation
P=a+bV +cT +dVT +eV2,whereP=pressure,T=temperature

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EndofLecture3

Lecture4a

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CardiovascularSystem

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I.Heartstructure&CardiacCycle

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II.Heartconductionsystem&ECG

Dr.R.B.Ghongade
DepartmentofE&TC,
V.I.I.T.,Pune411048

TheCardiovascularSystem

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Heart:Oneofthemostimportantorganinthe
humanbody
Function:

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Supplyoxygentoalltheparts(cells,tissues,
muscles,vitalorgans)ofthehumanbody
CollecttheexcretedCO2fromtheorgans

Describedmostlybycomparingitwithafluid
pump

Motivation

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Heartdisease

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Majorcauseofdeathsindevelopedanddeveloping
countries

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Useofengineeringmethodsandthedevelopmentof
instrumentationhavecontributedsubstantiallyto
progressmadeinrecentyearsinreducingdeathfrom
heartdiseases
Blood pressure , flow , and volume are measured by
using engineering techniques
Theelectrocardiogram,echocardiogramand
phonocardiogramaremeasuredandrecordedwith
electronicinstruments

TheHeartandthecardiovascular
system

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A functional cardiovascular system is vital for supplying


oxygen and nutrients to tissues and removing wastes
from them.
Theheartisthestrongestmuscleinthebody
Theheartmustpumpbloodthroughoutthebodyday
&night
Theheartis2pumpsworkingsidebyside;onyour
rightsideistheheartthatpumpsbloodtoyourlungs
whereitpicksupO2;onyourleftsideistheheartthat
pumpsthisO2soakedbloodouttoyourbody;pumps
45milliongallonsbloodinalifetime

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Theheartislocatedinthechest
betweenthelungsbehindthe
sternumandabovethe
diaphragm
Itissurroundedbythe
pericardium
Itssizeisaboutthatofafist,and
itsweightisabout250300g
Locatedabovetheheartarethe
greatvessels:
thesuperior
inferiorvenacava
thepulmonaryartery
thepulmonaryvein,a
theaorta

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LocationoftheHeart

Theaorticarchliesbehindtheheart
Theesophagusandthespineliefurtherbehindtheheart

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The walls of the heart are composed of


cardiac muscle, called myocardium
It also has striations similar to skeletal
muscle
It consists of four compartments:
the right and left atria and ventricles
The heart is oriented so that the anterior
aspect is the right ventricle while the
posterior aspect shows the left atrium
The atria form one unit and the
ventricles another
This has special importance to the
electric function of the heart
The left ventricular free wall and
the septum are much thicker than the
right ventricular wall
This is logical since the left ventricle
pumps blood to the systemic circulation,
where the pressure is considerably
higher than for the pulmonary
circulation, which arises from right
ventricular outflow

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AnatomyoftheHeart

AnatomyoftheHeart

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Thecardiacmusclefibersareorientedspirallyandaredividedintofourgroups
Twogroupsoffiberswindaroundtheoutsideofbothventricles
Beneaththesefibersathirdgroupwindsaroundbothventricles
Beneaththesefibersafourthgroupwindsonlyaroundtheleftventricle
Thefactthatcardiacmusclecellsareorientedmoretangentiallythanradially,
andthattheresistivityofthemuscleislowerinthedirectionofthefiberhas
importanceinelectrocardiography
Thehearthasfourvalves

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Tricuspid valve:betweentherightatriumandventriclelies
Mitralvalve:betweentheleftatriumandventricle
Pulmonary valve:betweentherightventricleandthepulmonaryartery,
Aorticvalve liesintheoutflowtractoftheleftventricle(controllingflowtotheaorta)

Thebloodreturnsfromthesystemiccirculationtotherightatriumandfrom
theregoesthroughthetricuspidvalvetotherightventricle
Itisejectedfromtherightventriclethroughthepulmonaryvalvetothelungs
Oxygenatedbloodreturnsfromthelungstotheleftatrium,andfromthere
throughthemitralvalvetotheleftventricle
Finallybloodispumpedthroughtheaorticvalvetotheaortaandthesystemic
circulation

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AnatomyoftheHeart

PathofBloodthroughtheHeart

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BloodthatislowinO2andhighinCO2enterstherightatriumthrough
thevenaecavae &coronarysinus
nextispumpedintothepulmonarycirculationafterbloodisoxygenated
inthelungs&someoftheCO2isremoved,itreturnstotheleftsideof
theheartthroughthepulmonaryveinsfromtheleftventricle
itmovesintotheaorta
gasexchangesoccurbetweenthebloodinthecapillariesandtheairin
thealveoliofthelungs
ORDERINWHICHBLOODFLOWS:
1. venaecavae &coronarysinus
2. rightatrium>tricuspidvalve
3. rightventricle>pulmonaryvalve>pulmonarytrunk
4. pulmonaryartery
5. pulmonaryvein
6. leftatrium>bicuspid(mitral)valve
7. leftventricle>aorticvalve
8. aorta

(lubbdupp)

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Bothpumpsaredividedintotwospacescalled
chamberssoyourheartisactuallya2barreled,4
chamberedpumper
Thetwosidesdonotworkindependently;theyare
preciselytimedasateamtomakethebestuseoftheir
pumpingpower(quiteefficient!)
As the heart pumps it makes a variety of clicks and
thumps; these are the sounds of the heart valves as
they click open & shut; each sound has a special
meaning

lubb isthesoundofthetricuspid&mitral(bicuspid)heartvalves
(onthetopchambers)shutting;
dupp isthesoundofthesemilunarheartvalvesclosing(these
heartvalvesshutoffthebigvesselsleavingtheheart)

Thehearthangsinthecenterofthechest
(mediastinum)

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Thecardiovascularsystem

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The
cardiovascular
system

Terminology

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Pulmonarycirculation

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Systemiccirculation

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Thecirculatorypathforbloodflowthroughthelungs
(functionofrightsideheart)
Pressuredifferencebetweenthearteriesandtheveinsis
small,lowresistance
Canbeconsideredasvolumepump

Thecirculatorysystemthatsuppliesoxygenandnutrients
tothecellsofthebody(functionofleftsideoftheheart)
Thissystemisahighresistancecircuitwithalargepressure
gradientbetweenthearteriesandveins
Canbeconsideredasapressurepump

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Themusclecontractionoftheleftheartislargerand
strongerthantherightheart,becauseofthegreater
pressuresrequiredforsystemiccirculation
Howeverthevolumeoftheblooddeliveredperunittime
bythetwosidesissamewhenmeasuredoverasufficiently
longintervaloftime
Theleftheartdevelopsapressureheadsufficienttocause
bloodflowtoallextremitiesofthebody
Thepumpingactionitselfisperformedbycontractionof
theheartmusclessurroundingeachchamberoftheheart
Thesemusclesreceivetheirownbloodsupplyfromthe
coronaryarteries ,whichsurroundtheheartlikeacrown(
corona)
Thecoronaryarterialsystemisaspecialbranchofthe
systemiccirculation

Pitfall!

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Whywecannotindiscriminatelyapproximatethesystem
withapumpandahydraulicsystem?

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Thepipes,thearteriesandtheveinsarenotrigidbutflexible
Theyarecapableofhelpingandcontrollingbloodcirculationby
theirownmuscularactionandtheirownvalveandreceptor
system
BloodisnotapureNewtonianfluid;ratheritpossesses
propertiesthatdonotcomplywiththelawsgoverninghydraulic
motion
AlsothebloodrequireshelpfromthelungsforO2 andit
interactswiththelymphaticsystem
Manychemicalsandhormonesaffecttheoperationofthe
system

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Cardiovascular
circulation

Functioning

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Bloodenterstheheartontherightsidethrough

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Superiorvenacava(comingfromupperbody
extremities)
Inferiorvenacava(comingfromlowerbody
extremities)

Incomingbloodfillsthestoragechamber,right
atrium
Coronarysinusalsoemptiesintorightatrium
(bloodthatcirculatesthroughtheheartitself)

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Whenrightatriumisfull,itcontractsand
forcesbloodthroughthetricuspidvalveinto
rightventricle
Rightventriclecontractstopumpbloodinto
pulmonarycirculationsystem
Tricuspidvalvecloseswhenpressurein
ventricleexceedsatrial pressure
Semilunarvalveopensandbloodisforced
intopulmonaryarteryandintothetwolungs
Inthealveoli oflungsredbloodcellsare
rechargedwithO2 andCO2 isexpelled

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Pulmonaryarterydividesmanytimesinto
smallerarteries(arterioles),whichsupply
bloodtoalveolarcapillaries,wherethe
exchangeofO2 andCO2 takesplace
Ontheothersideofthelungmassisasimilar
constructionwherecapillariesfeedintotiny
veins(venules),whichinturnformlargerveins
andultimatelyterminateintopulmonaryvein
Thispulmonaryveinreturnstheoxygenated
bloodtotheheart

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Thebloodenterstheleftatriumfrompulmonary
veinandispumpedthroughthemitral(bicuspid)
valveintoleftventriclebycontractionofatrial
muscles
Whenleftventricularmusclescontract,the
pressureproducedbycontractionmechanically
closesthemitralvalveandthebuildupof
pressureopenstheaorticvalve
Bloodisforcedintotheaorta whichsupplied
oxygenatedbloodtotheupperandthelower
extremitiesandinternalorgans
Thisactiontakesplacesynchronouslywithright
ventricle,wherethebloodisforcedintothe
pulmonaryartery

HeartspumpingCycle

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Isdefinedasthe
periodof
contractionofthe
heartmuscles,
specificallythe
ventricular
muscles,atwhich
time,bloodis
pumpedintothe
pulmonaryartery
andtheaorta

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Systole

HeartspumpingCycle

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Periodof
dilationof
theheart
cavitiesas
theyfillwill
blood

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Diastole

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Oncethebloodhasbeenpumpedintothe
arterialsystem,theheartrelaxes,pressurein
chambersdecreases,theoutletvalveclose
andinashorttimetheinletvalvesopenagain
torestartthediastoleandinitiatenewcyclein
theheart
Afterpassingthroughmanybifurcationsof
arteries,thebloodreachesvitalorgans,the
brainandtheextremities
Thelaststageofarterialsystemdividesinto
smallestarterioles
ThesearteriolesfeedintocapillarieswhereO2
issuppliedtocellsandCO2 isreceived

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Inturncapillariesjoinintovenules andthese
finallyforminferiorandsuperiorvenacava
Bloodsupplytotheheartitselfisfromaorta
throughcoronaryarteriesintoasimilar
capillarysystemtothecardiacveins
Thisbloodreturnstoheartchambersbythe
wayofcoronarysinus

Averageheartbeatrate

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75bpm
Mayvaryfrom60to85(sitting,standingposition)
Infantheartratemaybeashighas140bpm
HRincreaseswithheatexposure,physiologicaland
psychologicalfactors

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Somefacts!

Heartpumpsabout5litersofbloodperminute
75to80%ofbloodvolumeinveins,20%in
arteries,remainingincapillaries

BloodSupplytotheHeart

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Heartmuscle(myocardium)needsblood
Coronaryarteriesbranchofffromsystemic
circulation&feedcapillariesthatpermeate
theheartmuscle(myocardium)
Whenblockageof toheartmusclesoccur
cardiacmusclesbegintodie&aheartattack
(myocardialinfarction)canoccurifblockageis
extensive

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TheConductionSystemoftheHeart

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Electricalstimulusneededtocauseheart
musclecontractions(systole)

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ECGSummary

AlthoughrepresentationofanECGrecordingasascalartraceisillustratedin
Figure,severalothertechniquesforcardiacelectricalrepresentation,usually
closelylinkedtotherecordingtechnique,exist

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GenesisofECG
waveformand
timingof
differentaction
potentialsfrom
differentregions
andspecialized
cellsoftheheart
andthe
corresponding
cardiaccycleof
theECGas
measuredonthe
bodysurface
manifestas
P,Q,R,S andT
points

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VariousComponentsoftheECGWaveform

TheApplicationAreasofECGDiagnosis

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6. Myocardialischemiaandinfarction
a. Ischemia
b. Infarction
7. Drugeffect
a. Digitalis
b. Quinidine
8. Electrolyteimbalance
a. Potassium
b. Calcium
9. Carditis
a. Pericarditis
b. Myocarditis
10. Pacemakermonitoring

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1. Theelectricaxisoftheheart
2. Heartratemonitoring
3. Arrhythmias
a. Supraventriculararrhythmias
b. Ventriculararrhythmias
4. Disordersintheactivation
sequence
a. Atrioventricular conduction
defects(blocks)
b. Bundlebranchblock
c. WolffParkinsonWhite
syndrome
5. Increaseinwallthicknessorsize
oftheatriaandventricles
a. Atrialenlargement
(hypertrophy)
b. Ventricularenlargement
(hypertrophy)

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TheApplicationAreasofECGDiagnosis

ECGLeadSystems

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TheConventional12leadSystem

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BipolarLimbLeads
WilsonCentralTerminal(WCT)
GoldbergerAugmentedLeads
PrecordialLeads
MasonandLikar LeadSystem(Modifiedleads)

TheCorrectedOrthogonalLeads(Franklead
system)

BipolarLimbLeads
Forcevectors:

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Themajorsequencesofdepolarizationoftheheartand
therelativevoltagesencounteredcanbeexplainedby
drawingaseriesofsummationvectors
Itisalsousefultodescribethedirectioninwhichthese
vectorsaretravelingbysuperimposingourdrawingona
360degreecompassrose
There are there important things that are the
underlying concepts of the lead systems:
1. The principle that impulses coming toward
an electrode produce positive deflections,
whereas impulses going away from an
electrode produce negative deflections.
2. The positions from which the various
electrodes look at the heart.
3. The sequence, direction, and relative
magnitude of the four major vectors of
cardiac depolarization and repolarization.

EinthovenlimbleadsandEinthoven
triangle

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Intheyear1913,Einthovenetal.developedamethod
ofstudyingtheelectricalactivityoftheheartby
representingitgraphicallyinatwodimensional
geometricfigure,namely,anequilateraltriangle
Basedonseveraloversimplifyingassumptions

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Thebodyisahomogeneousvolumeconductor
Themeanofallelectricalforcescanbeconsideredas
originatinginanimaginarydipolelocatedintheelectrical
centeroftheheart
Electrodesplacedontherightarm(RA),leftarm(LA)and
leftfoot(LF)areusedtopickupthepotentialvariationson
theseextremitiestoformanequilateraltriangle

Einthoventriangle

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TheEinthovenlimbleads
(standardleads)are
definedinthefollowing
way

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where,
VI=voltageofleadI
VII=voltageofleadII
VIII=voltageofleadIII
L=potentialofleftarm
R=potentialofrightarm
F=potentialofleftfoot

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Thelimbleadsdescribethecardiac
electricalactivityinthreedifferent
directionsofthefrontalplane

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FrankNormanWilson(18901952)investigated
howelectrocardiographicunipolarpotentials
couldbedefined
Measuredwithrespecttoaremotereference
(infinity)
Formedbyconnectinga5k resistorfromeach
terminalofthelimbleadstoacommonpoint
calledthecentralterminal
Wilsonsuggestedthatunipolarpotentials
shouldbemeasuredwithrespecttothis
terminalwhichapproximatesthepotentialat
infinity
TheWilsoncentralterminalistheaverageof
thelimbpotentials
Thetotalcurrentintothecentralterminalfrom
thelimbleadsmustaddtozerotosatisfythe
conservationofcurrent(KCL)

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WilsonCentralTerminal(WCT)

Hence,

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CircuitofWCTandthelocationimagespaceandthe
locationofWCT

GoldbergerAugmentedLeads

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Threeadditionallimbleads,VR,VL,andVF areobtainedbymeasuringthe
potentialbetweeneachlimbelectrodeandtheWilsoncentralterminal
Forinstance,themeasurementfromtheleftfootgives

ng

Goldbergerobservedthatthesesignalscanbeaugmentedbyomitting
thatresistancefromtheWilsoncentralterminal,whichisconnectedto
themeasurementelectrode
Threeleadsmaybereplacedwithanewsetofleadsthatarecalled
augmented leadsbecauseoftheaugmentationofthesignal
TheequationfortheaugmentedleadaVF is

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Augmentedsignaltobe50%largerthanthesignalwiththeWilsoncentral
terminalchosenasreference

GoldbergerAugmentedLeads

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Notethatthethreeaugmentedleads,aVR,aVL,andaVF,arefully
redundantwithrespecttothelimbleadsI,II,andIII

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Formeasuringthepotentialscloseto
theheart,Wilsonintroducedthe
precordialleads(chestleads)in1944
Theseleads,V1V6arelocatedover
theleftchest
ThepointsV1andV2arelocatedat
thefourthintercostalspaceonthe
rightandleftsideofthesternum
V4islocatedinthefifthintercostal
spaceatthemidclavicular line
V3islocatedbetweenthepointsV2
andV4
V5isatthesamehorizontallevelas
V4butontheanterioraxillaryline
V6isatthesamehorizontallevelas
V4butatthemidline

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PrecordialLeads

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Precordialchestleads areusedtorecordthevoltagedifference
betweentheseelectrodesandWilsonsCentralTerminus

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MasonandLikar recommendedmoving
thelimbelectrodesusedtorecordthe12
leadECGfromthelimbstothethoraxfor
exerciseelectrocardiography(1966)
The12leadsystemisusuallyusedforjust
longenoughtorecordafewheartcyclesor
beats(1015)seconds
Therecordedinformationisrepresentedas
12scalartracesdepictingthehearts
electricalactivityatthevarioussample
sites.
Interpretationofthe12leadECGisbased
uponexaminationoftheshapeandsize,or
amplitudeandduration,ofthevarious
componentsofeachscalartrace
Theincreasednumberofsamplesites,six
ofwhichareonthechestclosetothe
heart,allowsanexperttonotonly
determinethepresenceofdisease,but
alsothechambersorareasoftheheart
thatareaffected

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MasonandLikar LeadSystem(Modifiedleads)

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ThisleadsystemisknownalsoasFrank
leadsystem
Sevenelectrodesplacedonthechest,back,
neckandleftfootareusedtoviewthe
heartfromtheleftside,frombelowand
fromthefront
Thiskindofleadsystemreflectsthe
electricalactivityinthethreeperpendicular
directionsX,Y,andZandtracesoutathree
dimensionalloopforeverycardiaccycleby
meansofthetimevariantcardiac
dominantvector
ThethreeprojectionsofthisloopontoXY,
XZandYZplanesarealsorecorded
Themorphologyoftheloops,their
directionofrotationandtheirareasarethe
mainspatialquantitiesthatimproveECG
baseddiagnosisofsomecardiac
pathologies,likemyocardialinfarction
Thisparticulartypeofrecordingisreferred
toasavectorcardiogram (VCG).

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TheCorrectedOrthogonalLeads

ElectrocardiographBlockDiagram

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Lead
selector

Driven
rightleg
circuit

Isolation
circuit

Preamplifier

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Amplifier
protection
circuit

Baseline
restoration

ADC

Memory

Driver
amplifier

Recorder
printer

Isolated
power
supply

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Auto
calibration

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Parallelcircuitsforsimultaneousrecordingsfromdifferentleads

Sensingelectrodes
Leadfaildetect
Amplifierprotection
circuit
Leadselector
Autocalibration
Preamplifier
Baselinerestoration
Drivenrightlegcircuit
Isolationcircuit
ADC&Memorysystem
Driveramplifier
Recorderprinter
Microcomputer
Controlsoftware

Leadfail
detect

Sensing
electrodes

Rightleg
electrode

Microcomputer
Operator
display
Control
program
Keyboard
ECGanalysis
program

FrequentProblems

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Frequencydistortion
HighfrequencylossroundsthesharpedgesoftheQRScomplex.
Lowfrequencylosscandistortthebaseline(nolongerhorizontal)orcause
monophasic waveformstoappear biphasic.
Saturation/cutoffdistortion
Combinationofinputamplitude&offsetvoltagedrivesamplifierinto
saturation
Positivecase:clipsoffthetopoftheRwave
Negativecase:clipsofftheQ,S,PandTwaves
Groundloops
Patientsareconnectedtomultiplepiecesofequipment;eachhasaground
(powerlineorcommonroomgroundwire)
Ifmorethatoneinstrumenthasagroundelectrodeconnectedtothepatient,
agroundloopexists.Powerlinegroundcanbedifferentforeachitemof
equipment,sendingcurrentthroughthepatientandintroducingcommon
modenoise.
Openleadwires
Canbedetectedbyimpedancemonitoring.

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Unwantedvoltagetransients
Patientmovement
Electricalstimulation
signals,likedefibrillation
Amplifiersaturates
Firstorderrecoveryto
baseline
Recoverytimesetbylow
frequencycorner ofthe
bandpass amplifier

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Artifacts

Effectofavoltagetransientonan
ECGrecordedonan
electrocardiographinwhichthe
transientcausestheamplifierto
saturate,andafiniteperiodof
timeisrequiredforthechargeto
bleedoffenoughtobringtheECG
backintotheamplifiersactive
regionofoperation.Thisis
followedbyafirstorderrecovery
ofthesystem.

Upperfigure:couplingof50Hz/60Hzpowerlinenoise
Electricfieldcouplingbetweenpowergrid,instrument,patient,and
wiring.
Lowerfigure:couplingofelectromyographic (EMG)noise
ExampleoftensingchestmuscleswhileECGisbeingrecorded.

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Artifacts

PowerLineCoupling
Power line 230 V

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Z1

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Z2

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C2

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Smallparasiticcapacitors connectthe
powerlinetotheRAandLAleads,
andthegroundedinstrumentcase
Smallacdisplacementcurrents Id1 and
Id2 aregenerated
Thebodyimpedanceisabout500
andcanbeneglected
vA vB =id1 Z1 id2 Z2(6.3)
IfId1 andId2 are approximatelyequal:
vA vB =id1 (Z1 Z2)(6.4)
=(6nA)(20K)
=120V
Remedies
Shieldelectrodes&connectto
electrocardiograph(grounding
tree)toreduceid
Reduceormatchtheelectrode
skinimpedances(minimizeZ1 Z2
)

ZG

Id1
Id2

C3

C1

A
B Electrocardiograph
G

Id1+ Id2

Amechanismofelectricfieldpickupofan
electrocardiographresultingfromthepower
line.Couplingcapacitancebetweenthehot
sideofthepowerlineandleadwirescauses
currenttoflowthroughskinelectrode
impedancesonitswaytoground.

PowerLineCoupling
Powerline

cm

Electrocardiograph

Z1
A

ng

Powerline iscoupledintothebody
Smallacdisplacementcurrent Idb is
generated,whichproducesacommon
modevoltage
vcm =idb ZG
(6.6)
=(0.2A)(50K)
=10mV

230V

cm
Zin

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Cb
idb

Attheamplifierinputs:
(6.9)
vA vB =vcm (Z1 Z2)/Zin
=(10mV)(20K/5M
=40V
Remedies:
Reduceormatchtheelectrodeskin
impedances(minimizeZ1 Z2)
IncreaseZin

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Z2

Zin

cm

G
ZG

idb

Currentflowsfromthepowerlinethroughthebody
andgroundimpedance,thuscreatingacommon
modevoltageeverywhereonthebody.Zin isnotonly
resistivebut,asaresultofRFbypasscapacitorsat
theamplifierinput,hasareactivecomponentas
well.

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Magneticfieldpickupbytheelctrocardiograph (a) Lead


wiresmakeaclosedloop(shadedarea)whenpatientand
electrocardiographareconsideredinthecircuit.The
changeinmagneticfieldpassingthroughthisareainduces
acurrentintheloop.
(b) Thiseffectcanbeminimizedbytwistingtheleadwires
togetherandkeepingthemclosetothebodyinorderto
subtendamuchsmallerarea.

Sources
Powerlines
Transformers
andballastsin
fluorescentlights
Remedies
Shielding
Routeleads
awayfrom
potentialsources
Reducethe
effectiveareaof
thesingleturn
coil(twistthe
leadwires)

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CardiovascularSystem
III.Phonocardiogram(PCG)

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IV.Electroencephalogram(EEG)

Dr.R.B.Ghongade
DepartmentofE&TC,
V.I.I.T.,Pune411048

Introduction

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Heartsoundsresultfromtheinterplayofthedynamiceventsassociated
withthecontractionandrelaxationoftheatriaandventricles,valve
movements,andbloodflow.
Canbeheardfromthechestthroughastethoscope,adevicecommonly
usedforscreeninganddiagnosisinprimaryhealthcare
Auscultation isthetermforlisteningtotheexternalsoundsofthebody,
usuallyusingastethoscope
Theartofevaluatingtheacousticpropertiesofheartsoundsand
murmurs,includingtheintensity,frequency,duration,number,andquality
ofthesounds,areknownascardiacauscultation.
Oneoftheoldestmeansforassessingtheheartcondition,especiallythe
functionofheartvalves
Thestethoscope(fromtheGreekwordstethos,meaning"chest"and
skopein,meaning"toexamine")inventedduringtheearlytwentieth
century,wasoneofthemostprimitivedevicesdesignedtoaidadoctorin
listeningtoheartsounds
Traditionalauscultationinvolvessubjectivejudgmentbytheclinicians,
whichintroducesvariabilityintheperceptionandinterpretationofthe
sounds,therebyaffectingdiagnosticaccuracy

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PHONOCARDIOGRAPHY TECHNIQUE

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Theauscultationoftheheartgivestheclinicianvaluable
informationaboutthefunctionalintegrityoftheheart
Additionaldetailscanbegatheredwhenthetemporal
relationshipsbetweentheheartsoundsandtheelectrical
andmechanicaleventsofthecardiaccyclearecompared
Thisapproachtotheanalysisofheartsoundsusinga
studyofthefrequencyspectraisknownas
phonocardiography
Thephonocardiogram isadevicecapableofobtaining
heartsoundsanddisplayingtheobtainedsignalsinthe
formofagraphdrawnwiththesignalamplitudeinone
axisandwithtimeintheother

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Blockdiagramofthegeneralbiomedicalsignalprocessingandanalysis,asanintegrative
approachforcomputeraideddiagnosissystem

CARDIOVASCULARPHYSIOLOGY(revisited)

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Theheartcanbeclassifiedfroma hemodynamicspointofviewasa
simplereciprocatingpump
Thepumpingchambershaveavariablevolumeandinputandoutput
ports
Aonewayvalveintheinputportisorientedsuchthatitopensonlywhen
thepressureintheinputchamberexceedsthepressurewithinthe
pumpingchamber
Anotheronewayvalveintheoutputportopensonlywhenpressurein
thepumpingchamberexceedsthepressureintheoutputchamber
Therodandcrankshaftwillcausethediaphragmtomovebackandforth
Thechambersvolumechangesasthepistonmoves,causingthepressure
withintoriseandfall
Intheheart,thechangeinvolumeistheresultofcontractionand
relaxationofthecardiacmusclethatmakesuptheventricularwalls

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Themechanicalactivityoftheheartinvolvescontractionof
myocardialcells,opening/closingofvalves,andflowof
bloodtoandfromtheheartchambers
Thisactivityismodulatedbychangesinthecontractilityof
theheart,thecomplianceofthechamberwallsand
arteriesandthedevelopedpressuregradients
Themechanicalactivitycanbealsoexaminedusing
ultrasoundimaging
Theperipheralbloodflowsinthearteriesandveinsisalso
modulatedbymechanicalpropertiesofthetissue
TheflowofbloodcanbeimagedbyDopplerecho,andthe
pulsewavecanbecapturedinoneoftheperipheral
arteries
Thedifferenttypesofsignalsgiveusvariouspiecesof
informationaboutthecardiacactivity.Integratingthis
informationmayyieldabetterabilitytoassessthe
conditionofthecardiovascularsystem

CardiacSounds

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Audiblesoundsareproducedfromtheopeningandtheclosingof
theheartvalves,theflowofbloodintheheart,andthevibrationof
heartmuscles
Heartsoundsareshortlivedburstsofvibrationalenergyhavinga
transientcharacter
Theyareprimarilyassociatedwithvalvular and/orventricular
vibrations
Boththeirsiteoforiginandtheiroriginalintensitygovernsthe
radiationoftheheartsoundstothesurfaceofthechest
Therearefourseparatebasicsoundsthatoccurduringthe
sequenceofonecompletecardiaccycle

CardiacMurmurs

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Murmursarevibrationscausedbyturbulenceinthebloodasitflows
throughsomenarroworificeortube.
Amurmurisoneofthemorecommonabnormalphenomenathatcanbe
detectedwithastethoscopeasomewhatprolonged'whoosh'thatcanbe
describedasblowing,rumbling,soft,harsh,andsoon
Murmursaresoundsrelatedtothenonlaminarflowofbloodintheheart
andthegreatvessels
Theyaredistinguishedfrombasicheartsoundsinthattheyarenoisyand
havealongerduration
Whileheartsoundshavealowfrequencyrangeandliemainlybelow200
Hz,murmursarecomposedofhigherfrequencycomponentsextendingup
to1000Hz
Mostheartmurmurscanreadilybeexplainedonthebasisofhighvelocity
floworabruptchangesinthecaliber(thediameteroftheinside)ofthe
vascularchannels
Typicalconditionsinthecardiovascularsystem,whichcausebloodflow
turbulence,arelocalobstructions,shunts,abruptchangesindiameter,
andvalveinsufficiency(valveisnotstrongenoughtopreventbackflow)

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Thefirstheartsound(S1)occursattheonsetofventricularsystole
Itcanbemostclearlyheardattheapexandthefourthintercostalspacesalong
theleftsternalborder
Itischaracterizedbyhigheramplitudeandlongerdurationincomparisonwith
otherheartsounds
Ithastwomajorhighfrequencycomponentsthatcanbeeasilyheardatbedside
AlthoughcontroversyexistsregardingthemechanismofS1,themostcompelling
evidenceindicatesthatthecomponentsresultfromtheclosureofthemitraland
tricuspidvalvesandthevibrationssetupinthevalvecusps,chordate,papillary,
muscles,andventricularwallsbeforeaorticejection
S1lastsforanaverageperiodof100200ms
Itsfrequencycomponentslieintherangeof10200Hz
TheacousticpropertiesofS1areabletorevealthestrengthofthemyocardial
systoleandthestatusoftheatrioventricular valvesfunction
Asaresultoftheasynchronousclosureofthetricuspidandmitralvalves,the
twocomponentsofS1areoftenseparatedbyatimedelayof2030ms
Thisdelayisknownasthe(split)inthemedicalcommunityandisofsignificant
diagnosticimportance
Anabnormallylargesplittingisoftenasignofheartproblem

S2

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Thesecondheartsound(S2)occurswithinashortperiodoncetheventriculardiastole
starts.
ItcoincideswiththecompletionoftheTwaveoftheelectrocardiogram(ECG)
S2consistsoftwohighfrequencycomponents,onebecauseoftheclosureoftheaortic
valveandtheotherbecauseoftheclosureofthepulmonaryvalve
Attheonsetofventriculardiastole,thesystolicejectionintotheaortaandthe
pulmonaryarterydeclinesandtherisingpressureinthesevesselsexceedsthepressure
intherespectiveventricles,thusreversingtheflowandcausingtheclosureoftheir
valves.
Thesecondheartsoundusuallyhashigherfrequencycomponentsascomparedwiththe
firstheartsound
Asaresultofthehigherpressureintheaortacomparedwiththepulmonaryartery,the
aorticvalvetendstoclosebeforethepulmonaryvalve,sothesecondheartsoundmay
haveanaudiblesplit
Innormalindividuals,respiratoryvariationsexistinthesplittingofS2
Duringexpirationphase,theintervalbetweenthetwocomponentsissmall(lessthan30
ms)
However,duringinspiration,thesplittingofthetwocomponentsisevident
Clinicalevaluationofthesecondheartsoundisabedsidetechniquethatisconsideredto
beamostvaluablescreeningtestforheartdisease
Manyheartdiseasesareassociatedwiththecharacteristicchangesintheintensitiesof
orthetimerelationbetweenthetwocomponentsofS2
S1andS2werebasicallythemaintwoheartsoundsthatwereusedformostofthe
clinicalassessmentbasedonthephonocardiographyauscultationprocedure

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Thethirdandfourthheartsounds,alsocalledgallopsounds,arelow
frequencysoundsoccurringinearlyandlatediastole,respectively,under
highlyvariablephysiologicalandpathologicalconditions
Decelerationofmitralflowbyventricularwallsmayrepresentakey
mechanisminthegenesisofbothsounds
Thethirdheartsound(S3)occursintherapidfillingperiodofearly
diastole
Itisproducedbyvibrationsoftheventricularwallswhensuddenly
distendedbytherushofinflowresultingfromthepressuredifference
betweenventriclesandatria
TheaudibilityofS3maybephysiologicalinyoungpeopleorinsome
adults,butitispathologicalinpeoplewithcongestiveheartfailureor
ventriculardilatation
Thefourthheartsound(S4)occursinlatediastoleandjustbeforeS1
Itisproducedbyvibrationsinexpandingventricleswhenatriacontract.
Thus,S4israrelyheardinanormalheart
TheabnormallyaudibleS4resultsfromthereduceddistensibility(the
capabilityofbeingstretchedunderpressure)ofoneorbothventricles
Asaresultofthestiffventricles,theforceofatrialcontractionincreases,
causingsharpmovementoftheventricularwallandtheemissionofa
prominentS4

ng

S3&S4

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D

LUPP

DUBB

LUPP

MURMUR

DUBB

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Cardiaccycleeventsoccurringintheleftventricle

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Pressureprofileofthe
ventricleand
atrium

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Phonocardiographgy
signals

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Volumeprofileofthe
leftventricle

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TheECG,PCG(lowandhigh
filtered),carotidpulse,
apexcardiogram,andlogicstates
(high=open)ofleftheartvalves,
mitralandaorticvalve,andright
heartvalves,tricuspidand
pulmonaryvalve
Leftheartmechanicalintervals
areindicatedbyverticallines:
isovolumic contraction(1),
ejection(2),isovolumic relaxation
(3),andfilling(4)(rapidfilling,
slowfilling,atrialcontraction)
ThelowfrequencyPCGshowsthe
fournormalheartsounds(I,II,III,
andIV)
InthehighfrequencytraceIIIand
IVhavedisappearedandsplitting
isvisibleinI[Ia andIb (andevena
smallIc duetoejection)]andinII
[IIA(aorticvalve)andIIP
(pulmonaryvalve)]
SystolicintervalsLVEP(oncarotid
curve)andQIIA(onECGandPCG)
areindicated

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Phonocardiographytracewith8successive
S1S2waveform.

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PCGsignalrecordingwithdifferentfilteringcoefficientfordifferent
correspondingheartsoundclass

PCGSIGNALSPECTRALANALYSIS

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Heartsoundsarecomplexandhighlynonstationarysignals
intheirnatureandhavebeenknowntobequasistationary
signalsforalongtime
Theheartbeatsassociatedwiththesesoundsarereacted
inthesignalbyperiodsofrelativelyhighactivityand
rhythmicenergystyle,alternatingwithcomparatively
intervalsoflowactivity
Accordingly,PCGSpectrometricpropertiescanbeextracted
bydifferentmethodsusing(e.g.,ShortTimeFourier
Transformation(STFT)),asitestimatesthepowerspectral
density(PSD)ofsuccessivewaveformandcomputedthese
transformationwillleadtoperiodicestimationofenergy
spikeswithintheacousticalwaveform

Classesofspectralanalysisused
Twobroadclassesofspectralanalysisapproaches
nonparametricmethods
parametric(modelbased)methods.

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Thenonparametricmethodssuchasperiodogram,Blackman
Tukey,andminimumvariancespectralestimatorsdonotimpose
anymodelassumptiononthedata,otherthanwidesense
stationarity
Theparametricspectralestimationapproaches,ontheotherhand,
assumethatthemeasurementdatasatisfyageneratingmodelby
whichthespectralestimationproblemisusuallyconvertedtothat
ofdeterminingtheparametersoftheassumedsignalmodel
Twokindsofmodelsarewidelyassumedandusedwithinthe
parametricmethods,accordingtodifferentspectralcharacteristics
ofthesignals:therationaltransferfunction(RTF)modelandthe
sinusoidalsignalmodel
TheRTFmodels,includingautocorrelation(AR),movingaverage
(MA),andautocorrelationmovingaverage(ARMA)typesare
usuallyusedtoanalyzethesignalswithcontinuousspectra,while
thesinusoidalsignalmodelisagoodapproximationofsignalswith
discretespectralpatterns

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ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM(EEG)
The electroencephalogram (EEG) measures the activity of
large numbers (populations) of neurons.

First recorded by Hans Berger in 1929.

EEG recordings are noninvasive, painless, do not interfere


much with a human subjects ability to move or perceive
stimuli, are relatively low-cost.

Electrodes measure voltage-differences at the scalp in the


microvolt (V) range.

Voltage-traces are recorded with millisecond resolution

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EEG

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Spontaneousactivity ismeasuredonthescalporonthebrainandis
calledtheelectroencephalogram
TheamplitudeoftheEEGisabout100Vwhenmeasuredonthe
scalp,andabout12mVwhenmeasuredonthesurfaceofthebrain
Thebandwidthofthissignalisfromunder1Hztoabout50Hz
Asthephrase"spontaneousactivity"implies,thisactivitygoeson
continuouslyinthelivingindividual

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Evokedpotentials arethosecomponentsoftheEEGthatarisein
responsetoastimulus(whichmaybeelectric,auditory,visual,etc.)
Suchsignalsareusuallybelowthenoiselevelandthusnotreadily
distinguished,andonemustuseatrainofstimuliandsignal
averagingtoimprovethesignaltonoiseratio
Singleneuron behaviorcanbeexaminedthroughtheuseof
microelectrodeswhichimpalethecellsofinterest.Throughstudies
ofthesinglecell,onehopestobuildmodelsofcellnetworksthat
willreflectactualtissueproperties

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FrequencyspectrumofnormalEEG

EEGLEADSYSTEMS

Referencepointsare nasion,whichisthedelveatthetopofthenose,levelwiththeeyes;
inion,whichisthebonylumpatthebaseoftheskullonthemidlineatthebackofthehead

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Fromthesepoints,theskullperimetersaremeasuredinthetransverseandmedianplanes
Electrodelocationsaredeterminedbydividingtheseperimetersinto10%and20%intervals
Threeotherelectrodesareplacedoneachsideequidistantfromtheneighboringpoints

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Theinternationallystandardized 1020system isusuallyemployedtorecordthespontaneous


EEG
Inthissystem21electrodesarelocatedonthesurfaceofthescalp
Thepositionsaredeterminedasfollows

Inadditiontothe21electrodesoftheinternational1020system,
intermediate10%electrodepositionsarealsoused
Thelocationsandnomenclatureoftheseelectrodesarestandardizedby
theAmericanElectroencephalographicSociety
Inthisrecommendation,fourelectrodeshavedifferentnamescompared
tothe1020system;theseareT7,T8,P7,andP8.Theseelectrodesare
drawnblackwithwhitetextinthefigure

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EEG

Standard placements of electrodes on the human scalp: A, auricle; C, central;


F, frontal; Fp, frontal pole; O, occipital; P, parietal; T, temporal.

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EEG

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EEG

ManyneuronsneedtosumtheiractivityinordertobedetectedbyEEGelectrodes.
Thetimingoftheiractivityiscrucial.Synchronizedneuralactivityproduceslarger
signals.

THEBEHAVIOROFTHEEEGSIGNAL

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Itispossibletodifferentiatealpha(),beta( ),delta(
),andtheta()wavesaswellasspikesassociatedwith
epilepsy
Thealphawaveshavethefrequencyspectrumof813
Hzandcanbemeasuredfromtheoccipitalregioninan
awakepersonwhentheeyesareclosed
Thefrequencybandofthebetawavesis1330Hz;
thesearedetectableovertheparietalandfrontallobes
Thedeltawaveshavethefrequencyrangeof0.54Hz
andaredetectableininfantsandsleepingadults
Thethetawaveshavethefrequencyrangeof48Hz
andareobtainedfromchildrenandsleepingadults

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EEG and the Brain State

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EEG potentials are good indicators of global brain state. They


often display rhythmic patterns at characteristic frequencies

EEG

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EEG suffers from poor current source localization and the inverse
problem

EEG

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Power spectrum:

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SchematicofamplifierinputsforanalogEEGforalongitudinalbipolarmontage
Oneadditionalelectrodeinputthegroundisomittedforsimplicity

SinceanEEGvoltagesignalrepresentsadifferencebetweenthevoltagesattwo
electrodes,thedisplayoftheEEGforthereadingencephalographer maybesetupin
oneofseveralways
TherepresentationoftheEEGchannelsisreferredtoasamontage
AtypicaladulthumanEEGsignalisabout10Vto100Vinamplitudewhenmeasured
fromthescalp

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EEGOFA
NORMAL
HUMAN
ADULT

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EEGOFA
HUMAN
ADULT
SUFFERING
FROM
EPILEPSY

Lecture5

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I.XRayImaging
II.ComputedTomography
III.DiagnosticUltrasoundImaging

Dr.R.B.Ghongade
DepartmentofE&TC,
V.I.I.T.,Pune411048

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I.XRayImaging

INTRODUCTIONTOXRAYIMAGING

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Xrayimagingisawellknownimagingmodalitythathas
beenusedforover100yearssinceRoentgendiscoveredX
raysbasedonhisobservationsoffluorescence
Xraysarehighenergyphotons
Theirgenerationcreatesincoherentbeamsthatexperience
insignificantscatterwhenpassingthroughvariousmedia
Asaresult,Xrayimagingisbasedonthroughtransmission
andanalysisoftheresultingXrayabsorptiondata
Xraysaredetectedthroughacombinationofaphosphor
screenandalightsensitivefilm

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TypicalImagingChainfor
MedicalXraySystems

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processing

Collimator

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X-ray source

Object

Film

Image

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ElectromagneticRadiation

EMradiationcanbethoughtofasoscillatingelectricfield
whichgeneratesoscillatingmagneticfieldwhichgenerates
oscillatingelectricfieldandsoon.
Canalsobethoughtofasphotons(particles),asinCCD
detectionofvisiblelight.
ThisiscalledthewaveparticledualityofEMR.

Wavelength

= , wherev iscalledthephase

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(lambda)iscalledwavelength,the
distancebetweentwoidenticalpoints
onawave

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speed(magnitudeofthephase
velocity)ofthewaveandf isthe
wave'sfrequency
InthecaseofEMradiation,the
equationbecomes= ,where c is

the speed of light: 3 x 108m/s
(nu)iscalledfrequency,thenumberofcyclesperunitoftime.
Itisinverselyproportionaltothewavelength.

Photons:review

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Photonsarelittlepacketsofenergy.
Eachphotonsenergyisproportionaltoits
frequency.
Aphotonsenergyisrepresentedbyh

E = h

Energy = (Plancks constant) x (frequency of photon)

10-11 m (0.01 nm)


hard

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XRays

10-9 m (1 nm)
soft

Usually detected as particles of energy (photons).


Discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen.

XRayProduction
e-

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Anode (+)

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Cathode(-)

h
h

Electronsareacceleratedfromcathodetoanode.
Whenhighenergyelectronshitatomsofheavy
metals,theatomsproduceXrayphotons.

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XRayTube

GenerationofXrays

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Bremsstrahlung
characteristicradiation

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Dependsonthermionicemissionandaccelerationofelectronsfrom
aheaterfilament
Duringthatprocess,electronsemittedfromcathodeare
acceleratedbyanodevoltage
KineticenergylossatananodeisconvertedtoXrays
Therelativepositionofanelectronwithrespecttothenucleus
determinesthefrequencyandenergyoftheemittedXray
XraysproducedinanXraytubecontaintwotypesofradiation

ThewordBremsstrahlungisretainedfromtheGermanlanguageto
describetheradiationthatisemittedwhenelectronsare
decelerated
ItischaracterizedbyacontinuousdistributionofXrayintensityand
shiftstowardhigherfrequencieswhentheenergyofthe
bombardingelectronsisincreased
CharacteristicXrays,ontheotherhand,producepeaksofintensity
atparticularphotonenergies

GeneratedXRayspectrum

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Inpractice,emittedradiationisfiltered,intentionallyor
not,producinghighpassfilterresponseaslowenergy
radiationis completelyattenuated
Asaresult,thefinalXrayspectrumhasbandpass
typecharacteristicswithseverallocalpeaks
superimposedonit

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Schematicrepresentationofa
standardXraysystem

Object

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Passes right through the object.


Absorbed completely by the object.
Scattered by the object

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What can happen to an X-ray when it


encounters the object to be imaged?

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AttenuationCoefficient

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Attenuation
Coefficient

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Bone
Muscle
Fat

0.1

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10

50

100

150

500

Photon Energy (keV)

Attenuation coefficients tell you the x-ray blocking power of a material.

AttenuationCoefficient

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Coefficientdependsonthepropertyofthe
material.

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Density (Bonehasahighdensitycomparedtosoft
tissues)
ChemicalMakeup (Leadblocksxrays;lead
screeningusedtoprotectpatient&technicians)

Exposure
(Capture)

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Processing

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Detector

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Aspecialphotographicfilmisusedto
capturethexrayphotonswhichpassed
throughtheobject.
Thefilmisthenprocessed.
Filmturnsdarkwhereitwasexposedtox
rayphotons.

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TypicalXRayImages

X-ray image of hand

Mammogram

Dental X-ray

ImageQualityFactors

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Energyofthephotons
Collimation

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Source

Detector

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Attenuationcoefficient
Sourceobjectgeometry

Objectdetectorgeometry
Efficiency

AdvantagesofStandardDiagnostic
MedicalXrayImagingSystems

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Readilyavailable
Reasonablycheap
Simplesystemstomaintain
Manyexperiencedandtrainedpersonneldue
tothefactthattechnologyhasexistedfora
while

DisadvantagesofDiagnostic
MedicalXrayImagingSystems

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Exposuretoharmfulradiation.
Notmuchcontrastbetweendifferentsoft
tissues.
Imageisashadowgram(projectionimage)
withnodepthinformation.

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II.ComputedTomography

BasicConcepts

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highresolution
highcontrastimages
relativelysmallpatientexposure
permanentrecordoftheimage

Disadvantages

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Allxrayimagingsystemsconsistofanxraysource,acollimator,andanxray
detector
Diagnosticmedicalxraysystemsutilizeexternallygeneratedxrayswithenergies
of20150keV
Theshadowgraphimagesobtained aretheresultsofthevariationsinthe
intensityofthetransmittedxraybeamafterithaspassedthroughtissuesand
bodyfluidsofdifferentdensities
Advantages

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significantgeometricdistortion
inabilitytodiscerndepthinformation
incapabilityofprovidingrealtimeimagery

Conventionalradiography(XRayimaging)istheimagingmethodofchoicefor
suchtasksasdental,chest,andboneimagery
Whenthisprocedureisusedtoprojectthreedimensionalobjectsintoatwo
dimensionalplane,however,difficultiesareencountered
Structuresrepresentedonthefilmoverlap,anditbecomesdifficulttodistinguish
betweentissuesthataresimilarindensity.
Conventionalxraytechniquesareunabletoobtaindistinguishable/interpretable
imagesofthebrain,whichconsistsprimarilyofsofttissue

Xraytechniqueforvisualizingthreedimensional
structures

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Knownasplanetomography
Theimagingofspecificplanesorcrosssectionswithinthebodybecame
possible
Thexraysourceismovedinonedirection,whilethephotographicfilm
(whichisplacedontheothersideofthebodyandpicksupthexrays)is
simultaneouslymovedintheotherdirection
Xraystravelcontinuously,changingpathsthroughthebody,eachray
passesthroughthesamepointontheplaneorcrosssectionofinterest
throughouttheexposure
Structuresinthedesiredplanearebroughtsharplyintofocusandare
displayedonfilm,whereasstructuresinalltheotherplanesareobscured
andshowuponlyasablur
Betterthanconventionalmethodsinrevealingthepositionanddetailsof
variousstructuresandinprovidingthreedimensionalinformationbysuch
atwodimensionalpresentation

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Tomography

Limitations

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doesnotreallylocalizea
singleplane,sincethereis
someerrorin
thedepthperception
obtained
largecontrastsinradio
densityareusually
requiredinordertoobtain
highqualityimagesthat
areeasytointerpret
Atomogramismadebyhavingthexray
xraydosesfor
tomographyarehigher
sourcemoveinonedirectionduringthe
thanroutineradiographs,
exposureandthefilmintheotherdirection
andbecausethe
Intheprojectedimage,onlyoneplanein
exposuresarelonger,
thebodyremainsstationarywithrespectto
patientmotionmay
themovingfilm
degradetheimage
Inthepicture,allotherplanesinthebody
content
areblurred

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Consistsofascanninganddetection
system,acomputer,andadisplay
medium
Combinesimagereconstruction
techniqueswithxrayabsorption
measurementsinsuchawayasto
facilitatethedisplayofanyinternal
organintwodimensionalaxialslices
orbyreconstructionintheZaxisin
threedimensions
Acollimatedbeamofxraysis
directedthroughthesectionofbody
beingscannedtoadetectorthatis
locatedontheothersideofthe
patient

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ComputerizedTomography

Withanarrowlycollimatedsourceanddetectorsystem,itispossibletosenda
narrowbeamofxraystoaspecificdetectionsite
Someoftheenergyofthexraysisabsorbed,whiletheremaindercontinuesto
thedetectorandismeasured
Incomputerizedtomography,thedetectorsystemusuallyconsistsofacrystal
(suchascesiumiodideorcadmiumtungstate)thathastheabilitytoscintillate
oremitlightphotonswhenbombardedwithxrays

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Theintensityoftheselightphotonsorbundlesofenergyisinturn
measuredbyphotodetectorsandprovidesameasureoftheenergy
absorbed(ortransmitted)bythemediumthatispenetratedbythex
raybeam
Sincethexraysourceanddetectorsystemareusuallymountedona
frameorscanninggantry,theycanbemovedtogetheracrossand
aroundtheobjectbeingvisualized
Inearlydesigns,forexample,xrayabsorptionmeasurementswere
madeandrecordedateachrotationalpositiontraversedbythe
sourceanddetectorsystemcreatinganabsorptionprofileforthat
angularposition
Toobtainanotherabsorptionprofile,thescanninggantryholdingthe
xraysourceanddetectorwasthenrotatedthroughasmallangleand
anadditionalsetofabsorptionortransmissionmeasurementswas
recorded
Eachxrayprofileorprojectionobtainedinthisfashionisbasically
onedimensional
Itisaswideasthebodybutonlyasthickasthecrosssection

Example160x160picturematrix

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Exactnumberoftheseequallyspaced
positionsdeterminesthedimensionsto
berepresentedbythepictureelements
thatconstitutethedisplay
Absorptionmeasurementsfrom160
equallyspacedpositionsineach
translationarerequired
Eachonedimensionalarrayconstitutes
onexrayprofileorprojection
Toobtainthenextprofile,thescanning
unitisrotatedacertainnumberof
degreesaroundthepatient,and160
morelinearreadingsaretakenatthis
newposition
Eachofthemeasurementsobtainedbythe
Processisrepeatedagainandagain
precedingprocedureenterstheresident
untiltheunithasbeenrotatedafull
computerandisstoredinmemory
180
Oncealltheabsorptiondatahavebeen
Whenalltheprojectionshavebeen
obtainedandlocatedinthecomputers
collected,160x180,or28,800,
memory,thesoftwarepackagesdevelopedto
individualxrayintensitymeasurements
areavailabletoformareconstruction
analyzethedatabymeansofimage
ofacrosssectionofthepatientshead
reconstructionalgorithmsarecalledinto
orbody
action

Imagereconstruction

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Computerinitiallyestablishesagridconsistingofanumberofsmall
squaresforthecrosssectionofinterest,dependingonthesizeofthe
desireddisplay
Sincethecrosssectionofthebodyhasthickness,eachofthesesquares
representsavolumeoftissue,arectangularsolidwhoselengthis
determinedbytheslicethicknessandwhosewidthisdeterminedbythe
sizeofthematrix
Suchathreedimensionalblockoftissueisreferredtoasavoxel(or
volumeelement)andisonthedisplayintwodimensionsasapixel
(orpictureelement)
Duringthescanningprocess,eachvoxelisirradiatedbyanarrowbeam
ofxraysupto180times
Theabsorptioncausedbythatvoxelcontributestoupto180absorption
measurements,eachmeasurementpartofadifferentprojection
Eachvoxelaffectsauniquesetofabsorptionmeasurementstowhichit
hascontributed,thecomputercalculatesthetotalabsorptiondueto
thatvoxel
Usingthetotalabsorptionandthedimensionofthevoxel,theaverage
absorptioncoefficientofthetissuesinthatvoxelisdeterminedprecisely
anddisplayedinacorrespondingpixelasashadeofgrey

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Thecrosssectionofinterestcanbeconsideredtobe
madeupofasetofblocksofmaterial
Eachblockhasanattenuatingeffectuponthe
passageofthexrayenergyorphotons,absorbing
someoftheincidentenergypassingthroughit
ThefirstblockabsorbsafractionA1 oftheincident
photons,thesecondafractionA2,andsoon,sothat
thenth blockabsorbsafractionAn
ThetotalfractionAabsorbedthroughalltheblocks
istheproductofallthefractions,whilethe
logarithmofthistotalabsorptionfractionisdefined
asthemeasuredabsorption

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OnlythemeasuredabsorptionfactorsA(1),A(2),A(3),
andA(4)wouldbeknown,butthiscanbesolvedsince
4simultaneousequationsand4unknowns
Toreconstructacrosssectioncontainingnrowsof
blocksandncolumns,itisnecessarytomakeat leastn
individualabsorptionmeasurementsfromatleastn
directions

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Aparallelbeamofxraysisdirectedpastand
throughacylinderabsorbingsubstance
ashadowofthecylinderiscastonthexrayfilm
densityoftheexposedanddevelopedfilmalongthe
lineAAcanberegardedasaprojectionoftheobject
Ifaseriesofsuchradiographsaretakenatequally
spacedanglesaroundthecylinder,these
radiographsthenconstitutethesetofprojections
fromwhichthecrosssectionhastobe
reconstructed
Anapproximatereconstructioncanbereproduced
bydirectingparallelbeamsoflightthroughallthe
radiographsinturnfromthepositioninwhichthey
weretaken
Thecorrectcrosssectioncanbereconstructedby
backprojectingtheoriginalshadowandsubtracting
theresultofbackprojectingtwobeamsplacedon
eithersideoftheoriginalshadow
Mathematically,thisistheequivalentoftakingeach
transmissionvalueintheprojectionandsubtracting
fromitaquantityproportionaltoadjacentvalues
Thisprocessiscalledconvolution andisactuallyused
tomodifyprojections

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Backprojection

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Afile,usuallyknownasthepicturefile,
iscreatedinthecomputermemory
Containsanabsorptioncoefficientor
densityreadingforeachelementofthe
finalpicture
Resultantabsorptioncoefficientsfor
eachelementoftheimagecalculatedin
thismannercanthenbedisplayedas
graytonesorcolorscalesonavisual
display
Eachelementorpixelofthepicture
filehasavaluethatrepresentsthe
density(ormorepreciselytherelative
absorptioncoefficient)ofavolumein
thecrosssectionofthebodybeing
examined
ThescaledevelopedbyHounsfield
demonstratesthevaluesofabsorption
coefficientsthatrangefromair(1,000)
atthebottomofthescaletoboneat
thetop

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CTTechnology

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CTscannersareusuallyintegratedunitsconsistingof
threemajorelements:

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1. Thescanninggantry,whichtakesthereadingsina
suitableformandquantityforapicturetobe
reconstructed
2. Thedatahandlingunit,whichconvertsthesereadings
intointelligiblepictureinformation,displaysthispicture
informationinavisualformat,andprovidesvarious
manipulativeaidstoenhancetheimageandthereby
assistthephysicianinformingadiagnosis
3. Astoragefacility,whichenablestheinformationtobe
examinedorreexaminedatanytimeaftertheactual
scan

TheScanningGantry

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Fourgenerationsof
scanninggantrydesigns.
Withmodernslipring
technology,third or
fourthgeneration
geometryallowsspiral
volumetricscanningusing
slicewidthsfrom1to10
mmandpixelmatrixesto
10,242
Typically,a50cmvolume
canbeimagedwitha
singlebreathhold

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Theobjectiveofthescanningsystemistoobtainenoughinformationto
reconstructanimageofthecrosssectionofinterest
CTscannershaveundergoneseveralmajorgantrydesignchanges

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CTscanner

Mathematicalalgorithmsfortakingthe
attenuationprojectiondata

Canbeclassifiedintotwocategories:
Theiterativetechniques(alsoknownasthealgebraicreconstruction
technique[ART]),suchastheoneusedbyHounsfieldinthefirst
generationscanner,requireaninitialguessofthetwodimensional
patternofxrayabsorption
Theattenuationprojectiondatapredictedbythisguessarethen
calculatedandtheresultscomparedwiththemeasureddata
Thedifferencebetweenthemeasureddataandpredictedvaluesisusedin
aniterativemannersotheinitialguessismodifiedandthatdifference
goestozero
Ingeneral,alargenumberofiterationsarerequiredforconvergence,with
theprocessusuallyhaltedwhenthedifferencebetweenthecalculated
andthemeasureddataisbelowaspecifiederrorlimit
AnumberofdifferentversionsoftheARTweredevelopedandusedwith
first andsecondgenerationCATscanners
Latergenerationscannersusedanalyticreconstructiontechniques,since
theiterativemethodswerecomputationallyslowandhadconvergence
problemsinthepresenceofnoise

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iterative
Analytic

AnalyticAlgorithm

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AnalytictechniquesincludetheFouriertransform,backprojection,filteredback
projection,andconvolutionbackprojectionapproaches
Alloftheanalyticmethodsdifferfromtheiterativemethodsinthattheimageis
reconstructeddirectlyfromtheattenuationprojectiondata
Analytictechniquesusethecentralsectiontheoremandthetwodimensional
Fouriertransform

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Givenanimage
, , asingleprojectionistakenalongthe direction,forminga
projection
describedby

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Thisprojectionrepresentsanarrayoflineintegrals
ThetwodimensionalFouriertransformof
, is
givenby

IntheFourierdomain,alongtheline
transformbecomes

0,this

whichcanberewrittenas

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where 1 representsaonedimensionalFouriertransform
Itcanbeshownthatthetransformofeachprojectionformsaradiallinein
, , andtherefore
, canbedeterminedbytakingprojectionsatmany
anglesandtakingthesetransforms
When
, iscompletelydescribed,thereconstructedimagecanbefound
bytakingtheinverseFouriertransformtoobtain
,

CTscannersmaybecomparedwithoneanotherbyconsidering
thefollowingtenfactors:

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1. Gantrydesign,whichaffectsscanspeed,patientprocessingtime,andcosteffectiveness
2. Aperturesize,whichdeterminesthemaximumsizeofthepatientalongwiththeweight
carryingcapacityofthecouch
3. Thetypeofxraysource,whichaffectsthepatientradiationdoseandtheoveralllifeof
thescanningdevice
4. Xrayfanbeamangleandscanfield,whichaffectsresolution
5. Theslicethickness,aswellasthenumberofpulsesandtheangularrotationofthe
source,whichareimportantindeterminingresolution
6. Thenumberandtypesofdetectors,whicharecriticalparametersinimagequality
7. Thetypeofminicomputeremployed,whichisimportantinassessingsystemcapability
andflexibility
8. Thetypeofdatahandlingroutinesavailablewiththesystem,whichareimportantuser
andreliabilityconsiderations
9. Thestoragecapacityofthesystem,whichisimportantinascertainingtheaccessibilityof
thestoreddata
10. Upgradeabilityandconnectivitythatis,theyshouldbecapableofmodular
upgradeabilityandshouldcommunicatetoanyavailablenetwork

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III.DiagnosticUltrasoundImaging

Introduction

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Ultrasound is a non-ionizing method which uses sound waves of


frequencies (2 to 10 MHz) exceeding the range of human hearing for
imaging
Medical diagnostic ultrasound uses ultrasound energy and the
acoustic properties of the body to produce an image from stationary
and moving tissues
Ultrasound is used in pulse-echo format, whereby pulses of
ultrasound produced over a very brief duration travel through various
tissues and are reflected at tissue boundaries back to the source
Returning echoes carry the ultrasound information that is used to
create the sonogram or measure blood velocities with Doppler
frequency techniques
Along a given beam path, the depth of an echo-producing structure
is determined from the time between the pulse-emission and the
echo return, and the amplitude of the echo is encoded as a grayscale value
In addition to 2D imaging, ultrasound provides anatomic distance
and volume measurements, motion studies, blood velocity
measurements, and 3D imaging

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Returning echoes carry the ultrasound information that is used to


create the sonogram or measure blood velocities with Doppler
frequency techniques
Along a given beam path, the depth of an echo-producing structure
is determined from the time between the pulse-emission and the
echo return, and the amplitude of the echo is encoded as a grayscale value

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In addition to 2D imaging, ultrasound provides anatomic distance


and volume measurements, motion studies, blood velocity
measurements, and 3D imaging

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Characteristics of Sound
Frequency

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Frequency (f) is the number of times the wave oscillates


through a cycle each second (sec) (Hertz: Hz or cycles/sec)
Infra sound < 15 Hz
Audible sound ~ 15 Hz - 20 kHz
Ultrasound > 20 kHz; for medical usage typically 2-10 MHz with
specialized ultrasound applications up to 50 MHz

period () - the time duration of one wave cycle: = 1/f

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Characteristics of Sound Speed

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The speed or velocity of sound is the distance traveled by the wave


per unit time and is equal to the wavelength divided by the period
(1/f)
speed = wavelength / period
speed = wavelength x frequency
c = f
c [m/sec] = [m] * f [1/sec]
Speed of sound is dependent on the propagation medium and varies
widely in different materials

A highly compressible medium such as air, has a low speed of


sound, while a less compressible medium such as bone has a
higher speed of sound
The difference in the speed of sound at tissue boundaries is a
fundamental cause of contrast in an ultrasound image

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Characteristics of Sound
Speed

Characteristics of Sound Wavelength, Frequency


and Speed

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The ultrasound frequency is unaffected by


changes in sound speed as the acoustic
beam propagates through various media
Thus, the ultrasound wavelength is
dependent on the medium (c = f )
A change in speed at an interface between
two media causes a change in wavelength
Higher frequency sound has shorter
wavelength
Ultrasound wavelength determines the
spatial resolution achievable along the
direction of the beam
A high-frequency ultrasound beam (small
wavelength) provides superior resolution
and image detail than a low-frequency beam
However, the depth of beam penetration is
reduced at high frequency and increased at
low frequencies

For thick body parts (abdomen), a lower


frequency ultrasound wave is used (3.5 to 5 MHz)
to image structures at significant depth
For small body parts or organs (thyroid, breast), a
higher frequency is employed (7.5 to 10 MHz)

Characteristics of Sound
Pressure, Intensity and the dB scale

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The amplitude of a wave is the size of the wave displacement


Larger amplitudes of vibration produce denser compression bands and,
hence, higher intensities of sound
Intensity of ultrasound is the amount of power (energy per unit time)
per unit area proportional to the square of the pressure amplitude, I
P2 units of milliwatts/cm2 or mW/cm2
Measured in decibels (dB) as a relative intensity
dB = 10 log10 (I2/I1) or dB = 20 log10 (P2/P1) since I P2
I1 and I2 are intensity values
P1 and P2 are pressure or amplitude variations
(1 B = 10 dB where B is bels)

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Interactions of Ultrasound with Matter

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Ultrasound interactions are determined by the acoustic properties of


matter
As ultrasound energy propagates through a medium, interactions
that occur include

reflection

refraction

scattering

Absorption (attenuation)
Acoustic Impedance, Z
is equal to density of the material times speed of sound in the
material in which ultrasound travels, Z = c
= density (kg/m3) and c = speed of sound (m/sec)
measured in rayl (kg/m2sec)
Air and lung media have low values of Z, whereas bone and metal
have high values
Large differences in Z (air-filled lung and soft tissue) cause
reflection, small differences allow transmission of sound energy
The differences between acoustic impedance values at an interface
determines the amount of energy reflected at the interface

A portion of the ultrasound beam is reflected at tissue interface


The sound reflected back toward the source is called an echo and
is used to generate the ultrasound image
The percentage of ultrasound intensity reflected depends in part on
the angle of incidence of the beam
As the angle of incidence increases, reflected sound is less likely to
reach the transducer

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Reflection

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Sound reflection occurs at tissue boundaries with differences in


acoustic impedance
The intensity reflection coefficient, R = Ir/Ii = ((Z2 Z1)/(Z2 + Z1))2
The subscripts 1 and 2 represent tissues proximal and distal to the
boundary.
Equation only applies to normal incidence
The transmission coefficient = T = 1 R
T = (4Z1Z2)/(Z1+Z2)2

Tissue reflections

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Air/tissue interfaces reflect virtually all of the incident ultrasound beam


Gel is applied to displace the air and minimize large reflections
Bone/tissue interfaces also reflect substantial fractions of the incident
intensity
Imaging through air or bone is generally not possible

The lack of transmissions beyond these interfaces results in an


area void of echoes called shadowing
In imaging the abdomen, the strongest echoes are likely to arise from
gas bubbles
Organs such as kidney, pancreas, spleen and liver are comprised of
sub-regions that contain many scattering sites, which results in a
speckled texture on images
Organs with fluids such as bladder, cysts, and blood vessels have
almost no echoes (appear black)

Refraction

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Refraction is the change in direction of an ultrasound


beam when passing from one medium to another
with a different acoustic velocity
Wavelength changes causing a change in
propagation direction (c = f)
sin(t) = sin(i) * (c2/c1), Snells law;
for small 15o: t = i * (c2/c1)
When c2 > c1, t > i , When c1 > c2, t < i
Ultrasound machines assume straight line
propagation, and refraction effects give rise to
artifacts

Scatter

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Acoustic scattering arises from objects within a tissue that are about
the size of the wavelength of the incident beam or smaller, and
represent a rough or nonspecular reflector surface
As frequency increases, the non-specular (diffuse scatter)
interactions increase, resulting in an increased attenuation and loss
of echo intensity
Scatter gives rise to the characteristic speckle patterns of various
organs, and is important in contributing to the gray-scale range in the
image

Attenuation
Ultrasound attenuation, the loss of energy with distance
travelled, is caused chiefly by scattering and tissue
absorption of the incident beam (dB)
The intensity loss per unit distance (dB/cm) is the
attenuation coefficient
Rule of thumb: attenuation in soft tissue is approx. 1
dB/cm/MHz
The attenuation coefficient is directly proportional to
and increases with frequency
Attenuation is medium dependent

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A transducer is a device that can


convert one form of energy into
another
Piezoelectric transducers convert
electrical energy into ultrasonic
energy and vice versa
(Piezoelectric means pressure
electricity )
High-frequency voltage
oscillations are produced by a
pulse generator and are sent to
the ultrasound transducer by a
transmitter
The electrical energy causes the
piezoelectric crystal to
momentarily change shape
(expand and contract depending
on current direction)

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Transducers

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This change in shape of the crystal increases and decreases


the pressure in front of the transducer, thus producing
ultrasound waves
When the crystal is subjected to pressure changes by the
returning ultrasound echoes, the pressure changes are
converted back into electrical energy signals
Return voltage signals are transferred from the receiver to a
computer to create an ultrasound image
Transducer crystals do not conduct electricity but are coated
with a thin layer of silver which acts as an electrode
The piezoelectric effect of a transducer is destroyed if
heated above its curie temperature limit
Transducers are made of a synthetic ceramic
(peizoceramic) such as lead-zirconate-titanate (PZT) or
plastic polyvinylidence difluoride (PVDF) or a composite
A transducer may be used in either pulsed or continuouswave mode
A transducer can be used both as a transmitter and receiver
of ultrasonic waves

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The thickness of a
piezoelectric crystal
determines the resonant
frequency of the
transducer
The operating resonant
frequency is determined
by the thickness of the
crystal equal to
wavelength (t=/2) of
emitted sound in the
crystal compound
Resonance transducers
transmit and receive
preferentially at a single
centre frequency

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Damping Block

The damping block absorbs the backward directed ultrasound


energy and attenuates stray ultrasound signals from the housing

It also dampens (ring-down) the transducer vibration to create an


ultrasound pulse with a short spatial pulse length, which is
necessary to preserve detail along the beam axis (axial resolution)

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The Q factor is related to the


frequency response of the crystal
The Q factor determines the
purity of the sound and length of
time the sound persists, or ring
down time
Q = operating frequency (MHz) /
bandwidth (width of the
frequency distribution)
Q = f0/BW
High-Q transducers produce a
relatively pure frequency
spectrum
Low-Q transducers produce a
wider range of frequencies

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Q factor

Matching Layer

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A matching layer of material is placed on the front surface of the


transducer to improve the efficiency of energy transmission into the
patient
The material has acoustic properties intermediate to those of soft
tissue and the transducer material
The matching layer thickness is equal to the wavelength of sound
in that material (quarter-wave matching)
Acoustic coupling gel is used to eliminate air pockets that could
attenuate and reflect the ultrasound beam

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Non-resonance (Broad-Bandwidth) Multifrequency Transducers

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Phased array transducers

64 to 128 elements

All are activated simultaneously

Using time delays can steer and focus beam electronically

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Linear or curvilinear array


transducers

256 to 512 elements

Simultaneous firing of
a small group of
approx. 20 elements
produces the
ultrasound beam

Rectangular field of
view produced for
linear and trapezoidal
for curvilinear array
transducers

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Transducer Arrays

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Near (parallel) Field Fresnel


zone

Is adjacent to the
transducer face and has a
converging beam profile

Convergence occurs
because of multiple
constructive and
destructive interference
patterns of the ultrasound
waves (pebble dropped in
a quiet pond)

Near Zone length = d2/4 =


r2/
(d=transducer diameter,
r=transducer radius )

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Ultrasound Beam Properties: Near Field and Far


Field

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Unfocused transducer, Near Zone


length = d2/4 = r2/
A focused single element
transducer uses either a curved
element or an acoustic lens:

Reduce beam diameter

All diagnostic transducers are


focused

Focal zone is the region over


which the beam is focused

A focal zone describes the


region of best lateral resolution

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The far field or Fraunhofer


zone is where the beam
diverges

Angle of divergence
for non-focused
transducer is given by

sin() = 1.22/d

Less beam divergence


occurs with highfrequency, largediameter transducers

Side lobes are unwanted emissions of ultrasound energy directed


away from the main pulse
Caused by the radial expansion and contraction of the transducer
element during thickness contraction and expansion
Lobes get larger with transducer size
Echoes received from side lobes are mapped into the main beam,
causing artifacts

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Ultrasound Beam Properties - Side Lobes

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For multielement arrays, side lobe emission occurs in a forward


direction along main beam
Grating lobes result when ultrasound energy is emitted far off-axis
by multielement arrays, and are a consequence of the
noncontinuous transducer surface of the discrete elements

results in appearance of highly reflective, off-axis objects in


the main beam

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Image Data Acquisition

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Pulse Echo Operation


Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)

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Diagnostic ultrasound utilizes a pulse-echo format using a single


transducer to generate images
Most ultrasound beams are emitted in brief pulses (1-2 s duration)

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For soft tissue (c = 1540 m/s or 0.154 cm/sec), the time delay
between the transmission pulse and the detection of the echo is
directly related to the depth of the interface as
c = 2D / time

Time (sec) = 2D (cm) / c (cm/ sec) = 2D/0.154

Time (sec) = 13 sec x D (cm)

Distance (cm) = [c (cm/ sec) x Time (sec)] / 2

Distance (cm) = 0.077 x Time (sec)

Spatial Resolution

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Spatial resolution has 3 distinct measures: axial, lateral and slice


thickness (elevational)

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Axial resolution (linear, range,


longitudinal or depth resolution) is
the ability to separate two objects
lying along the axis of the beam
Achieving good axial resolution
requires that the returning echoes
be distinct without overlap
The minimal required separation
distance between two boundaries
is SPL (about ) to avoid
overlap of returning echoes

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Spatial Resolution - Axial

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Lateral resolution - the ability


to resolve adjacent objects
perpendicular to the beam
direction and is determined by
the beam width and line
density
Typical lateral resolution
(unfocused) is 2 - 5 mm, and is
depth dependent
Single focused transducers
restrain the beam to within
narrow lateral dimensions at a
specified depth using lenses at
the transducer face

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Spatial Resolution - Lateral

Spatial Resolution - Slice thickness (Elevational)

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Elevational resolution is dependent on the transducer element


height
Perpendicular to the image plane
Use of a fixed focal length lens across the entire surface of the array
provides improved elevational resolution at the focal distance,
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Ultrasound scanners use time


gain compensation (TGC) to
compensate for increased
attenuation with depth

TGC is also known as depth


gain compensation, time
varied gain, and swept gain
Images are normally displayed
on a video monitor or stored in a
computer
Generally 512 x 512 matrix size
images, 8 bits deep allowing 256
gray levels to be displayed, 0.25
MB data

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Display

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A-mode amplitude mode:


displays echo amplitude vs. time
(depth)
One A-line of data per pulse
repetition
A-mode used in ophthalmology
or when accurate distance
measurements are required

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Display Modes: A-mode

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B-mode (B for brightness) is


the electronic conversion of the
A-mode and A-line information
into brightness-modulated dots
on a display screen
In general, the brightness of
the dot is proportional to the
echo signal amplitude
Used for M-mode ad 2D grayscale imaging

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Display Modes: B-mode

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M-mode (motion mode) or TM mode (time-motion mode):


displays time evolution vs.
depth
Sequential US pulse lines are
displayed adjacent to each
other, allowing visualization of
interface motion
M-mode is valuable for
studying rapid movement, such
as mitral valve leaflets

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Display Modes: M-mode

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The function of the scan converter is to create 2D images from echo


formation received and to perform scan conversion to enable image
data to be viewed on video display monitors
Scan conversion is necessary because the image acquisition and
display occur in different formats
Modern scan converters use digital methods for processing and
storing data
For color display, the bit depth is often as much as 24 bits or 3 bytes
of primary color

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Scan Converter

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Lecture7

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DigitalsignalprocessingofBiosignals

Dr.R.B.Ghongade
DepartmentofE&TC,
V.I.I.T.,Pune411048

Objectives

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Noiseremoval
Clearlyunderstandthenature(analysis)
Diagnosisoftheunderlyingpathology
Aidintreatment(specificinstances)

SOURCESOFVARIABILITY:NOISE

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Noiseisaverygeneralandsomewhatrelative
term:noiseiswhatyoudonotwantand
signaliswhatyoudowant
Noiseisinherentinmostmeasurement
systemsandoftenthelimitingfactorinthe
performanceofamedicalinstrument
Manysignalprocessingtechniquesare
motivatedbythedesiretominimizethe
variability inthemeasurement

VARIABILITY

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(1)physiologicalvariability
(2)environmentalnoiseorinterference
(3)transducerartifact
(4)electronicnoise

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Inbiomedicalmeasurements,variabilityhasfourdifferent
origins

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Physiologicalvariabilityisduetothefactthattheinformation
youdesireisbasedonameasurementsubjecttobiological
influencesotherthanthoseofinterest
Forexample,assessmentofrespiratoryfunctionbasedon
themeasurementofbloodpO2couldbeconfoundedby
otherphysiologicalmechanismsthatalterbloodpO2
canbeaverydifficultproblemtosolve,sometimes
requiringatotallydifferentapproach

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Environmentalnoisecancomefromsources
externalorinternaltothebody

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exampleisthemeasurementoffetalECGwherethe
desiredsignaliscorruptedbythemothersECG
notpossibletodescribethespecificcharacteristicsof
environmentalnoise,typicalnoisereduction
techniquessuchasfilteringarenotusuallysuccessful
canbereducedusingadaptivetechniques
techniquesdonotrequirepriorknowledgeofnoise
characteristics

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Transducerartifactisproducedwhenthe
transducerrespondstoenergymodalities
otherthanthatdesired

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Forexample,recordingsofelectricalpotentials
usingelectrodesplacedontheskinaresensitive
tomotionartifact,wheretheelectrodesrespond
tomechanicalmovementaswellasthedesired
electricalsignal
Transducerartifactscansometimesbe
successfullyaddressedbymodificationsin
transducerdesign

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Electronicnoisehaswellknownsourcesand
characteristics
Electronicnoisefallsintotwobroadclasses
thermalorJohnsonnoise,
shotnoise
Johnsonnoiseisproducedprimarilyinresistoror
resistancematerials
Shotnoiseisrelatedtovoltagebarriersassociated
withsemiconductors
Bothsourcesproducenoisewithabroadrangeof
frequenciesoftenextendingfromDCto10121013 Hz
Suchabroadspectrumnoiseisreferredtoaswhite
noisesinceitcontainsenergyatallfrequencies

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JohnsonNoise

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Johnsonorthermalnoiseisproducedbyresistance
sources,andtheamountofnoisegeneratedisrelatedto
theresistanceandtothetemperature:

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whereRistheresistanceinohms,TthetemperatureindegreesKelvin,andk
isBoltzmans constant(k=1.38 1023J/K).*Bisthebandwidth,orrangeof
frequencies,thatisallowedtopassthroughthemeasurementsystem
(Thesystembandwidthisdeterminedbythefiltercharacteristicsinthesystem,usually
theanalogfilteringinthesystem)

Ifnoisecurrentisofinterest,theequationforJohnsonnoise
currentcanbeobtainedas:

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SinceJohnsonnoiseisspreadevenlyoverall
frequencies,itisnotpossibletocalculatea
noisevoltageorcurrentwithoutspecifyingB,
thefrequencyrange
Sincethebandwidthisnotalwaysknownin
advance,itiscommontodescribearelative
noise;specifically,thenoisethatwouldoccur
ifthebandwidthwere1.0Hz
Suchrelativenoisespecificationcanbe
identifiedbytheunusualunitsrequired:
or

Shotnoise

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Shotnoiseisdefinedasacurrentnoiseandis
proportionaltothebaselinecurrentthrougha
semiconductorjunction

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whereqisthechargeonanelectron(1.662 1019coulomb),andId isthe


baselinesemiconductorcurrent
(Inphotodetectors,thebaselinecurrentthatgeneratesshotnoiseistermedthe
darkcurrent,hence,thesymbolId)

Noiseisspreadacrossallfrequencies,the
bandwidth,BW,mustbespecifiedtoobtainaspecific
value,orarelativenoisecanbespecifiedin

MultipleNoiseSources

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Whenmultiplenoisesourcesarepresent,asis
oftenthecase,theirvoltageorcurrent
contributionstothetotalnoiseaddasthe
squarerootofthesumofthesquares,
assumingthattheindividualnoisesourcesare
independent

SignaltoNoiseRatio

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Mostwaveformsconsistofsignalplusnoisemixedtogether
Signalandnoisearerelativeterms,relativetothetaskat
hand:thesignalisthatportionofthewaveformofinterest
whilethenoiseiseverythingelse
Goalofsignalprocessingistoseparateoutsignalfromnoise,
toidentifythepresenceofasignalburiedinnoise,orto
detectfeaturesofasignalburiedinnoise
Therelativeamountofsignalandnoisepresentinawaveform
isusuallyquantifiedbythesignaltonoiseratio,SNR
Istheratioofsignaltonoise,bothmeasuredinRMS(root
meansquared)amplitude

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Itisdifficulttodetect
presenceofthesignal
visuallywhentheSNRis
3db,andimpossible
whentheSNRis10db

TheabilitytodetectsignalswithlowSNRisthegoalandmotivationformanyofthe
signalprocessingtools

ANALOGTODIGITALCONVERSION:BASIC
CONCEPTS

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slicingintime
slicinginamplitude

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Convertsananalogvoltagetoanequivalentdigitalnumber
Analogorcontinuouswaveform,x(t),isconvertedintoa
discretewaveform,x(n),afunctionofrealnumbersthatare
definedonlyatdiscreteintegers,n
Requires

Slicingthesignalintodiscretepointsintimeistermedtime
samplingorsimplysampling
Timeslicingsamplesthecontinuouswaveform,x(t),at
discretepointsintime,nTs,whereTsisthesampleinterval
SincethebinaryoutputoftheADCisadiscreteintegerwhile
theanalogsignalhasacontinuousrangeofvalues,analogto
digitalconversionalsorequirestheanalogsignaltobesliced
intodiscretelevels,aprocesstermedquantization

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Assumingthattheerrorisuniformlydistributedbetween/2+/2,the
variance,,is:

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Thenumberofbitsusedfor
conversionsetsalowerlimitonthe
resolution,andalsodeterminesthe
quantizationerror
Thiserrorcanbethoughtofasa
noiseprocessaddedtothesignal
Ifasufficientnumberofquantization
levelsexist(sayN>64),the
distortionproducedbyquantization
errormaybemodeledasadditive
independentwhitenoisewithzero
meanwiththevariancedetermined
bythequantizationstepsize,=
VMAX/2N

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QuantizationError

Assumingauniformdistribution,theRMSvalueofthenoisewouldbejusttwicethe
standarddeviation,

NoiseRepresentation

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probabilitydistribution
rangeofvariability
frequencycharacteristics

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Noiseisusuallyrepresentedasarandomvariable,x(n)
Describingnoiseasafunctionoftimeisnotveryuseful
Morecommontodiscussotherpropertiesofnoisesuch:

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Noisecantakeonavarietyofdifferentprobability
distributions
CentralLimitTheoremimpliesthatmostnoisewillhavea
Gaussianornormaldistribution
TheCentralLimitTheoremstatesthatwhennoiseis
generatedbyalargenumberofindependentsourcesitwill
haveaGaussianprobabilitydistributionregardlessofthe
probabilitydistributioncharacteristicsoftheindividual
sources

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(A)Thedistributionof
20,000uniformly
distributedrandom
numbers.
(B)Thedistributionof
20,000numbers,eachof
whichistheaverageof
twouniformlydistributed
randomnumbers
(C)and(D)The
distributionobtained
when3and8random
numbers,stilluniformly
distributed,areaveraged
together

Althoughtheunderlyingdistributionisuniform,theaveragesofthese
uniformlydistributednumberstendtowardaGaussiandistribution

TheprobabilityofaGaussiandistributedvariable,x,isspecifiedin
thewellknownnormalorGaussiandistributionequation

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Twoimportantpropertiesofarandomvariableareitsmean,or
averagevalue,anditsvariance,theterm2

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ThemeanvalueofadiscretearrayofNsamplesisevaluatedas:

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Thesamplevariance,2,iscalculatedas

andthestandarddeviation,,isjustthesquarerootofthevariance
Normalizingthestandarddeviationorvarianceby1/(N1)produces
thebestestimateofthevariance,ifxisasamplefromaGaussian
distribution

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Butthestandarddeviationisthesquarerootofthevarianceandthestandard
deviationsaddasthe
timestheaveragestandarddeviation
Accordingly,themeanstandarddeviationistheaverageoftheindividual
standarddeviationsdividedby

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Whenmultiplemeasurementsaremade,multiplerandomvariablescanbe
generated
Ifthesevariablesarecombinedoraddedtogether,themeansaddsothatthe
resultantrandomvariableissimplythemean,oraverage,oftheindividual
means
Thesameistrueforthevariancethevariancesaddandtheaveragevariance
isthemeanoftheindividualvariances:

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Thusaveragingnoisefromdifferentsensors,ormultipleobservationsfromthe
samesource,willreducethestandarddeviationofthenoisebythesquareroot
ofthenumberofaverages

SpectralcharacteristicsofNoise

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Energydistributionmayvarywithfrequency
Frequencycharacteristicsofthenoisearerelatedto
howwell,oneinstantaneousvalueofnoisecorrelates
withtheadjacentinstantaneousvalues:fordigitized
datahowmuchonedatapointiscorrelatedwithits
neighbors
Ifthenoisehassomuchrandomnessthateachpointis
independentofitsneighbors,thenithasaflatspectral
characteristicandviceversa,calledaswhitenoise
Whenwhitenoiseisfiltered,itbecomesbandlimited
andisreferredtoascolorednoise

ENSEMBLEAVERAGING

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Averagingcanbeasimple,yetpowerfulsignal
processingtechniqueforreducingnoisewhenmultiple
observationsofthesignalarepossible
Inmanybiomedicalapplications,themultiple
observationscomefromrepeatedresponsestothe
samestimulus
Inensembleaveraging,agroup,orensemble,oftime
responsesareaveragedtogetheronapointbypoint
basis;thatis,anaveragesignalisconstructedbytaking
theaverage,foreachpointintime,overallsignalsin
theensemble
Twoessentialrequirements
theabilitytoobtainmultipleobservations
referencesignalcloselytimelinkedtotheresponse

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Anensembleofindividual(vergence)eyemovement
responsestoastepchangeinstimulus

DATAFUNCTIONSANDTRANSFORMS

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Insignalprocessing,mostfunctionsfallintotwo
categories

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waveforms,images,orotherdata
entitiesthatoperateonwaveforms,images,orotherdata

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canbefurtherdividedintofunctionsthatmodifythedata,and
functionsusedtoanalyzeorprobethedata
Example1:filtercoefficients(modifythespectralcontentofa
waveform)
Example2: FourierTransformusesfunctions(harmonicallyrelated
sinusoids)toanalyzethespectralcontentofawaveform

Functionsthatmodifydataarealsotermedoperations
ortransformations
Atransformcanbethoughtofasaremappingofthe
originaldataintoafunctionthatprovidesmore
informationthantheoriginal

Howtransformswork!
Transformsareachievedbycomparingthesignalofinterestwithsome
sortofprobingfunction
Comparisontakestheformofacorrelation(producedbymultiplication)
thatisaveraged(orintegrated)overthedurationofthewaveform,or
someportionofthewaveform

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Afamilyofprobingfunctionsisalsotermedabasis
Fordiscretefunctions,aprobingfunctionconsistsofasequenceofvalues,
orvector,andtheintegralbecomessummationoverafiniterange

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wherex(t) isthewaveformbeinganalyzed,fm(t) isthe probingfunctionandm is


somevariableoftheprobingfunction,oftenspecifyingaparticularmemberina
familyofsimilarfunctions

wherex(n) isthediscretewaveformandfm(n)isadiscreteversionofthefamily
ofprobingfunctions.
Thisequationassumestheprobeandwaveformfunctionsarethesamelength

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Wheneitherx(t)orfm(t) areofinfinitelength,theymustbetruncated
Alsoifthelengthoftheprobingfunction,fm(n),isshorterthanthe
waveform,x(n),thenx(n) mustbeshortenedinsomeway
Canbeshortenedbysimpletruncationorbymultiplyingthefunctionby
anotherfunctionthathaszerovaluebeyondthedesiredlength
Afunctionusedtoshortenanotherfunctionistermedawindowfunction
Consequencesofthisartificialshorteningwilldependonthespecific
windowfunctionused

whereW(n)isthewindowfunction

FiniteSupport

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Iftheprobingfunctionisoffinitelength(finitesupport)andthislengthis
shorterthanthewaveform,thenitmightbeappropriatetotranslateor
slideitoverthesignalandperformthecomparison(correlation,or
multiplication)atvariousrelativepositionsbetweenthewaveformand
probingfunction
Theoutputwouldbeafamilyoffunctions,oratwovariablefunction,
whereonevariablecorrespondstotherelativepositionbetweenthetwo
functionsandtheothertothespecificfamilymember

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wherethevariablek indicatestherelativepositionbetweenthetwofunctions
andm isthefamilymemberasintheaboveequations

Approachcanbeusedforlongoreveninfiniteprobingfunctions,
providedtheprobingfunctionitselfisshortenedbywindowingtoalength
thatislessthanthewaveform
Theshortenedprobingfunctioncanbetranslatedacrossthewaveformin
thesamemannerasaprobingfunctionthatisnaturallyshort
UsedinSTFT

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Projections

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Whentheprobingfunctionconsistsofafamilyoffunctions,thenthescalar
productoperationscanbethoughtofasprojectingthewaveformvector
ontovectorsrepresentingthevariousfamilymembers
Inthisvectorbasedconceptualization,theprobingfunctionfamily,orbasis,
canbethoughtofastheaxesofacoordinatesystem
Hencethemotivationbehinddevelopmentofprobingfunctionsthathave
familymembersthatareorthogonalororthonormal sothatthescalar
productcomputations(orprojections)canbedoneoneachaxes(i.e.,on
eachfamilymember)independentlyoftheothers

Allofthediscreteequations(discussedsofar)haveonethingincommon:
theyallfeaturethemultiplicationoftwo(orsometimesthree)functions
andthesummationoftheproductoversomefiniteinterval
Thismultiplicationandsummationisthesameasscalarproductofthe
twovectors

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CONVOLUTION
Importantconceptinlinearsystemstheory,solvingtheneedforatime
domainoperationequivalenttotheTransferFunction
Convolutioncanbeusedtodefineageneralinputoutputrelationshipin
thetimedomainanalogoustotheTransferFunctioninthefrequency
domain

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Theinput,x(t),theoutput,y(t),andthefunctionlinkingthetwothrough
convolution,h(t),areallfunctionsoftime;hence, convolutionisatime
domainoperation
Basicconceptbehindconvolutionissuperposition
Thefirststepistodetermineatimefunction,h(t),thattellshowthe
systemrespondstoaninfinitelyshortsegmentoftheinputwaveform
Ifsuperpositionholds,thentheoutputcanbedeterminedbysumming
(integrating)alltheresponsecontributionscalculatedfromtheshort
segments

ImpulseResponse

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Thewayinwhichalinearsystemrespondstoaninfinitelyshort
segmentofdatacanbedeterminedsimplybynotingthesystems
responsetoaninfinitelyshortinput,aninfinitelyshortpulse
Aninfinitelyshortpulse(oronethatisatleastshortcomparedto
thedynamicsofthesystem)istermedanimpulseordeltafunction
(commonlydenoted(t)),andtheresponseitproducesistermed
theimpulseresponse,h(t).
Giventhattheimpulseresponsedescribestheresponseofthe
systemtoaninfinitelyshortsegmentofdata,andanyinputcanbe
viewedasaninfinite
stringofsuchinfinitesimalsegments,theimpulseresponsecanbe
usedtodeterminetheoutputofthesystemtoanyinput
Responseproducedbyaninfinitelysmalldatasegmentissimply
thisimpulseresponsescaledbythemagnitudeofthatdata
segment
Thecontributionofeachinfinitelysmallsegmentcanbesummed,
orintegrated,tofindtheresponsecreatedbyallthesegments

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MathematicalDescriptionofConvolution
Statedmathematically,theoutputy(t),toanyinput,x(t)isgivenby:

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Todeterminetheimpulseofeachinfinitelysmalldatasegment,the
impulseresponseisshiftedatimewithrespecttotheinput,thenscaled
(i.e.,multiplied)bythemagnitudeoftheinputatthatpointintime
Itdoesnotmatterwhichfunction,theinputortheimpulseresponse,is
shifted
Shiftingandmultiplicationissometimesreferredtoasthelagproduct
Fordiscretesignals,theintegrationbecomesasummationandthe
convolutionequationbecomes:

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Correlation

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Wordcorrelationconveyssimilarity:howonethingislikeanother
Mathematically,correlationsareobtainedbymultiplying andnormalizing
Covarianceandcorrelationusemultiplicationtocomparethelinear
relationshipbetweentwovariables,butincorrelationthecoefficientsare
normalizedtofallbetweenzeroandone
Becauseofnormalizationcorrelationcoefficients areinsensitive to
variationsinthegainofthedataacquisitionprocessorthescalingofthe
variables
Canbeappliedto
twoormorewaveforms
multipleobservationsofthesamesource
multiplesegmentsofthesamewaveform
Thecorrelationfunctionisthelaggedproductoftwowaveforms:
Alsocalledcross
correlation

Autocorrelation

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Specialcaseofthecorrelationfunctionoccurswhenthe
comparisonisbetweentwowaveformsthatareoneinthesame;
thatis,afunctioniscorrelatedwithdifferentshiftsofitself
Providesadescriptionofhowsimilara waveformistoitselfat
varioustimeshifts,ortimelags
Autocorrelationfunctionwillnaturallybemaximumforzerolag(n=
0)becauseatzerolagthecomparisonisbetweenidentical
waveforms
Usuallytheautocorrelationisscaledsothatthecorrelationatzero
lagis1
Functionmustbesymmetricaboutn=0,sinceshiftingoneversion
ofthesamewaveforminthenegativedirectionisthesameas
shiftingtheotherversioninthepositivedirection
Relatedtothebandwidthofthewaveform
Thesharperthepeakoftheautocorrelationfunctionthebroader
thebandwidth

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Crosscovariance

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Sameascrosscorrelationfunctionexceptthatthemeans
havebeenremovedfromthedatabeforecalculation

Thetermscorrelationandcovariance,whenusedalone(i.e.,
withoutthetermfunctionresultintoasinglenumber

CovarianceandCorrelationMatrices

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Canbeappliedtomultivariatedatawheremultipleresponses,
orobservations,areobtainedfromasingleprocess
Thecovarianceandcorrelationmatricesassumethatthe
multivariatedataarearrangedinamatrixwherethecolumns
aredifferentvariablesandtherowsaredifferentobservations
ofthosevariables
Insignalprocessing,therowsarethewaveformtimesamples,
andthecolumnsarethedifferentsignalchannelsor
observationsofthesignal
Thecovariancematrixgivesthevarianceofthecolumnsofthe
datamatrixinthediagonalswhilethecovariancebetween
columnsisgivenbytheoffdiagonals

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Correlationmatrixisrelatedtothecovariancematrixbythe
equation:

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Thecorrelationmatrixisasetofcorrelationcoefficients
betweenwaveformobservationsorchannelsandhasasimilar
positionalrelationshipasinthecovariancematrix

Sincethediagonalsinthecorrelationmatrixgivethe
correlationofagivenvariableorwaveformwithitself,theywill
allequal1(rxx(0)=1),andtheoffdiagonalswillvarybetween
1

SAMPLINGTHEORYANDFINITEDATA
CONSIDERATIONS

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Toconvertananalogwaveformintoadigitizedversion:

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samplingthewaveformatdiscretepointsintime
ifthewaveformislongerthanthecomputermemory,isolatinga
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TheShannonSamplingTheoremstatesthatanysinusoidal
waveformcanbeuniquelyreconstructedprovideditis
sampledatleasttwiceinoneperiod
Thesamplingfrequency,fs,mustbe2fsinusoid
ShannonsSamplingTheoremstatesthatacontinuous
waveformcanbereconstructedwithoutlossofinformation
providedthesamplingfrequencyisgreaterthantwicethe
highestfrequencyintheanalogwaveform:

Samplingfunction

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Thesamplingprocessisequivalenttomultiplyingtheanalog
waveformbyarepeatingseriesofshortpulses
Thisrepeatingseriesofshortpulsesissometimesreferredto
asthesamplingfunction
Thesamplingfunctioncanbestatedmathematicallyusingthe
impulseresponse

whereTs isthesampleintervalandequals1/fs

Forananalogwaveform,x(t),thesampledversion,x(n),is
givenbymultiplyingx(t)bythesamplingfunction:

Effectsofsampling
Multiplicationinthetime
domainisequivalentto
convolutioninfrequency
domain(andviceversa)
Hence,thefrequency
characteristicofasampled
waveformisjustthe
convolutionoftheanalog
waveformspectrumwith
thesamplingfunction
spectrum
Itwouldbepossibleto
recovertheoriginal
spectrumsimplybyfiltering
thesampleddatabyan
ideallowpassfilterwitha
bandwidth>fmax

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CONV

Aliasing

Spectrumthatresultsifthedigitizeddataweresampledatfs <2fmax,in
thiscasefs =1.5fmax

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Thereflectedportionofthespectrumhas
becomeintermixedwiththeoriginal
spectrum,andnofiltercanunmix them
Whenfs <2fmax,thesampleddatasuffers
fromspectraloverlap,better knownas
aliasing
Thesampleddatanolongerprovidesa
uniquerepresentationoftheanalog
waveform,andrecoveryisnotpossible
Aliasingmustbeavoidedeitherby:
useofveryhighsamplingratesrates
thatarewellabovethebandwidthofthe
analogsystem
orbyfilteringtheanalogsignalbefore
analogtodigitalconversion

Antialiasingfilters

Example

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AnECGsignalof1voltpeaktopeakhasabandwidthof0.01to100Hz.
Assumethatbroadbandnoisemaybepresentinthesignalatabout0.1volts
(i.e.,20db belowthenominalsignallevel).Thissignalisfilteredusingafour
polelowpassfilter.Whatsamplingfrequencyisrequiredtoensurethatthe
errorduetoaliasingislessthan60db (0.001volts)?

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Thenoiseatthesamplingfrequencymustbereducedanother40db (20*log
(0.1/0.001))bythefourpolefilter.Afourpolefilterwitha
cutoffof100Hz(requiredtomeetthefidelityrequirementsoftheECGsignal)
wouldattenuatethewaveformatarateof80db perdecade.Forafourpole
filtertheasymptoticattenuationisgivenas:
Attenuation=80log(f2/fc)db
Toachievetherequiredadditional40db ofattenuationrequiredbythe
problemfromafourpolefilter:
80log(f2/fc)=40log(f2/fc)=40/80=0.5
f2/fc=10.5=;f2=3.16 100=316Hz
Thustomeetthesamplingcriterion,thesamplingfrequencymustbeat
least632Hz,twicethefrequencyatwhichthenoiseisadequatelyattenuated

Unfortunately,inorderforthisimpulsefunctiontoproduceanidealfilter,
itmustbeinfinitelylong
Howeveriffs>>fmax,asisoftenthecase,thenanyreasonablelowpass
filterwouldsufficetorecovertheoriginalwaveform

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Recoveryofawaveformwhenthesamplingfrequencyismuchmuch
greaterthattwicethehighestfrequencyinthesampledwaveform(fs=
10fmax)iseasierwithpracticalLPF
Inthiscase,thelowpassfilter(dottedline)neednothaveassharpa
cutoff.

EdgeEffects

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Advantageofdealingwithinfinitedataisthatone
neednotbeconcernedwiththeendpoints
Finitedataconsistofnumericalsequenceshaving
afixedlengthwithfixedendpointsatthe
beginningandendofthesequence
Someoperations,suchasconvolution,may
produceadditionaldatapointswhilesome
operationswillrequireadditionaldatapointsto
completetheiroperationonthedataset
Howtoaddoreliminatedatapoints?

Extendingdatalength

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Threecommonstrategiesforextendingadatasetwhen
additionalpointsareneeded:

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extendingwithzeros(oraconstant),termedzeropadding;
extendingusingperiodicityorwraparound;
extendingbyreflection,alsoknownassymmetricextension

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Inthezeropaddingapproach,zerosareaddedtotheendor
beginningofthedatasequence
Thisapproachisfrequentlyusedinspectralanalysisandis
justifiedbytheimplicitassumptionthatthewaveformiszero
outsideofthesampleperiodanyway
Avariantofzeropaddingisconstantpadding,wherethedata
sequenceisextendedusingaconstantvalue,oftenthelast(or
first)valueinthesequence

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Ifthewaveformcanbereasonablythoughtofasone
cycleofaperiodicfunction,thenthewraparound
approachisclearlyjustifieddataareextendedby
tackingontheinitialdatasequencetotheendofthe
datasetandvisaversa
Thisisquiteeasytoimplementnumerically:simply
makealloperationsinvolvingthedatasequenceindex
moduloN,whereNistheinitiallengthofthedataset
Thesetwoapproacheswill,ingeneral,producea
discontinuityatthebeginningorendofthedataset,
whichcanleadtoartifactincertainsituations
Thesymmetricreflectionapproacheliminatesthis
discontinuitybytakingontheendpointsinreverse
order(orbeginningpointsifextendingthebeginningof
thedatasequence)

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SpectralAnalysis:ClassicalMethods

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Manybiologicalsignalsdemonstrateinterestingordiagnosticallyusefulproperties
whenviewedinthesocalledfrequencydomain,E.g.heartrate,EMG,EEG,ECG,
eyemovementsandothermotorresponses,acousticheartsounds,andstomach
andintestinalsounds
Determiningthefrequencycontentofawaveformistermedspectralanalysis
Methodscanbedividedintotwobroadcategories
classicalmethodsbasedontheFouriertransform
modernmethodssuchasthosebasedontheestimationofmodelparameters
Theaccuratedeterminationofthewaveformsspectrumrequiresthatthesignal
beperiodic,oroffinitelength,andnoisefree
Butmanybiologicalsignalsare
eitherinfiniteorofsufficientlengththatonlyaportionofitisavailablefor
analysis
oftencorruptedbysubstantialamountsofnoiseorartifact
Allspectralanalysistechniquesmustnecessarilybeapproximate;theyare
estimatesofthetruespectrum
Thevariousspectralanalysisapproachesattempttoimprovetheestimation
accuracyofspecificspectralfeatures

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Twospectralfeaturesofpotentialinterestare:

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theoverallshapeofthespectrum,termedthespectralestimate,
and/or
localfeaturesofthespectrumsometimesreferredtoasparametric
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Techniquesthatprovidegoodspectralestimationarepoor
localestimatorsandviceversa

THEFOURIERTRANSFORM:FOURIERSERIESANALYSIS

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ClassicalFouriertransform(FT)methodisthemoststraightforwardforspectral
estimate
Anyperiodic waveformcanberepresentedbyaseriesofsinusoidsthatareatthe
samefrequencyas,ormultiplesof,thewaveformfrequency
Ifawaveformcanbebrokendownintoaseriesofsines orcosinesofdifferent
frequencies,theamplitudeofthesesinusoidsmustbeproportionaltothe
frequencycomponentcontainedinthewaveformatthosefrequencies
Considerthecasewheresines andcosinesareusedtorepresentthefrequency
components:tofindtheappropriateamplitudeofthesecomponentsitisonly
necessarytocorrelate(i.e.,multiply)thewaveformwiththesineandcosinefamily,
andaverage(i.e.,integrate)overthecompletewaveform(oroneperiodifthe
waveformisperiodic)

whereT istheperiodortimelengthofthe
waveform,fT =1/T,andm issetof
integers,possiblyinfinite:m=1,2,3,...,
definingthefamilymember.
Thisgivesrisetoafamilyofsines andcosines
havingharmonicallyrelatedfrequencies,
mfT

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Fourierseriesanalysisusesaprobingfunctioninwhichthefamily
consistsofharmonicallyrelatedsinusoids
Thesines andcosinesinthisfamilyhavevalidfrequenciesonlyat
valuesofm/T,whichiseitherthesamefrequencyasthewaveform
(whenm=1)orhighermultiples(whenm>1)thataretermed
harmonics
Sincethisapproachrepresentswaveformsbyharmonicallyrelated
sinusoids,theapproachissometimesreferredtoasharmonic
decomposition
Forperiodicfunctions,theFouriertransformandFourierseries
constituteabilateraltransform:theFouriertransformcanbe
appliedtoawaveformtogetthesinusoidalcomponentsandthe
Fourierseriessineandcosinecomponentscanbesummedto
reconstructtheoriginalwaveform:

.(1)

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Twoperiodicfunctionsandtheirapproximationsconstructedfroma
limitedseriesofsinusoids.
Uppergraphs:Asquarewaveisapproximatedbyaseriesof3and6sinewaves.
Lowergraphs:Atrianglewaveisapproximatedbyaseriesof3and6cosine
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Spectralinformationisusuallypresentedasafrequencyplot,
aplotofsineandcosineamplitudevs.componentnumber,or
theequivalentfrequency
Toconvertfromcomponentnumber,m,tofrequency,f,note
thatf=m/T,whereTistheperiodofthefundamental.
Indigitizedsignals,thesamplingfrequencycanalsobeused
todeterminethespectralfrequency
Ratherthanplotsineandcosineamplitudes,itismore
intuitivetoplottheamplitudeandphaseangleofasinusoidal
waveusingtherectangulartopolartransformation

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Atriangleorsawtooth wave(left)andthefirst10termsofitsFourier
series(right)
Notethatthetermsbecomequitesmallafterthesecondterm

Symmetry

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Somewaveformsaresymmetricalorantisymmetricalaboutt
=0,sothatoneortheotherofthecomponents,a(k)orb(k)in
Eq.(1),willbezero
Ifthewaveformhasmirrorsymmetryaboutt=0,thatis,x(t)
=x(t),thenmultiplicationsbyasinefunctionswillbezero
irrespectiveofthefrequency,andthiswillcauseallb(k)terms
tobezeros
Suchmirrorsymmetryfunctionsaretermedeven functions
Ifthefunctionhasantisymmetry,x(t)=x(t),asocalledodd
function,thenallmultiplicationswithcosinesofany
frequencywillbezero,causingalla(k)coefficientstobezero
Functionsthathavehalfwavesymmetrywillhavenoeven
coefficients,andbotha(k)andb(k)willbezeroforevenm
Thesesymmetriesareusefulforreducingthecomplexityof
solvingforthecoefficientswhensuchcomputationsaredone
manually

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FunctionSymmetries

RectangularWindow

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Thedigitizedwaveformmustnecessarilybetruncatedatleast
tothelengthofthememorystoragearray
Thisprocessiscalledwindowing
Thewindowingprocesscanbethoughtofasmultiplyingthe
databysomewindowshape
Ifthewaveformissimplytruncatedandnofurthershapingis
performedontheresultantdigitizedwaveform(asisoftenthe
case),thenthewindowshapeisrectangular bydefault
Othershapescanbeimposedonthedatabymultiplyingthe
digitizedwaveformbythedesiredshape
Windowingcreatessomeeffects(tobediscussedlater!)

AnotherrepresentationofFourierseries
TheequationsforcomputingFourierseriesanalysisofdigitizeddataare
thesameasforcontinuousdataexcepttheintegrationisreplacedby
summation
Equationsarepresentedusingcomplexvariablesnotationsothatboththe
sineandcosinetermscanberepresentedbyasingleexponentialterm
usingEulersidentity

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whereN isthetotalnumberofpointsandm indicatesthefamilymember,


i.e.,theharmonicnumber(m mustnowbeallowedtobebothpositive
andnegativewhenusedincomplexnotation)

TheinverseFouriertransformcanbecalculatedas:

givesthemagnitudeforthesinusoidalrepresentation
oftheFourierserieswhiletheangleofX(m)givesthephase
angleforthisrepresentation,sinceX(m)canalsobewrittenas

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ThediscreteFouriertransformproducesafunctionofm
Toconvertthistofrequencynotethat:

wheref1 fT isthefundamentalfrequency,Ts isthesampleinterval;fs isthe


samplefrequency;N isthenumberofpointsinthewaveform;andTP =NTs is
theperiodofthewaveform

TheequationforthediscreteFouriertransformcanalsobe
writtenas:

FourierTransformForAperiodicFunctions

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Ifthefunctionisnotperiodic,itcanstillbe
accuratelydecomposedintosinusoidsifitis
aperiodic;thatis,itexistsonly forawelldefined
periodoftime,andthattimeperiodisfully
representedbythedigitizedwaveform
Thesinusoidalcomponentscanexistatall
frequencies,notjustmultiplefrequenciesor
harmonics
Theanalysisprocedureisthesameasforaperiodic
function,exceptthatthefrequenciesobtainedare
reallyonlysamplesalongacontinuousfrequency
spectrum

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Thefrequency
spectrumofa
periodictriangle
waveforthree
differentperiods
Astheperiod
getslonger,
approachingan
aperiodic
function,the
spectralshape
doesnotchange,
butthepointsget
closertogether

FrequencyResolution

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FromthediscreteFourierseriesequation,thenumberofpoints
producedbytheoperationisN,thenumberofpointsinthedata
set
Sincethespectrumproducedissymmetricalaboutthemidpoint,
N/2(orfs/2infrequency),onlyhalfthepointscontainunique
information
IfthesamplingtimeisTs,theneachpointinthespectrarepresents
afrequencyincrementof1/(NTs)
Asaroughapproximation,thefrequencyresolutionofthespectra
willbethesameasthefrequencyspacing,1/(NTs)
FrequencyspacingofthespectrumproducedbytheFourier
transformcanbedecreasedbyincreasingthelengthofthedata,N
Increasingthesampleinterval,Ts,shouldalsoimprovethe
frequencyresolution,butsincethatmeansadecreaseinfs,the
maximumfrequencyinthespectra,fs /2isreducedlimitingthe
spectralrange
OnesimplewayofincreasingNevenafterthewaveformhasbeen
sampledistousezeropadding

TruncatedFourierAnalysis:DataWindowing

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Rectangular
Barlett (Triangular)
Hamming
Hanning
TruncatedGaussian

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Often,awaveformisneitherperiodicoraperiodic,buta
segmentofamuchlongerpossiblyinfinitetimeseries(E.g.
ECG)
Onlyaportionofsuchwaveformscanberepresentedinthe
finitememoryofthecomputer,andsomeattentionmustbe
paidtohowthewaveformistruncated
Typesofwindowingused:

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WindowFunctions(a.k.a.TaperingFunctions)

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Barlett (Triangular)

Hanning

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Gaussian

Effectsofwindowing

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Whenadatasetiswindowed,whichisessentialifthedatasetis
largerthanthememorystorage,thenthefrequency characteristics
ofthewindowbecomepartofthespectralresult
Thus allwindowsproducetwotypesofartifact
Theactualspectrumiswidenedbyanartifacttermedthemainlobe,
andadditionalpeaksaregeneratedtermedthesidelobes

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SelectingtheWindowFunction

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Selectingtheappropriatewindow,dependsonwhatspectral
featuresareofinterest
Ifthetaskistoresolvetwonarrowbandsignalscloselyspacedin
frequency,thenawindowwiththenarrowestmainlobe (the
rectangularwindow)ispreferred
Ifthereisastrongandaweaksignalspacedamoderatedistance
apart,thenawindowwithrapidlydecayingsidelobes ispreferredto
preventthesidelobes ofthestrongsignalfromoverpoweringthe
weaksignal
Iftherearetwomoderatestrengthsignals,onecloseandtheother
moredistantfromaweaksignal,thenacompromisewindowwith
amoderatelynarrowmainlobe andamoderatedecayinsidelobes
couldbethebestchoice
Oftenthemostappropriatewindowisselectedbytrialanderror

PowerSpectrum

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ThepowerspectrumiscommonlydefinedastheFourier
transformoftheautocorrelationfunction
Incontinuousanddiscretenotation,thepowerspectrum
equationbecomes:

Sincetheautocorrelationfunctionhasoddsymmetry,thesine
terms,b(k)willallbezero

PowerSpectrum(DirectApproach)
Thedirectapproachismotivatedbythefactthattheenergycontainedin
ananalogsignal,x(t),isrelatedtothemagnitudeofthesignalsquared,
integratedovertime

ByanextensionofParsevals theoremitiseasytoshowthat

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Hence equalstheenergydensityfunctionoverfrequency,also
referredtoastheenergyspectraldensity,thepowerspectraldensity,or
simplythepowerspectrum
Inthedirectapproach,thepowerspectrumiscalculatedasthe
magnitudesquaredoftheFouriertransformofthewaveformofinterest:

Parsevals Theorem:Thesum(orintegral)ofthesquareofafunctionis
equaltothesum(orintegral)ofthesquareofitstransform

Periodogram

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Whilethepowerspectrumcanbeevaluatedbyapplyingthe
FFTtotheentirewaveform,averagingisoftenused,
particularlywhentheavailablewaveformisonlyasampleofa
longersignal
Insuchverycommonsituations,powerspectrumevaluation
isnecessarilyanestimationprocess,andaveragingimproves
thestatisticalpropertiesoftheresult
Whenthepowerspectrumisbasedonadirectapplicationof
theFouriertransformfollowed byaveraging,itiscommonly
referredtoasanaverageperiodogram
Selectionofdatawindowandaveragingstrategyisusually
basedonexperimentationwiththeactualdata
Averagingisusuallyachievedbydividingthewaveformintoa
numberofsegments,possiblyoverlapping,andevaluatingthe
Fouriertransformoneachofthesesegments

Welchmethodofspectralanalysis

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Oneofthemostpopularprocedurestoevaluatetheaverage
periodogram isattributedtoWelchandisamodificationof
thesegmentationschemeoriginallydevelopedbyBartlett
Inthisapproach,overlappingsegmentsareused,anda
windowisappliedtoeachsegment
Byoverlappingsegments,moresegmentscanbeaveragedfor
agivensegmentanddatalength
Averagedperiodograms obtainedfromnoisydatatraditionally
averagespectrafromhalfoverlappingsegments;thatis,
segmentsthatoverlapby50%.

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Awaveformisdividedintothreesegmentswitha50%overlapbetweeneach
segment
IntheWelchmethodofspectralanalysis,theFouriertransformofeach
segmentwouldbecomputedseparately,andanaverageofthethree
transformswouldprovidetheoutput

DigitalFilters

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Filtersarecloselyrelatedtospectralanalysissincethegoalof
filteringistoreshapethespectrumtoonesadvantage
Mostnoiseisbroadband(thebroadestbandnoisebeing
whitenoisewithaflatspectrum)andmostsignalsare
narrowband;hence,filtersthatappropriatelyreshapea
waveformsspectrumwillalmostalwaysprovidesome
improvement inSNR
Abasicfiltercanbeviewedasalinearprocessinwhichthe
inputsignalsspectrumisreshapedinsomewelldefined
manner
Filtersdifferinthewaytheyachievethisspectralreshaping,
andcanbeclassifiedintotwogroupsbasedontheir
approach:
finiteimpulseresponse(FIR)filters
infiniteimpulseresponse(IIR)filters

THEZTRANSFORM

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Frequencybasedanalysisintroducedinthelastchapterisamost
usefultoolforanalyzingsystemscannotbeappliedtotransient
responsesofinfinitelength,suchasstepfunctions,orsystemswith
nonzeroinitialconditions
MotivatedthedevelopmentoftheLaplacetransformintheanalog
domain
Laplaceanalysisusesthecomplexvariables (s=+j)asa
representationofcomplexfrequencyinplaceofj intheFourier
transform
TheZtransformisadigitaloperationanalogoustotheLaplace
transformintheanalogdomain,anditisusedinasimilarmanner
TheZtransformisbasedaroundthecomplexvariable,z,wherez is
anarbitrarycomplexnumber, ej
Thisvariableisalsotermedthecomplexfrequency,andaswithits
timedomaincounterpart,theLaplacevariables,itispossibleto
substituteej forz toperformastrictlysinusoidalanalysis
If

issetto1,thenz=ej.Thisiscalledevaluatingz ontheunitcircle

TheZtransform(similartotheFouriertransformequation)is:

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wherez =anarbitrarycomplexvariable

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Probingfunctionforthistransformissimplyzn
Inanyrealapplication,thelimitofthesummationwillbe
finite,usuallythelengthofx(n)
Whenidentifiedwithadatasequence,suchasx(n) above,zn
representsanintervalshiftofn samples,oranassociated
timeshiftofnTs seconds
Thistimeshiftingpropertyofzn canbeformallystatedas:

ThetimeshiftingcharacteristicoftheZ
transformcanbeusedtodefineaunit
delayprocess,z1

DigitalTransferFunction

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MostusefulapplicationsoftheZtransformliesinitsabilityto
definethedigitalequivalentofatransferfunction
Byanalogytolinearsystemanalysis,thedigitaltransfer
functionisdefinedas:

Unlikeanalogsystems,theorderofthenumerator,N,need
notbelessthan,orequalto,theorderofthedenominator,D,
forstability
Infact,systemsthathaveadenominatororderof1aremore
stablethatthosehavinghigherorderdenominators

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Fromthedigitaltransferfunction,H(z),itispossibleto
determinetheoutputgivenanyinput

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Theinputoutputordifferenceequationanalogoustothe
timedomainequationandcanbeobtainedbyapplyingthe
timeshiftinterpretationtothetermzn

equationassumesthata(0)=1

Filterdesign,then,issimplythedeterminationofthe
appropriatefiltercoefficients,a(n)andb(n),thatprovidethe
desiredspectralshaping

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IfthefrequencyspectrumofH(z) isdesired,itcanbe
obtainedfromamodificationsubstitutingz=ej as:

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Frequencycanbeobtainedfromthevariablem bymultiplying
byfs/N or1/(NTs)

FINITEIMPULSERESPONSE(FIR)FILTERS

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FIRfiltershavetransferfunctionsthathaveonlynumerator
coefficients, i.e.,H(z)=B(z)
Thisleadstoanimpulseresponsethatisfinite
Merits:
stable
linearphaseshifts
haveinitialtransientsthatareoffinitedurations
theirextensionto2dimensionalapplicationsisstraightforward
Demerits:
lessefficientintermsofcomputertimeandmemory

FIRfiltersarealsoreferredtoasnonrecursive becauseonly
theinput(nottheoutput)isusedinthefilteralgorithm

FIRfilteringhasalsobeenreferredtoasamoving
average process

ThegeneralequationforanFIRfilteris:

Similartoconvolution

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whereb(n) isthecoefficientfunction(alsoreferredtoastheweighting
function)oflengthL,x(n) istheinput,andy(n) istheoutput

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Filtercoefficients(orweights)ofanFIRfilterarethesameasthe
impulseresponseofthefilter
Sincethefrequencyresponseofaprocesshavinganimpulse
responseh(n) issimplytheFouriertransformofh(n),thefrequency
responseofanFIRfilterhavingcoefficientsb(n) isjusttheFourier
transformofb(n):

Theinverseoperation,goingfromadesiredfrequencyresponseto
thecoefficientfunction,b(n),isknownasfilterdesign
SincethefrequencyresponseistheFouriertransformofthefilter
coefficients,thecoefficientscanbefoundfromtheinverseFourier
transformofthedesiredfrequencyresponse

FIRFilterDesign

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Theideallowpass filter isarectangularwindowin


thefrequencydomain
TheinverseFouriertransformofarectangular
windowfunctionis:

wherefc isthecutofffrequency;Ts isthesampleintervalin


seconds;andL isthelengthofthefilter.
Theargument,nL/2,isusedtomakethecoefficient
functionsymmetricalgivingthefilterlinearphase
characteristics

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FFTofthisfunctionissameas
animpulseresponse
Thiscoefficientfunctionmust
beinfinitelylongtoproduce
thefiltercharacteristicsofan
idealfilter
Truncatingitwillresultina
lowpass filterthatislessthan
ideal

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Filterfunction

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Effectsofb(n) truncationwithrectangular
window

Theweightingfunctionswereabruptlytruncatedat17and65
coefficients(rectangularwindow)
Theartifactsassociatedwiththistruncationareclearlyseen
Thelowpass cutofffrequencyis100Hz

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Effectsofb(n) truncationwith
Hammingwindow

Theovershootinthepassband hasdisappearedandtheoscillations
arebarelyvisibleintheplot

Highpass,Bandpass,andBandstop
filters

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Arederivedinthesamemannerfromequationsgeneratedby
applyinganinverseFTtorectangularstructureshavingthe
appropriateassociatedshape

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MATLABDemoLPFFIRDesign

StepsforDesigningFIRFilters

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Given:fs,(fC orfH andfL)


Choosetheappropriatefilter(LPF,HPF,BP,BS)
SelectthefilterlengthL
Computeb(n) usingfilterformula(length:L+1)
CheckthefilterspectrumbyusingFTofb(n)
Convolvetheinputx(n) withb(n) toobtain
theoutputy(n)

DerivativeOperation

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Thederivativeisacommonoperationinsignalprocessingandis
particularlyusefulinanalyzingcertainphysiologicalsignals
Digitaldifferentiationisdefinedasx/t andcanbeimplemented
bytakingthedifferencebetweentwoadjacentpoints,scalingby
1/Ts,andrepeatingthisoperationalongtheentirewaveform
AsFIRfilterthisisequivalenttoatwocoefficientfilter,[1,
+1]/Ts,
Thefrequencycharacteristicofthederivativeoperationisalinear
increasewithfrequencysothereis
Considerablegainatthehigherfrequencies
Sincethehigherfrequenciesfrequentlycontainagreater
percentageofnoise,thisoperationtendstoproduceanoisy
derivativecurvehenceweusetwopointcentraldifference
algorithm

TheTwoPointCentralDifferenceAlgorithm

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Thetwopointcentraldifferencealgorithmusestwo
coefficientsofequalbutoppositevaluespacedL pointsapart,
asdefinedbytheinputoutputequation:

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whereL istheskipfactorthatinfluencestheeffectivebandwidth,and
Ts isthesampleinterval

Thefiltercoefficientsforthetwopointcentraldifference
algorithmwouldbe:

Frequencycharacteristicofthederivative
operation

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Ideal

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FIRimplementation

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(A)Thederivativewascalculatedbytakingthedifferencein
adjacentpointsandscalingbythesamplefrequency.
(B)Thederivativewascomputedusingthetwopointcentral
differencealgorithmwithaskipfactorof4

TimeFrequencyAnalysis

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Spectralanalysistechniquesdevelopedthusfarrepresentpowerfulsignal
processingtoolsifoneisnotespeciallyconcernedwithsignaltiming
Classicalormodernspectralmethodsprovideacompleteandappropriate
solutionforwaveformsthatarestationary;thatis,waveformsthatdonot
changeintheirbasicpropertiesoverthelengthoftheanalysis
Manywaveformsparticularlythoseofbiologicaloriginarenot
stationary,andchangesubstantiallyintheirpropertiesovertime
Fourieranalysisprovidesagooddescriptionofthefrequenciesina
waveform,butnottheirtiming
Timingisencodedinthephaseportionofthetransform,andthis
encodingisdifficulttointerpretandrecover
IntheFouriertransform,specificeventsintimearedistributedacrossall
ofthephasecomponents
Alocalfeatureintimehasbeentransformedintoaglobalfeaturein
phase
Timinginformationisoftenofprimaryinterestinmanybiomedicalsignals,
andthisisalsotrueformedicalimageswheretheanalogousinformation
islocalizedinspace

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Methods

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Awiderangeofapproacheshavebeen
developedtotrytoextractbothtimeand
frequencyinformationfromawaveform
Basicallytheycanbedividedintotwogroups:

timefrequencymethods
timescalemethods(waveletanalysis)

ShortTermFourierTransform:The
Spectrogram

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Thefirsttimefrequencymethodswerebasedonthe
straightforwardapproachofslicingthewaveformof
interestintoanumberofshortsegmentsandperforming
theanalysisoneachofthesesegments,usuallyusingthe
standardFouriertransform
Awindowfunctionisappliedtoasegmentofdata,
effectivelyisolatingthatsegmentfromtheoverall
waveform,andtheFouriertransformisappliedtothat
segment
Thisistermedthespectrogram orshorttermFourier
transform(STFT)sincetheFourierTransformisappliedto
asegmentofdatathatisshorter,oftenmuchshorter,than
theoverallwaveform
Selectingthemostappropriatewindowlengthcanbe
critical

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Thebasicequationforthespectrograminthecontinuous
domainis:

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Thediscreteversion

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wherew(t) isthewindowfunctionand isthevariablethat


slidesthewindowacrossthewaveform,x(t)

Therearetwomainproblemswiththespectrogram:
(1)selectinganoptimalwindowlengthfordatasegments
thatcontainseveraldifferentfeaturesmaynotbepossible,
(2)thetimefrequencytradeoff:shorteningthedatalength,
N,toimprovetimeresolutionwillreducefrequency
resolutionwhichisapproximately1/(NTs)

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Ifwindowismadesmallertoimprovethetimeresolution,
thenthefrequencyresolutionisdegradedandvisaversa
Thistimefrequencytradeoffhasbeenequatedtoan
uncertaintyprinciplewheretheproductoffrequency
resolution(expressedasbandwidth,B)andtime,T,mustbe
greaterthansomeminimum

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STFThasbeenusedsuccessfullyinawidevarietyofproblems,
particularlythosewhereonlyhighfrequencycomponentsare
ofinterestandfrequencyresolutionisnotcritical
Theareaofspeechprocessinghasbenefittedconsiderably
fromtheapplicationoftheSTFT
Whereappropriate,theSTFTisasimplesolutionthatrestson
awellunderstoodclassicaltheory(i.e.,theFouriertransform)
andiseasytointerpret

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WaveletAnalysis

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InabilityoftheFouriertransformtodescribe
bothtimeandfrequencycharacteristicsofthe
waveformledtoanumberofdifferent
approaches
Thewavelettransformcanbeusedasyet
anotherwaytodescribethepropertiesofa
waveformthatchangesovertime,butinthis
casethewaveformisdividednotintosections
oftime,butsegmentsofscale

THECONTINUOUSWAVELETTRANSFORM

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Avarietyofdifferentprobingfunctionsmaybeused,butthefamilyalways
consistsofenlargedorcompressedversionsofthebasicfunction,aswell
astranslations
Continuouswavelettransform(CWT)equationisdefinedas:

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whereb actstotranslatethefunctionacrossx(t) justast andthevariable


a actstovarythetimescaleoftheprobingfunction,
Ifa isgreaterthanone,thewaveletfunction,,isstretchedalongthe
timeaxis,andifitislessthanone(butstillpositive)itcontactsthe
function
Negativevaluesofa simplyfliptheprobingfunctiononthetimeaxis
Probingfunction couldbeanyofanumberofdifferentfunctions,butit
alwaystakesonanoscillatoryform,hencethetermwavelet
The*indicatestheoperationofcomplexconjugation,andthe
normalizingfactorl/ ensuresthattheenergyisthesameforallvalues
ofa (allvaluesofb aswell,sincetranslationsdonotalterwaveletenergy)

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Ifb =0,anda =1,thenthewaveletisinitsnaturalform,


whichistermedthemotherwavelet;thatis,1,0(t)(t)

ThewaveletshownisthepopularMorlet wavelet,namedaftera
pioneerofwaveletanalysis,andisdefinedbytheequation

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Waveletcoefficients,W(a,b),describethecorrelation
betweenthewaveformandthewaveletatvarious
translationsandscales:thesimilaritybetweenthewaveform
andthewaveletatagivencombinationofscaleandposition,
a,b
Coefficientsprovidetheamplitudesofaseriesofwavelets,
overarangeofscalesandtranslations,thatwouldneedtobe
addedtogethertoreconstructtheoriginalsignal
Waveletanalysiscanbethoughtofasasearchoverthe
waveformofinterestforactivitythatmostclearly
approximatestheshapeofthewavelet
Thissearchiscarriedoutoverarangeofwaveletsizes:the
timespanofthewaveletvariesalthoughitsshaperemains
thesame
Waveletcoefficientsrespondtochangesinthewaveform,
morestronglytochangesonthesamescaleasthewavelet,
andmoststrongly,tochangesthatresemblethewavelet

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Ifthewaveletfunction,(t),isappropriatelychosen,thenitis
possibletoreconstructtheoriginalwaveformfromthe
waveletcoefficientsjustasintheFouriertransform
AsCWTdecomposesthewaveformintocoefficientsoftwo
variables,a andb,adoublesummation(orintegration)is
requiredtorecovertheoriginalsignalfromthecoefficients

WaveletTimeFrequencyCharacteristics

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Waveletsprovideacompromiseinthebattlebetweentimeandfrequency
localization:theyarewelllocalizedinbothtimeandfrequency,butnot
preciselylocalizedineither
Measureofthetimerangeofaspecificwavelet,t,canbespecifiedby
thesquarerootofthesecondmomentofagivenwaveletaboutitstime
center(i.e.,itsfirstmoment)

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wheret0 isthecentertime,orfirstmomentof
thewavelet

Inmathematics,amomentis,looselyspeaking,aquantitativemeasureoftheshapeofa
setofpoints.The"secondmoment",forexample,iswidelyusedandmeasuresthe
"width"(inaparticularsense)ofasetofpointsinonedimensionorinhigherdimensions
measurestheshapeofacloudofpointsasitcouldbefitbyanellipsoid.Othermoments
describeotheraspectsofadistributionsuchashowthedistributionisskewedfromits
mean,orpeaked.Anydistributioncanbecharacterizedbyanumberoffeatures(suchas
themean,thevariance,theskewness,etc.),andthemomentsofafunctiondescribethe
natureofitsdistribution

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Similarlythefrequencyrange,,isgivenby:

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where() isthefrequencydomainrepresentation(i.e.,Fourier
transform)of(t/a),and0 isthecenterfrequencyof()

Thetimeandfrequencyrangesofagivenfamilycanbe
obtainedfromthemotherwavelet

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ForMexicanhatwavelet

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Thefrequencyrange,orbandwidth,wouldbetherangeofthemother
Waveletdividedbya:
(a)=/
Ifwemultiplythefrequencyrangebythetimerange,theascanceland
weareleftwithaconstantthatistheproductoftheconstants

Productoftherangesisinvarianttodilationandthattherangesareinversely
related;increasingthefrequencyrange,(a),decreasesthetimerange,
t(a)
TheserangescorrelatetothetimeandfrequencyresolutionoftheCWT
Decreasingthewavelettimerange(bydecreasinga)providesamore
accurateassessmentoftimecharacteristics(i.e.,theabilitytoseparateout
closeeventsintime)attheexpenseoffrequencyresolution,andviceversa
CWTwillprovidebetterfrequencyresolutionwhena islargeandthelength
ofthewavelet(anditseffectivetimewindow)islong
Conversely,whena issmall,thewaveletisshortandthetimeresolutionis
maximum,butthewaveletonlyrespondstohighfrequencycomponents

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x(t)

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CWT

Mother
wavelet

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CWTrepresentationsallow
detectingthefiducial points
forECG

THEDISCRETEWAVELETTRANSFORM

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TheCWThasoneseriousproblem:itishighlyredundant.
TheCWTprovidesanoversamplingoftheoriginalwaveform:many
morecoefficientsaregeneratedthanareactuallyneededto
uniquelyspecifythesignal
Willbecostlyiftheapplicationcallsforrecoveryoftheoriginal
signal
Forrecovery,allofthecoefficientswillberequiredandthe
computationaleffortcouldbeexcessive
Inapplicationsthatrequirebilateraltransformations,wewould
preferatransformthatproducestheminimumnumberof
coefficientsrequiredtorecoveraccuratelytheoriginalsignal
Thediscretewavelettransform(DWT)achievesthisbyrestricting
thevariationintranslationandscale,usuallytopowersof2
Whenthescaleischangedinpowersof2,thediscretewavelet
transformissometimestermedthedyadicwavelettransform

TheDWTisoftenintroducedintermsofitsrecoverytransform

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Herek isrelatedtoa as:a=2k;b isrelatedto asb =2k ;andd(k, )is


asamplingofW(a,b) atdiscretepointsk and .

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Newconceptisintroducedtermedthescalingfunction,afunctionthat
facilitatescomputationoftheDWT
ToimplementtheDWTefficiently,thefinestresolutioniscomputedfirst
Thecomputationthenproceedstocoarserresolutions,butratherthan
startoverontheoriginalwaveform,thecomputationusesasmoothed
versionofthefineresolutionwaveform
Thissmoothedversionisobtainedwiththehelpofthescalingfunction
Actually,thescalingfunctionissometimesreferredtoasthesmoothing
function

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Thedefinitionofthescalingfunctionusesadilationoratwo
scaledifferenceequation:

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wherec(n) isaseriesofscalarsthatdefinesthespecificscaling
function

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IntheDWT,thewaveletitselfcanbedefinedfromthescaling
function:

whered(n) isaseriesofscalarsthatarerelatedtothewaveformx(t)

FilterBanks

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Formostsignalandimageprocessingapplications,DWT
basedanalysisisbestdescribedintermsoffilterbanks
Theuseofagroupoffilterstodivideupasignalintovarious
spectralcomponentsistermedsubband coding.
ThemostbasicimplementationoftheDWTusesonlytwo
filters

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Thewaveformunderanalysisisdividedintotwocomponents,ylp(n)
andyhp(n),bythedigitalfiltersH0()andH1()
Thespectralcharacteristicsofthetwofiltersmustbecarefully
chosenwithH0() havingalowpass spectralcharacteristicand
H1()ahighpass spectralcharacteristic
Thehighpass filterisanalogoustotheapplicationofthewaveletto
theoriginalsignal,whilethelowpass filterisanalogoustothe
applicationofthescalingorsmoothingfunction
Theoriginalsignalcanoftenberecovered,butbothsubband signals
willrequired
Asecondpairoffilters,G0()andG1(),operateonthehighand
lowpass subband signalsandtheirsumisusedtoreconstructa
closeapproximationoftheoriginalsignal,x(t)
TheFilterBankthatdecomposestheoriginalsignalisusually
termedtheanalysisfilterswhilethefilterbankthatreconstructs
thesignalistermedthesynthesesfilters
FIRfiltersareusedthroughoutbecausetheyareinherentlystable
andeasiertoimplement

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Iftheoutputisessentiallythesame,asoccursinsomedatacompression
applications,theprocessistermedlossless,otherwiseitisalossy operation
Problemisthatdatasamplesgetdoubledhenceweusedownsampling
illustratedschema callybythesymbol2
Ifdownsampling isused,thentheremustbesomemethodforrecoveringthe
missingdatasamples(thosewithoddindices)inordertoreconstructthe
originalsignal
Anoperationtermedupsampling (indicatedbythesymbol2)accomplishes
thisoperationbyreplacingthemissingpointswithzeros

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Formostofthesignalanalyses,
theDWToperationtakesthe
formoflogarithmictree
Thebandwidthofthesignalis
halvedaftereachlevelof
decompositionalsoitismore
appropriatetodescribethe
frequencyinradiansinthe
discretedomain
Effectivelytheresolutionofthe
signal,whichistheamountof
detailinformationinthesignal,
ischangedbythefiltering
operationsandthescaleis
increasedbydownsampling
operations

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SignalDecomposition

Denoising

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Processingisdoneonthesubband signalsbefore
reconstruction
Thebasicassumptioninthisapplicationisthatthenoiseis
codedintosmallfluctuationsinthehigherresolution(i.e.,
moredetailed)highpass subbands
Thisnoisecanbeselectivelyreducedbyeliminatingthe
smallersamplevaluesinthehigherresolutionhighpass
subbands
Thetwohighestresolutionhighpass subbands are
examinedanddatapointsbelowsomethresholdare
zeroedout
Thethresholdissettobeequaltothevariance ofthe
highpass subbands

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