Journal of Punjab Academy of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology 10 (2010)

AN ANALYTIC REVIEW OF BURNT BONES IN MEDICOLEGAL SCIENCES

Dr. Anterpreet Kaur Arora, Professor, Anatomy, SGRDIMSR, Vallah, Sri Amritsar, Punjab.
Dr. Pankaj Gupta, Associate Professor, Forensic Medicine, SGRDIMSR, Vallah, Sri Amritsar, Punjab.
Dr Sonney S Kapoor, Senior Resident, Paediatrics, SGRDIMSR, Vallah, Sri Amritsar, Punjab.
Dr Shashi Mahajan, Assistant professor, Physiology, SGRDIMSR, Vallah, Sri Amritsar, Punjab.
Article history

Abstract

Received 3 March, 2010

Received in revised form 7 April, 2010
Accepted on 15 May, 2010
Available online June 25, 2010

This unique reference provides a primary source for

osteologists and the medical/legal community for the
understanding of burnt bone remains in forensic or
archaeological contexts. The death may be caused due to
criminal burning of the body, e.g. in accidents like plane crash
and fire in vehicles, houses, public places, and forests and in
suicidal burning. The identification from bone chips of such
fire victims is a challenging task for forensic experts. This
paper is aid to those interested in the analysis of burned
human bodies, to death scene investigators, to biological
anthropologists looking at the recent or ancient dead.
Researchers in bone biology, forensic anthropology, and
endocrinology have greatly enlightened the effects of extreme
heat on skeletal remains. This communication presents a
focused discussion of the major procedures available in burnt
bone study and their applications. It also describes in detail
the changes in human bone and soft tissues on burning.
2010 JPAFMAT. All rights reserved

Corresponding author
Dr. Anterpreet Kaur Arora
244, Medical Enclave,
Opposite Kahlon Diagnostics,
Circular Road, Amritsar.
Phone: 0183-2570301; 09814975545,
Email: doctor_neeru_preet@yahoo.com

Keywords: DNA analysis, burnt bones, fragmentation,

anthropologists.
Introduction

important since in most cases, human remains are located

in proximity to other burned similarly appearing materials.
It can be challenging, even for trained anthropologists to
differentiate small fragments of burnt bone and teeth
from charred fragments of building materials and other
items.

Although many cases in forensic anthropology

involve interpretation of burnt bones, but relatively
recently few scientific studies have focused specifically on
this topic. Since thermal alterations can occur in all types
of cases routinely examined in forensic anthropology,
analysis is needed to address a variety of issues. These
issues include recovery, reconstruction, trauma
interpretation, bone recognition, weight interpretation,
thermal correlations with coloration, shrinkage and
structural changes, distinguishing bones burned in the
flesh from those burned without flesh, technological
analysis and DNA extraction techniques. Given the nature
and context of burned human remains, special care is
needed in recovery [1, 2]. Two major factors complicate
recovery of burnt human remains: fragmentation and
context. Soft tissue changes with burning include postmortem muscle contracture. Dehydration and protein
denaturation lead to muscle shortening. Since the bulkier
flexors contract more than the extensors, the burn victim
frequently presents extreme flexion [3] that has been
termed the pugilistic pose. Since burning can lead to
extreme bone fragmentation, care must be taken in
analysis at the scene. Ideally, forensic anthropologists
should participate in the recovery since they are trained to
recognize fragmented human remains. Context is

Discussion
Forensic Anthropological Analysis
As in all areas of forensic anthropological
analysis, the particular procedures employed are case
driven and shaped by the nature of the evidence and its
context [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10]. The following presents a
focused discussion of the major methods available and
their applications.
Methods of recovery, along with mortuary
treatment can affect fragment size as well.[11] Guidelines
for recovery stress on recognition of the possibility of
fragmentation, utilization of forensic anthropologists and a
cautious approach that facilitates in situ assessment of
recovered human remains.
A 2006 study by Brooks et al [12] focused on
issues in using elemental analysis to distinguish legitimate
cremated remains from those that were contaminated
with other materials. In related research, Schultz et al [13]
demonstrates how elemental analysis can aid
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Journal of Punjab Academy of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology 10 (2010)

interpretation when documented reference samples are

utilized.
Bush et al in 2006 [14] used SEM/EDS analysis to
examine dental restorative resins. They found that
following cremation, values could be utilized to identify
the manufactures. In a recent (2008) innovative
geochemical study of ash and soil at an archeological site
in Chan Chan, Brooks et al [15] examined a 2030 cm thick
ash deposit documenting content consistent with coal ash.
Comparative soil geochemistry revealed that the ash
deposit, radiocarbon dated at AD 13121438 contained
elevated levels of calcium and phosphorus consistent with
the practice of cremation. One calcinized skull fragment
was recovered and confirmed as being human using solidphase double-antibody protein radioimmunoassay. [16]
The technique of X-ray diffraction was employed to
suggest that the bone had been burnt to temperatures of
0
about 520 C.

fractures. In a study of the decedents of the Branch

Davidian incident in Waco, Texas [23, 24] also
demonstrated that various kinds of peri-mortem trauma
could retain after the burning process.
Reconstruction
Reconstruction
provides
morphological
interpretation, determinations whether human or nonhuman bone and recognition of specific skeletal elements.
[25] Reconstruction can also help in identification [26] and
recognition of trauma.
Specific Skeletal elements for identification
Many times, sufficient evidence survives to
facilitate identification. Shrinkage, fragmentation and
shape alterations can affect skeletal analysis. Age at death
and disease can be factors as well because experimental
research indicates that osteoporotic bone tends to
fragment with greater frequency than healthy bone. [27]
Fragmentation can facilitate degradation of organic
materials such as albumin useful for identification. [28]
Identification of specific skeletal elements can be useful
for the calculation of the minimal number of individuals
present and to discover discrepancies in the ages
represented. The evidence of arteriosclerosis has been
reported to survive commercial cremation. [29] Nonskeletal inclusions, such as surgical materials, dental
restorations and identification tags can survive cremation
and be useful for identification. [30, 13]

Dating the burnt bone

Most of the laboratories that regularly date
cremated bone use the method described in Lanting et al
in 2001. [17 ] Further tests on dating unburnt bone using
structural carbonate and comparing to dates already
found by dating the bone collagen were carried out with
excellent results. The modified method adopted by the KIK
laboratory was to treat the bone material with 15 mL 1%
HCl and then titrate with concentrated HCl so that about
50% of the material was leached away, removing the
secondary calcite concentrated on the outside of the
sample. The CO2 was then liberated from the remaining
sample using 100% phosphoric acid at 90 C and then
combusted. In theory structural carbonate has advantages
over collagen. Collagen has its origin in the proteins in the
food and when diets contain considerable amounts of
marine or freshwater fish, the collagen dates will be too
old. Structural carbonate has its origins in the whole diet,
thus also in carbohydrates and fats which in a normal diet
are the principal energy sources. Structural carbonate
should therefore produce more reliable dates. [18]

Shrinkage
0
Low temperatures (less than 800 C) of minimal
duration produce minimal shrinkage. [31] However,
0
temperatures as low as 300 C can lead to loss of human
albumin. [32] When only minimal heat has been applied
the effects of and evidence for burning can be difficult to
detect [33] The skeletal effects depend upon the
temperature of the heat applied and also the duration of
the heat, oxygen supply and the extent of flesh or other
protective materials in contact with the skeletal remains.
[34, 35, and 36]

Differentiating trauma during and after death

Since heat exposure can lead to extensive bone
fracturing, differentiating peri-mortem trauma from postmortem thermal related alterations can be challenging due
to heat related fractures and fragmentation. Symes et al
[19] noted that observations of the pattern of fractures
can enhance diagnosis.
In a 2004, working with cranial bone, Pope and
Smith[20] discovered the post-burning survival of preexisting trauma. In 2002, de Gruchy and Rogers [21]
identified chop marks in cremated bone but found that
their appearance could be influenced by burning-related
fragmentation. Herrmann and Bennett [22] also found that
signatures of sharp force trauma survived incineration but
proposed that an analysis of fracture patterns and surface
morphology was required. They found that blunt force
trauma was difficult to distinguish from heat related

Structural changes and DNA recovery

Experiments indicate that in bone samples
0
0
heated to temperatures between 800 C and 1200 C,
histological structure was preserved for analysis but
human mitochondrial DNA and some human albumin did
not survive [37] At higher temperatures, histological
structures can be altered as well [38].
Transmission electron microscopy study on
sheep bones indicates that relatively minimal heat causes
changes in collagen fibrils within bone [39]. The general
0
0
literature suggests that between 800 C and 1400 C new
0
crystals appear, with some crystal fusion above 1000 C. At
0
1600 C and above, melting of bone mineral can occur
with recrystalization after cooling. [40] Shipman et al [36]
document growth in the crystal size of hydroxyapatite
during experiments with controlled burning of sheep and

32

Journal of Punjab Academy of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology 10 (2010)

goat bones. Experiment by Sillen and Hoering [41] found

0
0
increase in crystallinity between 200 C and 700 C, apatite
was transformed into whitlockite with temperatures
0
above 700 C and char was produced between
0
0
temperatures of 300 C and 500 C.
Cattaneo in 1999, while determining the human
origin of fragments of burnt bone, in a comparative study
of histological, immunological and DNA techniques,
concluded that histological methods were not redundant
and that quantitative microscopy provided an accurate
and consistent means of determining the human or nonhuman origin of burnt bone and was more reliable than
standard microscopy or the newer immunological and
DNA techniques [42].
Brown et al. [43] recovered DNA from human
early Bronze Age cremated bone from Bedd Branwen,
Anglesey. In 1991, Sajantila et al [44] reported successful
DNA typing on all 26 samples extracted from 10 fire
victims exhibiting extreme charring. Tsuchimochi et al in
2002 [45] could amplify and type DNA successfully from
dental pulp after teeth had been exposed to temperatures
0
up to 300 C.

Study of bone colour, aids in the reconstruction and

interpretation of the burial deposit. [53]
Analysis of fleshed bone as compared to dry bone
The study by Binford in 1963 [54] and Thurman
and Willmore in 1981 [55] helped define differences
between bones burned in the flesh vs. those burned
without flesh. These studies documented that dry bones
exhibited longitudinal splitting and superficial checking of
the external surfaces and less evidence of warping. In
contrast, those burned with flesh displayed considerable
warping, transverse fractures, frequently in a curvilinear
pattern, and more irregular longitudinal splitting. Whyte
[56] conducted experiments with non-human animal
remains. Burning of fleshed remains produced distinctive
fractures sometimes in association with warping. Those
burned as dry bone produced less variation in fracture
patterns and less evidence of warping. [57]
Weights of burnt body
In 1997 Warren and Maples [57] examined 100
individuals before and after cremation. All males
presented post cremation values above 2750 g and all
females had values below 1887 g. The percentage of
weight of burnt body to that of unburnt body was 3.5% in
adults, 2.5% in children and only 1% in infants. In an
experiment in 2004 by Bass and Jantz [58, 59, 60], the post
cremation weights from adults in East Tennessee, in males
the range was from 1865 to 5379 g with a mean of 3380 g.
Female values ranged from 1050 to 4000 g with a mean of
2350 g. 37, Issue 4 (July 1992)

Colouration of bone fragments:

The colour of bone fragments affected by high
temperatures is a function of oxygen availability, duration
and temperature [46, 47]. Davids 1990 experimental work
[35] found that in a controlled brushfire, no calcination
occurred and fragments appeared brown and black. A
campfire size burn using eucalyptus wood reached a
0
temperature of 840 C in one hour and five minutes and
produced white, calcined fragments with some grey and
black colouration. Bones removed from this fire after only
25 min displayed a colour range of black, brown, grey and
white/blue. Of course, the full range of colour alterations
can be found within a single skeleton and even on a single
bone, especially in cases of the burning of fleshed remains
[19]. Recently, Symes et al [19] have enlightened the
protective role played by soft tissue in thermal colour
changes in bone. They noted that within a relatively short
distance, soft tissue protected bone could display a
sequence of calcined, charred, border and heat line zones
which defined the area of bone exposure to heat and
helped to differentiate bones burned in the flesh as
compared to that burned as dry bone.
Colour changes in teeth are similar to those
documented in bone [48, 49]. Experimental work by
Spennemann and Colley in 1989 [50] documented that
increased heat and fire duration produced white
fragments but with considerable variation. Staining of
bone fragments producing a variety of colours resulted
from contact with different materials in the environment.
Earlier, Dunlop [51] had reported that copper produced a
pink colour in cremated bones, iron a green colour and
zinc a yellow colour. Bone colour depends upon different
areas of a recovery site, reflecting variation in soil
composition and specific skeletal elements exposed [52].

Conclusions and summary

In these extreme burning cases, determination
of origin, age and sex etc. becomes very significant from
the fragments of burnt bones. The extent of recovery,
reconstruction, trauma, individual identification, size
reduction, and thermal effects on histological structures,
colour variation, the determination if remains were
burned with or without soft tissue, DNA recovery and
residual weight can be interpreted. The latest
biotechnological tool, DNA fingerprinting also fails in some
cases because of the denaturation of DNA at such a high
temperature. The anatomical reconstructions and
scanning electron microscopic study of burnt bone
fragments alone or in combination is the only answer to
the problem. In cases of exposure to extremely high
temperature, the colour of bone fragments speaks about
the degree of the temperature. Using scanning electron
microscopic technique, study of recrystallisation and also
the temperature based colour change pattern, it is
successfully deduced.
Conflict of interest
None declared.
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Journal of Punjab Academy of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology 10 (2010)

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