Issue Brief 3

Crude Oil Transport: Risks and Impacts

Introduction
Since 2010, the use of land and water transport networks to connect the oil and gas fields in the western United
States and Canada with refineries and ports on the east, west and Gulf coasts has grown exponentially. Transport of
two types of crude oil has been increasing across the Great Lakes states and provinces and through the regions
waterways. This increase includes light crude shale oil, particularly from North Dakotas Bakken Shale and heavy
oil sands crude from the northern Alberta region, referred to as Alberta oil sands and often transported as diluted
bitumen (dilbit). It is expected that light crude from U.S. shale and heavy crude from Alberta will play a prominent
role in commodity transport in the Great Lakes states and provinces well into the 2020s.1
The surge in crude oil shipments poses environmental and safety risks from accidents that may occur from pipelines,
rail lines, waterways and at transshipment sites. While some risks of oil transport to the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence
River region can be mitigated by construction of west-to-east and north-to-south pipelines (which would bypass the
region), oil pipelines are long-term projects, expensive to construct, and have fixed routes. Railroads, barges and
trucks provide alternatives and transportation flexibility that oil industry shippers require to respond to changing
trends in productivity at the resource extraction sites and in demand from coastal refineries. Although studies
indicate that pipeline transport is the historical preferred choice of oil companies transporting oil and may be safer
under some conditions, these more flexible transport options mentioned above are becoming more desirable and can
be practical and cost-effective alternatives.2 3
However, all the modes of crude oil transport pipeline, rail, vessel, barge and truck as well as the transshipment
locations where oil is moved from one mode of transport to another, pose potential risks to the environment, public
health and safety. This policy brief describes the range of risks and impacts associated with each mode of transport
and at transshipment points. The goal is to provide local, state and provincial officials in the Great Lakes region with
an overview of what is known about the range of risks and associated impacts so that steps can be taken to
ameliorate risks and prepare for potential incidents.

The Context: Defining Risks and Impacts

Risk is typically defined in relative terms, as a ratio describing the probability of an event with negative
consequences. In the case of oil transport in the Great Lakes region, the concept is complicated by numerous
variables including: the variety of landscapes potentially affected by an oil spill-related incident; the vulnerability of
those landscapes to damaging impacts; and the type and extent of the incident. An incident may range from a
minor spill on isolated rural land in the winter (limiting ground contamination) to a major catastrophic spill in one of
the Great Lakes or a derailment-produced spill and fire in a major urban area. Moreover, the risks can be further
complicated by the properties of the oil being transported. For instance, research shows that dilbit from Canada has
more corrosive properties and weathers quickly while Bakken crude oil is volatile with a low flashpoint and may be
more explosive than conventional crude oil.4 5 However, there is a need to better understand the properties of the
different types of oil and how these properties influence the choices made as to which mode of transportation is used

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and the risks associated with those choices. For a detailed description of the type of crude oil being transported,
please refer to Issue Brief 1: Developments in Crude Oil Extraction and Movement.
Because of the diverse nature of oil spills, it is difficult to predict the extent and duration of impacts on the
ecosystem, human health and the regional economy. As the Deepwater Horizon incident (the April 2010 off-shore
drilling rig explosion and oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico) demonstrated, impacts on fisheries, local businesses and
tourism may persist until the oil has been completely removed and, in some cases, long after the oil has been
removed.6 7 In the Great Lakes region, there are more than 30 million people (approximately 10 percent of the U.S.
population and 30 percent of the Canadian population) who depend on the Great Lakes for their drinking water
supply.8 Key industries, such as agriculture, tourism, and sport and commercial fishing are potentially at risk from
impacts if an oil spill were to occur. In addition to resource-based industries, manufacturing industries in the Great
Lakes region include steel, paper, chemicals and automobiles. These industries rely both on oil for their operations
and Great Lakes basin water for their industrial processes and could also be impacted by oil spills.9 Moreover, the
Great Lakes region is home to pristine natural environments and ecologically sensitive areas and the lakes, along
with the St. Lawrence River, are central to the physical and cultural heritage of North America. A spill in such an
important and sensitive region can have far-reaching consequences, including both the damage done by the oil itself
and the impact of intensive cleanup efforts, which can compound the environmental impacts in ecologically sensitive
areas.
All modes of crude oil transport have advantages and disadvantages based on a range of operational, economic and
environmental factors and considerations. If states and provinces are to respond effectively to reduce risks and
prepare for potential accidents, public officials need to understand the risks associated with each mode and their
potential impacts on the environment in order to protect the health and safety of communities. The following section
will discuss the special risks and impacts of crude oil spills for each mode of transportation with respect to the Great
Lakes region. For details on advantages and disadvantages of each mode of transport on the region, please refer to
Issue Brief 2: Advantages, Disadvantages, and Economic Benefits Associated with Crude Oil Transportation.

Modes of Transport - Associated Risks and Impacts

Pipelines
The U.S. and Canadian pipeline infrastructure has been a component of domestic and international transportation of
oil for more than a century. The 44,117 miles of Canadian crude oil pipeline infrastructure, regulated by National
Energy Board (NEB), stretches from Vancouver, British Columbia, into the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River region
as far as Montreal, Qubec.10 The Canadian pipelines are highly integrated with the U.S. crude oil pipeline
infrastructure, which spans more than 57,348 miles including a portion of all of the Great Lakes states.11 Within the
Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River region, active crude oil pipelines extend over 9,122 miles.12 13 Although studies
show that, by comparison with other modes of transport, pipelines have a lower spill incident and fatality rate per
billion ton-miles of oil transported, a pipeline oil spill when one occurs can have severe and long lasting impacts on
the environment and regional economy. 14
The age and quality of the pipeline infrastructure are important contributors to oil spill risk in the Great Lakes-St.
Lawrence River region. According to the U.S. Department of Transportations (DOT) Pipeline and Hazardous
Material Safety Administration (PHMSA) Office of Pipeline Safety, much of the pipeline infrastructure has been in
place for decades.15 In the Great Lakes states, 55 percent of the pipelines were installed prior to 1970.16 While it is
difficult to deduce the age of pipeline infrastructure in the Great Lakes Canadian provinces, the NEBs statistics
from July 2011 show that approximately 48 percent of Canadian pipelines carrying hazardous liquids were installed

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more than 30 years ago.17 Additionally, incident data collected by PHMSA show that the most common cause of
spill incidents is pipeline infrastructure failure.18

Associated Risks:
a) Pipeline Quality: Over time the quality of pipeline performance declines due to material deterioration,
cracks from corrosion, erosion and defective welding. Examples of pipelines potentially at risk from these
factors are the two Enbridge pipelines that lie below water to the west of the Mackinac Bridge in northern
Michigan. These pipelines were installed in 1953, more than 60 years ago, and have never been replaced. 19
As noted by a PHMSA report, old pipelines are prone to corrosion and material and weld failure. This
deterioration accounts for 60 percent of pipeline failure and rupture incidents resulting in an oil spill.20
Moreover, studies from North Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan show that the corrosive effect of
dilbit oil caused spills of 38,220 barrels of crude, or 30.3 percent of the total crude oil spill in the United
States between 2007-2010.21 22
b) Natural Hazards and Extreme Weather Conditions: Pipelines in the Great Lakes region traverse areas
subject to damage from ice, currents, floods and lakebed erosion, which can have detrimental effects on the
pipeline infrastructure.23 Furthermore, some of the flood maps and information provided by FEMAs Flood
Insurance Rate Maps date back to the 1970s.24 The outdated information can lead to increased risk in the
event of a spill. The lack of updated information and data creates uncertainties regarding the effects of
proposed pipeline infrastructure expansion, particularly the risks associated with extreme weather
conditions. For example, long-term data from an effective monitoring program will be critical to assessing
the risks associated with the proposed expansion of Enbridge pipeline 6B that runs from Griffith, Ind., to
Sarnia, Ontario, which crosses over four rivers at points within 20 miles of Lake Michigan.25As another
example, the extreme weather conditions, resulting from ice in winters and deep surface currents in opposite
directions could create massive cleanup challenges in the event of an oil spill in the Straits of Mackinac. 26
c) Monitoring: Pipelines require constant monitoring and accidents may result from undetected failures due to
insufficient or delayed monitoring. As an example of one potentially catastrophic instance, the National
Wildlife Federation sponsored a dive along Enbridge Line 5, which runs through the Straits of Mackinac
from Superior, Wis., to Sarnia, Ontario, in 2013. Film taken during that dive highlighted some of the
structural defects of Line 5 that had previously gone unnoticed.27 Another example of pipeline-related risks
is the prolonged release of crude oil during the Enbridge pipeline spill near Marshall, Mich., on July 25,
2010, which was at least partially the result of deficient integrity management procedures and inadequate
training of control center personnel.28
d) Out-dated Regulatory Regime: Studies show that more efficient external sensors would improve the
performance of current sensors, which some reports indicate have detected only five percent of pipeline
spills in the United States in the last 10 years.29 However, the existing regulatory framework has yet to
require improved monitoring standards. Moreover, U.S. pipeline regulations do not require pipeline
companies to publicly disclose whether they are transporting bitumen, which would aid state and provincial
officials in preparing for spills. The inability to provide up-to-date data and sporadic monitoring lapses may
exacerbate the risks from pipeline spills. While studies show that upgrading pipeline infrastructure with
automatic shut-off valves can reduce potential risks, the current regulations do not enforce such upgrades.30
31
Pipeline companies may discourage the installation of remote shut-off systems due to installation costs.32
e) Physical Environment: In the Great Lakes, pipelines run through diverse ecological areas that may be
home to endangered species and are sensitive to environmental degradation. Spill response planning
resources developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) identify areas of great

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ecological sensitivity throughout the U.S. Great Lakes region. In addition, there is a risk of delayed
emergency response in remote areas. Both of these conditions must be considered when evaluating the
potential risks of pipeline spills.
The pipeline safety statistics from 2000-09 reported 411 spill incidents from Canadian pipelines and 3,318 spill
incidents from the U.S. pipelines.33 Within the eight Great Lakes states, 559 hazardous liquid spill incidents occurred
between 2004-2010, resulting in property damages of over $1.1 billion.34 Although data from Canadas NEB and the
U.S. DOT show that pipelines result in fewer oil spill incidents and personal injuries than road and rail, this is a
high-volume transmission mode and large spills in the recent past have demonstrated that the cumulative impact of a
spill on the environment, economy and human health of the affected region can be serious.

Impacts:
Across the Great Lakes region, oil pipelines often run in close proximity to dense urban centers and traverse
ecologically sensitive and remote areas. As mentioned below, a spill can jeopardize surrounding neighborhoods;
recreational, agricultural, commercial and industrial areas; sensitive areas; and waterways, resulting in potentially
severe immediate and long-term impacts as the released product spreads over or penetrates deep into soil or
waterways. In addition to the existing pipelines, new route proposals include pipelines that would impact the Great
Lakes region. Particular cases include the Enbridge Line 6B and Line 9 that create risks for Lake Michigan and the
Ottawa River in Ontario respectively.35 36

Human Health: The proximity of pipelines to groundwater sources within the Great Lakes region can cause
serious contamination that may have a detrimental impact on communities. 37 If dilbit is involved in a spill,
the diluent evaporates rapidly in the air and can lead to high airborne levels of toxic components. This
impacts the health and safety of the emergency responders as well as the surrounding communities. 38

Ecological: If ingested by aquatic and semi-aquatic fauna (birds, mammals, amphibians and reptiles), oil
from spills can cause serious harm and death. Submerged oil can have developmental impacts leading to
abnormalities in newly born aquatic species.39 A land spill can degrade the topsoil or penetrate deep into a
local aquifer, impacting the health and economic wellbeing of the nearby communities. Sensitive habitats
like wetlands can also be impaired, as was the case with the 2010 Enbridge spill in Marshall, Mich.

Economic: In addition to the costs incurred in cleanup activities, an oil spill may negatively impact the
regional economy. After the Enbridge pipeline Kalamazoo river spill in 2010, some homeowners in
surrounding communities sold their homes, fearing a fall in market prices. In 2014 local businesses continue
to be affected by loss of clientele. Either a water or land spill can result in significant economic and
employment costs by putting existing jobs at risk.40

Ships and Barges

About 70 percent of the oil sands crude recently extracted in Alberta, Canada, was sent to refineries in the
midwestern United States.41 The surge in Alberta oil sands has increased the total quantity of oil transported to
refineries in the United States by 53 percent between 2011 and 2012. 42 Although crude oil is not currently
transported on the Great Lakes, it has been moved by barge to midwestern refineries via such inland waterways as
the Mississippi, Ohio and Hudson rivers. In places such as Hennepin, Ill., and Albany, N.Y., barges are used to
transport small quantities of crude oil as an alternative to rail transport.43 Given the known advantages of the water
transportation mode (studies show that ships and barges pose fewer risks in transporting hazardous liquids than trains

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and trucks, and have economic advantages over other modes of transport), 44 45 46 and the proximity of several oil
refineries to major Great Lakes ports, the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Seaway deep-draft navigation system has
predictably been receiving increased consideration as a potential routing alternative. In the absence of crude oil
shipments on the Great Lakes, an analysis of recent hazardous liquid spill data from commercial vessel shipping on
the Great Lakes can provide some insight on the associated risks of a crude oil spill. But it should be noted that an oil
spill in Great Lakes open waters or inland-restricted waters, particularly involving oil sands crude oil, poses a much
greater array of risks, including potential long-lasting impacts on the environment and the economy.47

Associated Risks:
a) Collisions, Allisions and Groundings: A barge or tanker ship hull containing crude oil can suffer severe
structural damage and spill cargo as the result of a collision with another ship, an allision with a fixed
structure such as a seawall, pier or bridge, or a grounding. The latest regulations by Transport Canada
require all tankers, small and large, to be double-hulled by 2015.48 Similarly, in the United States, under the
Oil Pollution Act (OPA) of 1990, double-hulled tankers will replace the double-bottom and double-side
vessels by 2015.49 For more details on OPAs legal framework, please refer to Issue Brief 4: Regulations,
Policies and Programs Governing Transport of Crude Oil. The industry directory Greenwoods Guide to
Great Lakes Shipping lists a fleet of 18 powered tanker ships (as opposed to non-powered tank barges)
active in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence system, 17 of which are of Canadian registry. The lone U.S. flag
powered tanker is a 120-foot vessel used exclusively to refuel cargo ships in southern Lake Michigan. Flag
of registry is an important distinction in defining the existing Great Lakes tanker fleet, as cabotage law,
specifically the U.S. Jones Act, prohibits the use of any non-U.S. flag vessel from operating between two
U.S. ports. Virtually the entire existing Great Lakes powered tanker fleet, which is Canadian, is thus
precluded from transporting product from a U.S. loading port to a U.S. refinery dock. Most U.S. liquid bulk
cargoes on the Great Lakes consisting primarily of asphalt, other processed petroleum products and
chemicals are carried on tug-propelled, double-hulled tank barges with capacities ranging between 30,000
to 50,000 barrels. Moreover, depending on the type of oil in the vessel, the impact resulting from a collision,
allision or grounding may cause fire and a risk of explosion.50
b) Spill Spreading in Connecting Channels: Many of the refineries, oil storage facilities and ports lie along
the connecting channels and tributaries of Great Lakes.51 If a spill were to occur in these areas, water
currents and climatic conditions pose a risk of spreading the spill into the adjacent watershed, which can
complicate a spill response.
c) Regulatory Risks, Severe Weather and the Human Factor: Special risks arise from the nature of ship and
barge operations, which differ in significant ways from surface transportation modes and are not always
fully controllable through regulatory measures. Weather conditions, for instance, are a much greater risk
management factor for water transportation than for truck, rail or pipeline. Severe weather on the Great
Lakes, in the form of high winds and waves, ice and diminished visibility particularly when combined with
equipment failure and/or human error can substantially increase the risk of catastrophic events. There is
also greater responsibility placed on a single human operator for ship and barge operations than in surface
transportation modes. While commercial shipping lanes linking cargo ports on the Great Lakes are wellestablished in open waters and tightly regulated in restricted and high-traffic areas, ultimate navigation
routing decisions and ship handling maneuvers are still controlled by the vessel master on U.S. and Canadian
flag vessels, or by a licensed pilot on foreign flag vessels operating in the Great Lakes via the St. Lawrence
Seaway.

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Impacts:
Spilled oil weathers quickly in water, breaking down and changing its physical and chemical properties. In this
process, the oil can have impacts on flora and fauna of the Great Lakes depending on their sensitivity to oil
contamination. Such impacts are difficult to measure and can complicate the response process. In addition,
depending on the type of oil, the impacts can have different repercussions for the environment, health and economy.

In Open Water: In case of oil sands crude spill, the diluent hydrocarbon (e.g., Benzene) floats on the
surface of the water. The ingestion and inhalation of the resulting toxic fumes can endanger birds and
mammals. Furthermore, since oil sands crude oil is heavier than water, it can sink to the bottom of the lake
or riverbed making the extraction process resource intensive and, in a few cases, impossible.52 Similarly, the
Bakken light crude oil has high proportions of hydrocarbons that make it viscous and explosive at the same
time. Owing to its high volatility, a Bakken oil spill could result in a fire or explosion. More importantly, a
spill in open water (and along the shoreline) can affect millions of people who depend on the Great Lakes for
their drinking water.53

Along the Shoreline: As with oil in open water, oil that reaches the shore impacts flora and fauna. A spill
occurring near the shoreline can be detrimental to the environment as well as to human coastal activities like
aquatic sports and beach enjoyment. The washed away oil that reaches coastal wetlands can severely impact
commercial and sport fishing activity an important industry of the Great Lakes and other commercial
industries dependent on Great Lakes water for industrial purposes.54

Economic: Great Lakes commercial and recreational fishing industries would be at serious risk in an event
of an oil spill. Simultaneously, Great Lakes communities that rely heavily on coastal tourism and recreation
would incur heavy losses due to cordoned off beaches and waterways. Personal property losses for
waterfront home and business owners would be significant. Even after cleanup, communities would face
additional expenses to restore visitor traffic, build up their businesses and win back lost clientele.55 A
significant crude oil spill in Great Lakes waters could also place at risk the social acceptance of the entire
concept of waterborne oil transportation on the Lakes, thus threatening the enormous capital investment that
would have to be made by vessel operators, ports and related interests to enable it.

Railroad Transport
According to the Association of American Railroads, 434,000 carloads of crude oil moved by rail across United
States in 2013, roughly 45 times the amount shipped in 2008, and the volumes continue to rise.56 The reason that oil
shipping by rail has expanded is due to the ability of rail to quickly respond to increased production in the oil fields.
However, the increased volume of rail transport has also led to a surge in oil spill incidents via this mode. Rail has
historically been a safe and efficient way for suppliers to transport oil. Over the period 1996-2007, railroads
statistically spilled less crude oil per ton-mile than either trucks or pipelines. However, in 2013 alone, the total
volume of oil spilled by rail was more than the combined total from 1975-2012.57 58 The recent disastrous events
Lac-Mgantic, Qubec; Casselton, N.D.; Aliceville, Ala.; and Lynchburg, Va. along with the growth in projections
in volume of oil transport by rail have elevated the importance of understanding the safety and environmental risks
concerning the transport of crude oil by rail. 59 Owing to these increasing incidents, rail transportation of crude oil
has recently received more public and regulatory scrutiny in the United States and Canada. Please refer to Issue Brief
4 for more details on the regulatory changes that have been made in the past year.

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Associated Risks:
a) Infrastructure: Studies of Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) data show that 60 percent of freight-train
accidents are caused by derailments.60 The major causes of derailments are broken rails or welds, buckled
track, obstruction and main-line brake operation. 61Some derailment incidents, such as that in Aliceville,
Ala., point to failure of trestles. Trestles may not always be adequately maintained. It should be noted that
this accident remains under investigation; an official NTSB report on the incident was not produced when
this policy brief was written.62 In addition, factors like abnormal train speed, weather conditions and human
error can contribute to oil spill incidents.
b) Tank Car Design: The DOT-111/Class 111 tank car is most frequently used to ship crude oil in the U.S. and
Canada. Several problems have been identified with this tank car model. These tank cars are prone to
structural failure and rupture upon impact. Studies from the Transportation Safety Board (TSB Canada)
and the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB United States) show that the DOT-111/Class 111
cars wall thickness (7/16 inch) might not be sufficient to withstand impact during an accident. 63 The topfittings, used for loading and unloading of content, may burst open in a derailment or rollover. The head
shields, at the front of the cars, are prone to puncture in a collision. The three bottom valves, facilitating
quick unloading at the terminals, can break on impact and release oil. Out of the 63 oil-filled tanker cars that
derailed in Lac-Mgantic, 60 cars (95%) spilled oil due to tank car damage puncture of shell and front/rear
heads were identified as the major structural points of failure.64
c) Crossings: Unmonitored crossing points are special risk zones where accidents with automobiles, vans,
trucks and buses can increase the risk of oil spill or explosion. With the advent of unit trains, which are
frequently over a mile in length, drivers may be tempted to run through closed crossings. Monitoring of
crossings, including illegal trespassing, and installation of proper infrastructure are the responsibility of local
law enforcement officials who do not always have the manpower to monitor crossings in densely trafficked
urban areas. For example, the recent accident between a truck and an empty oil tanker in West Nyack, NY
that led to fire and explosion, points to lack of infrastructure (safety gate system) and lack of monitoring.65
d) Mixed and Unit Trains: Unit or block trains area single train carrying one commodity in multiple tank cars.
Unit trains may contain between 120 and 140 tank cars and be over a mile long. The volume of oil carried in
unit trains poses particular risks because a derailment may result in fire and explosion that can spread to
coupled tank cars. While volume carried is less a concern in mixed trains, the lack of complete information
about commodity contained in the tanker can be problematic since operators may change the sequencing of
cars during the rail journey.66 . Mixed trains carrying crude oil are not adequately studied in risk analysis
and emergency preparedness programs that address crude oil transport.
e) Train Assembly: Research shows that improperly assembled trains are more susceptible to derailment.67
The distribution of cars that are empty or loaded and the length of the train affects its ability to negotiate
track routes while subjected to stretching and compressive forces that may result in derailment. In
addition to train assembly, other factors like track grades and turning radius affect train maneuverability,
which may result in derailment.
f) Regulatory Regime: In the U.S., regulations require that railroads have either a basic response plan or a
more comprehensive response plan, depending on the volume capacity of the rail car transporting the oil.
In 1996 the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) set the threshold differentiating the response plans at
1,000 barrels, thus eliminating the applicability of a comprehensive response to incidents caused by new
DOT-111 cars, which carry around 700 barrels.68 Proper classification of trains hauling crude oil is critical
because it ensures that hazardous materials are placed in the appropriate tank cars and that emergency
responders will know the right protocols to follow in the event of an accident.69 However, such regulations

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do not ensure the safety of a mixed train, where cargo gets loaded and unloaded at different transshipment
sites.
g) Human Capital Planning: In the quickly changing scenario of oil transportation, agencies at all levels
might find it difficult to recruit, train and allocate new employees to meet dramatically increased volumes of
crude oil transport and associated risks. The FRA is facing strategic human capital planning challenges to
cope with increase traffic flow, new technologies and new regulations a risk that is applicable to all the
modes of transport.70
An important issue that remains to be investigated is train speeds and corresponding dwell time the amount of time
a train spends between its destinations. Data from the American Association of Railroads show that between 20132014, the dwell times remained 25 percent above the previous average time, while the average train speeds were 12
percent slower than during the same period in 2013.71 Reducing dwell time and increasing train speed would reduce
the total time that oil trains spend in populated areas. However, whether changing this ratio will reduce the
probability of accidents requires further research.

Impacts:
The FRA-approved tracks that carry crude oil shipments often run in close proximity to dense urban areas,
environmentally sensitive areas and important bodies of water, including the Great Lakes. With a potential risk of
fire and explosion, an oil spill could have a severe and long-lasting impact on a regional environment and economy.

Human Health: Apart from air contamination causing respiratory damage to residents in surrounding
communities, the biggest threat to human life comes from the potential for a fire or explosion. 72

Environment: Oil spilling into water bodies and on land surfaces can have detrimental effects on the
environment as well as on human activities. The most dangerous impact from railway incidents is the release
of hydrocarbons and other toxic materials during an explosion that can cause fire or contaminate the air.

Economic: In the event of a catastrophe, the railroad companies have insufficient insurance coverage to pay
for accident damages. Damages may require public investment to rebuild lives, fund soil or water
remediation, and reconstruct the local economy. 73 Furthermore, an explosion can inflict severe property
damage that can disrupt communities and neighborhoods.

Tanker Trucks
Tanker trucks provide flexibility, linking extraction sites and refineries to pipelines and rail terminals. Unlike other
modes of transport, trucks are primarily used to transport oil for relatively short distances because long distance
transport by truck is not an economical option.74 Although trucks transport only a small percentage of the total oil
being moved in the United States and Canada, and an even smaller percentage in the Great Lakes region, there has
been a recent increase in truck oil shipments, which may be a cause of concern. In the United States, shipment of oil
by truck from shale formations in North Dakota and oil sands in Canada to U.S. refineries increased by 38 percent
between 2011 and 2012.75 The existing studies on truck transport indicate that trucks are not a favored mode of
transport due to high incident rates per billion ton-miles when compared to rail, ship/barge and pipeline. 76
77
However, the surge in production may change transportation trends. In the absence of studies on tanker trucks
carrying crude oil, studies of trucks hauling hazardous liquids can point to some of the associated risks and impacts.

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Associated Risks:
a) En route collision: As compared to other modes of transport, tanker trucks operate in close proximity to the
general public and share the same infrastructure (i.e., highways, roads, neighborhoods). Trucks can also
operate in densely populated areas. This increases the risk of accidents, including collisions and accidents at
crossings. Collisions may involve multiple vehicles and can occur at high speeds, which may increase the
risk of fire and explosion. 78
b) Inadequate Infrastructure: Since trucks are often used to transport oil to and from railway transshipment
facilities and pipelines, poorly maintained and monitored infrastructure at delivery points and fuel loading
terminals could contribute to accidents, including fire and explosion.79
c) Truck Design: Tanker trucks are typically loaded through bottom lines, which do not drain completely into
the tank because they are at the lowest point on the container. The structurally fragile bottom lines can
contain more than 50 gallons of the oil, referred to as wetlines, and may contribute to an event leading to
fire and explosion.80
d) Regulatory Regime: A significant risk emerges from lack of information. For example, the U.S. DOT does
not track the total number of cargo tank trucks operating within the United States.81

Impacts:
Although tanker trucks account for only 4 percent of the total crude oil and petroleum product transport, the high
incident and fatality rates in comparison with other modes of transport create a higher probability for a catastrophic
event every time a tanker truck is on the road. 82

Human Health: Apart from the threat of air contamination, an oil spill from trucks can cause fire and
explosion resulting in serious injuries and/or fatalities and loss of property.83

Environment: Previous experiences with truck-related oil spills indicate that the biggest threat to the
environment is the contamination of nearby streams and rivers, the waters of which may be used for
household and industrial purposes. 84 Additionally, similar to land and water spill impacts listed for other
modes, the after effects of a tanker truck spill can be felt on flora and fauna and can disrupt human activities.

Economic: An oil spill causing fire and explosion can cause property damages that may also impact
housing values in neighborhoods located near the spill site. Moreover, a cordoned off highway and/or
closure to important business routes can affect businesses in the area.

Transshipment Facilities
The surge in crude oil production from the western United States and Canada is changing the ways in which oil is
moved in both countries and the geography of oil transport lines, networks and nodes. Transshipment facilities are
being expanded in some instances and new ones are being planned and created. These include truck transfer sites at
the point of extraction to connect with pipelines; loading and off-loading sites at rail spurs and in rail yards; and
transfer and storage sites at refineries and ports. One example of this industrial transformation is at the Port of
Superior in Wisconsin. The Enbridge Pipeline Company received a permit for the expansion of shoreside storage
tank capacity in June 2014.85 Furthermore, Elkhorn Industries applied for a permit that would allow them to repair
the docks. These repairs would allow Calumet Specialty Products Partners, a company involved in crude oil
transportation and refining, to build a terminal that would allow crude oil transportation by vessel. This permit was
first applied for in January 2013 and dismissed in December 2013 because of insufficient information. A new permit

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application was submitted in August 2014. This new application has not yet been acted upon and does not specify
whether crude oil transshipment is expected to be part of the planned expansion.
While some Great Lakes transshipment facilities are becoming more important because of their proximity to
booming oil fields or have other geographic advantages, some transshipment facilities and their facilities are less
economically viable because they are linked to older and now declining direct sources of oil. This is an inherent
feature of the boom-bust cycle of resource extraction-based economies. To cope with uncertainties, oil companies
use multiple modes of transport to link key production sites and refineries. They also utilize makeshift facilities, as
has happened in North Dakota, to provide immediate services. These temporary facilities are likely to create more
risks than those that have been planned carefully and fully vetted by regulators.86
As the Bakken shale oil production and Alberta oil sands production intensify, so may the transshipment and transloading infrastructure in the Great Lakes states and provinces. In the Great Lakes states, recent information suggests
that Canadian Pacific railway has five and the BNSF railway has nine crude oil trans-loading facilities.87 88 These
could potentially increase their operating capacity to meet the rising demand of crude oil transportation. Any
receiving facilities for crude oil on the Great Lakes would have to be new, purpose-built installations, presumably at
major deep-draft ports near existing refineries in the region, since there is no current shipment of crude oil on the
Great Lakes. Smaller inland ports may also pose indirect risks to the Great Lakes, should they choose to ship oil as a
commodity. The Wood River, Ill., port, for example, off-loads 40,000 barrels per day of heavy Canadian crude from
pipelines onto barges, which creates the risk of a spill incident. 89

Associated Risks:
a) Equipment Failure: The most common risk associated with transshipment points are the technical failure
and defects of equipment such as an oil loader at a barge and truck-loading terminal that can cause oil to
spill. 90
b) Human Error: Past studies attribute the majority of failures to human errors while operating loading
equipment at a terminal, however an updated study of the Great Lakes region is required that points to more
precise risks.91
c) Storage and Maintenance: Cargo shipments may be held for days at transshipment points before being
transferred to other modes of transport and they may not be monitored for leakage and/or accidental
damages. A case in point is the incident at the Port of Albany where 100 gallons of oil was spilled from a
stored rail car because of a pressure release valve. 92 To respond to the increasing supply of oil,
transshipment facilities have begun to increase their oil storage capacity, which further increases the risk.93
d) Regulatory Regime: Regulatory oversight of Great Lakes ports involve multiple jurisdictions and can vary
widely based on port governance structures, of which there are many. On the U.S side, each of the 13 major
ports of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Seaway System is governed by a public agency: a state, a county, a
municipality or a legislatively enabled port authority. Individual docks in these ports are operated by private
companies as tenants. In smaller U.S. Great Lakes ports, most docks are privately owned and operated. All
U.S. Great Lakes commercial ports are accessed by federally maintained (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers)
and navigationally regulated (U.S. Coast Guard) navigation channels. Additional regulatory oversight
regarding liquid bulk transportation is wielded federally by the U.S. EPA and the U.S.DOT. States also play
regulatory roles through their respective environmental protection and transportation agencies. In Canada,
federal port authorities, provincial governments and municipal governments manage the ports and private
companies own and operate the docks.94 Federal commercial navigation oversight is provided by Transport
Canada and Environment Canada. Collectively, the sheer number of regulatory players involved in

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waterborne oil transportation on the Great Lakes complicates the risk management process. As with other
transport risk arenas, transshipment facilities are affected by the absence of current information on the
potential risks they pose; risks that may be exacerbated by an increase in the volume of oil they are handling.
For example, outdated coastal flood maps may underestimate a variety of dangers to Great Lakes carriers.
The Great Lakes region experiences lake level changes, coastal flooding, long- and short-term soil erosion,
and storm surges among other hazards.95 These hazards can potentially cause physical damage to the port
infrastructure that can then lead to a catastrophic event.
The existing literature on crude oil transportation focuses almost exclusively on the modes of transportation and
overlooks the substantial risks of transshipment points in the United States and Canada. A comprehensive
understanding of risks and impacts of transshipment ports can help to manage these critical points and reduce the
possibility of catastrophic accidents.

Impacts:
The environmental impacts of an incident at a transshipment point are similar to the ones resulting from a spill with
other modes of transportation. Similar to these risks, the most distinctive impact at a transshipment point comes from
unmonitored docked cargos that can turn a small oil spill into a catastrophic event. Furthermore, unclear
accountability for the docked cargo, between docking and unloading, can complicate or delay an oil spill response.

Proximity to population: A transshipment site, such as a port, rail yard or refinery, may be adjacent to a
population center or business district. In the event of an accident, this area may be at serious risk from fire or
explosion.

Economic: A spill or a catastrophic event at a transshipment point renders it dysfunctional for days. The
impact can be felt by commercial freight as well as the tourism industry, which can affect the regional and
national economy. 96

Discussion: Gaps in Knowledge of Risks and Impacts

This brief indicates that all the modes of crude oil transport through the binational Great Lakes region pose certain
risks that depend on a number of factors the type of crude oil being transported, the route and destination of
transport, population density of areas where oil is being transported to and through, environmental protection
concerns, ecological variability and vulnerability, state of emergency preparedness and response capabilities in the
region, climate and weather conditions, among others. The resulting impacts may have complex consequences for
the environment, human health, public safety and economy of the region. Our understanding of risks and impacts is
informed by what we know from the accidents that have happened thus far. Although some of the literature
reviewed in this policy brief recommends one mode of transport over the other, the conclusions are based on partial
data and evidence and rarely reflect the rapidly changing environment associated with crude oil transport in the Great
Lakes region. With the surge in crude oil transportation, there are important issues that need to be properly
understood in order to develop a more comprehensive regional approach to reduce the risks of spills. Most
importantly, to avert catastrophic accidents, a more effective and informed disaster mitigation strategy needs to be
developed.

11

Relative Risk Study: There is no complete study currently available of relative risks and impacts associated
with oil transportation that systematically considers all the factors for each mode of transport economic

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consequences, incident rates, fatality rates, long-term environmental damages, etc. A study of relative risks
should include risk assessments using scenario-based research and focusing on the distinctive risks and
impacts for each mode of transport are needed.
Regulatory Gaps and Risk Governance: The role of government in regulating oil transportation and the
broader issue of governance can affect the way that risks are identified and managed and impacts are
mitigated. This brief points to some of the obvious gaps in the current regulatory regime. However, there are
other gaps that have not yet been fully addressed. For instance, the issue of liability is not fully addressed by
the market or by regulators. In the case of rail transport, the shipping companies are often under-insured and
the costs of accident remediation clearly exceed the insurance coverage available in the commercial market.
97
Although shared liabilities where the government bears the costs over and above the cap limit provided by
insurance companies seems a possible solution, the use of public money to cover the costs of a spill cleanup
has increasingly attracted public scrutiny. The issue is further complicated by the issue of liability when the
oil is in transit. The information that underpins the regulatory regimes of the Great Lakes states and
provinces may not be up to the task to meet the current and growing challenges of crude oil transportation.
Existing regulatory regimes governing other forms of transportation, such as those governing airline safety,
can provide effective working models that can be used to evaluate the safety and response mechanisms for
the various modes of transport that ship crude oil. For more information on regulatory gaps, please refer to
Issue Brief 4: Regulations, Policies and Programs Governing Transport of Crude Oil.
Emergency Preparedness: Emergency preparedness for minor incidents, although useful, may not provide
adequate preparation for major incidents with catastrophic consequences low probability, high impact
incidents. Preparedness has been complicated by lack of communication between shippers, carriers, and state
emergency responders.98 The Oil Pollution Act (OPA) created a framework for assessing risk through the
National Preparedness for Response Exercise Program (PREP). This is a good model for building
relationships between agency and industry partners to improve preparedness programs and ensure readiness
in the event of a spill. PREP guides spill response exercises at regulated oil handling facilities. The exercises
are intended as opportunities for industry and agencies to validate and/or refine spill response plans; to build,
clarify and strengthen relationships; to confirm available resources and capabilities; and to provide
participants with on-the-job training in their roles and responsibilities. Industry is responsible for the costs of
PREP exercises, but the exercises themselves are overseen by the U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. EPA, PHMSA
and/or the Department of Interiors Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement. PREP exercises can
take place at the national, regional or state/local level and come in three scales including exercises to address
large-scale catastrophic spills. These full-scale (area) exercises are based on a scenario built around a
theoretical large spill and include participation at all levels of industry and government, including the
deployment of equipment by field personnel. Due to their size and complexity, area PREP exercises are held
around the country on a rotating basis set by representatives of each of the PREP agencies. Standard practice
has long been to schedule these exercises so that each U.S. EPA Region and each U.S. Coast Guard Captain
of the Port Zone holds at least one exercise every three years.
Oil Characteristics: One contentious topic that emerges out of the current discussion concerns oil
characteristics and the implications for transportation infrastructure. For instance, while research indicates
that raw oil sands products have higher sulphur content than medium and light crude oils and can contribute
to corrosivity, other research suggests that oil sands products in their transported state are not more corrosive
than standard crude oil.99 Similarly, there has been research arguing for and against the explosive
characteristics of Bakken crude oil and its impact on transportation modes and vessels.100 Studies of oil
characteristics, particular to the mode of transport currently used, can help inform the decision process.

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Land Use Planning in the Great Lakes Region: The Great Lakes land use planning happens at a local
level of government (i.e., town, city) so the federal government cannot effectively control this aspect of
development.101 Local land use plans often do not consider the broader impacts of transportation on the
surrounding areas and nearby communities. In the wake of increasing oil transportation and commensurate
increases in infrastructure there is a risk that unplanned (or poorly planned) development could negatively
affect public health and safety and the environment of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River region.

This policy brief summarizes the key risks and impacts for the Great Lakes states and provinces emerging from a
dramatic increase in demand for the transport of crude oil. With rapid expansion of crude oil production in Canada
and the United States, oil shippers are utilizing the Great Lakes transportation infrastructure to get their product to
east coast refineries and into global markets. All segments of this critical transport infrastructure, including rail,
tanker ships and pipelines are affected, along with the ports and sites where the oil is moved from one type of
transport to another. The rising demand for crude oil transportation has challenged the response mechanisms and
governance frameworks of public and private institutions that provide monitoring, safety regulations and emergency
preparedness. The ability to address the risks created by crude oil transport in the Great Lakes has also been affected
by fragmented responsibility and limited capacity. The risk and impact information in this brief is intended to
contribute to discussions of how monitoring, safety regulation and emergency preparedness can be brought up-tospeed to insure public safety and the protection of critical environmental resources in the Great Lakes region.

Lyman Welch, et al., Oil and Water: Tar Sands Crude Shipping Meets the Great Lakes? (Alliance For The Great Lakes, 2013), 1-3.
John Frittelli et al., US Rail Transportation of Crude Oil: Background and Issues for Congress, (Congressional Research Service, 2014), 4.
3
Pick You Poison For Crude Pipeline, Rail, Truck or Boat, Forbes 2014, accessed July 27, 2014, http://www.forbes.com/sites/jamesconca/2014/04/26/pickyour-poison-for-crude-pipeline-rail-truck-or-boat/
4
Anthony Swift et al., Tar Sands Pipelines Safety Risks (Natural Resource Defense Council, National Wildlife Federation, Pipeline Safety Trust, Sierra Club,
2011),3.
5
Operation Safe Delivery Update (PHMSA, 2014), 16.
6
Americas Gulf Coast: A Long Term Recovery Plan after the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill (Restore Gulf Coast, 2010), 1.
7
Assessing the Long-term Effects of the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill on Marine Mammals in Gulf of Mexico (Maritime Mammal Commission, 2011), 10.
The report states that Exxon Valdez oil spills (1989) long-terms effects were felt 15 years or more after the spill.
8
Great Lakes Basic Information, U.S Environmental Protection Agency, accessed August 19, 2014, http://www.epa.gov/greatlakes/basicinfo.html
9
Consumptive Water Use in the Great Lakes Basin, U.S. Geology Survey 2008, accessed July 24, 2014, http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2008/3032/pdf/fs2008-3032.pdf
10
How extensive is Canadas pipeline system?, National Resource Canada, 2013, accessed July 21, 2014,
http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy/infrastructure/5893#h-1-3.
11
Annual Report Mileage For Hazardous Liquid or Carbon Dioxide System 2014, Pipeline and Hazard Materials Safety Administration, accessed July 21,
2014,
http://www.phmsa.dot.gov/portal/site/PHMSA/menuitem.6f23687cf7b00b0f22e4c6962d9c8789/?vgnextoid=d731f5448a359310VgnVCM1000001ecb7898R
CRD&vgnextchannel=3430fb649a2dc110VgnVCM1000009ed07898RCRD&vgnextfmt=print.
12
EIA GIS database, accessed July 20, 2014, http://www.eia.gov/state/notes-sources.cfm.
13
Data and Statistics for each individual U.S. states can be found at Pipeline and Hazard Materials Safety Administration, accessed July 21, 2014,
http://primis.phmsa.dot.gov/comm/reports/safety/WI_detail1.html?nocache=2566#_OuterPanel_tab_5.
14
Diana Furchtgott-Roth and Kenneth Green, Intermodal Safety in the Transport of Oil. Studies In Energy Transportation. (Fraser Institute, 2013).
15
Office of Pipeline Safety, Building Safe Communities: Pipeline Risk and its Application to Local Development Decisions (U.S. Department of Transportation,
2010), 5. The article states that at least 55% of currently operating hazardous liquid pipelines in the U.S were installed before 1970 and at least 71% were
installed before 1980.
16
Data on age of pipelines for U.S. states can be found at Pipeline and Hazard Materials Safety Administration database, accessed July 21, 2014,
http://opsweb.phmsa.dot.gov/pipeline_replacement/by_decade_installation.asp
17
2011 December Report of the Commissioner and the Environment and Sustainable Development (Officer of Auditor General of Canada, 2011), Exhibit 1.5,
accessed August 15, 2014, http://www.oag-bvg.gc.ca/internet/English/parl_cesd_201112_01_e_36029.html#ex5.
18
The State of The National Pipeline Infrastructure, Secretarys Infrastructure Report (U.S. Department of Transportation, 2011), 3.
2

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Jess Alexander and Beth Wallace, Sunken Hazard: Aging Oil Pipelines Beneath The Straits of Mackinac An Ever-Present Threat To The Great Lakes,
(National Wildlife Federation, 2012), 2-5.
20
The State of The National Pipeline Infrastructure, 2-4.
21
Lara Skinner and Sean Sweeney, The Impact of Tar Sands Pipeline Spills On Employment and The Economy (Global Labor Institute, Cornell University,
2010), 4.
22
Swift et al., Tar Sands Pipelines, 6.
23
Great Lakes Coastal Resilience Planning Guide, Great Lakes Coastal Resilience, accessed July 23, 2014, http://www.greatlakesresilience.org/climateenvironment/climate-natural-processes#bluff-erosion.
24
Great Lakes Coastal Flood Study, Great Lakes Coast, accessed July 23, 2014, http://www.greatlakescoast.org/great-lakes-coastal-analysis-and-mapping/.
25
Little Oversight for Enbridge Pipeline Route that Skirts Lake Michigan, Inside Climate News 2014, accessed July 23, 2014,
http://insideclimatenews.org/news/20121002/enbridge-6b-pipeline-michigan-grassroots-landowners-eminent-domain.
26
Alexander and Wallace, Sunken Hazards, 4.
27
Concerns Mount About 61-year Old Enbridge Pipeline in the Great Lakes, DESMOGCANADA 2014, accessed July 21, 2014,
http://desmog.ca/2014/03/06/concerns-mount-about-61-year-old-enbridge-pipeline-great-lakes.
28
According to the National Transportation Board investigation report http://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/reports/2012/PAR1201.pdf
29
Keystone XL Would Not Use most Advanced Spill Protection Technology, Inside Climate News 2012, accessed September 5, 2014,
http://insideclimatenews.org/news/20121217/keystone-xl-longhorn-pipeline-safety-ogallala-edwards-aquifer-nebraska-texas-austin-tar-sands
30
Paul Parfomak, Keeping Americas Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress (Congressional Research Service, 2013), 21. Although the report
points at natural gas transmission pipelines, similar technology can also be installed for oil pipelines that can reduce the risks.
31
Studies for the Requirements of Automatic and Remotely Controlled Shutoff Valves on Hazardous Liquids and Natural Gas Pipelines with Respect t Public
and Environmental Safety (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2012), 182-185.
32
Safety Valve Was Skipped, The Wall Street Journal, accessed August 16, 2014,
http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052748704506004576174322210513228
33
Focus on Safety and Environment: A Comparative Analysis of Pipeline Performance 2000-2009 (Nation Energy Board, 2011), accessed July 24, 2014,
http://www.neb-one.gc.ca/clf-nsi/rsftyndthnvrnmnt/sfty/sftyprfrmncndctr/fcsnsfty/2011/fcsnsfty2000_2009-eng.html#s2_5
34
Data and Statistics for hazard liquid incidents for each individual U.S. states can be found at Pipeline and Hazard Materials Safety Administration database,
accessed July 23, 2014, http://primis.phmsa.dot.gov/comm/reports/safety/NY_detail1.html?nocache=5332#_AllPanelliquid
35
Alexander and Wallace, Sunken Hazard, 6-10.
36
Economics of Transporting and Processing Tar Sands Crudes in Quebec (Goodman Group, LTD 2014), 8.
37
Skinner and Sweeney, Impact of Tar Sands, 7. The report states a claim by Dr. Stansbudy (University of Nebraska) that a worst-case spill of the proposed
Keystone XL pipeline that crosses 1,748 bodies of water, can pose serious health risks to people using that groundwater for drinking water and irrigation.
38
Jessica Winter and Robert Haddad, Ecological Impacts of Dilbit Spills: Consideration for Natural Resource Damage Assessment (paper presented at 37th
AMOP Technical Seminar on Environmental Contamination and Response, Alberta, Canada, June 3-5, 2014), 5. The authors state that due to high
evaporation rate of diluents of DilBits in the 2010 Kalamazoo River spill, respirators were required for all personnel in the area of the pipeline break, and
residents of nearby homes were evacuated. The NOAA 2013 report (op cit.) also claims that the responders reported elevated levels of benzene in the air
relative to those recorded at spills of standard crude oils and that 11 responders and many residents reported having headaches, nausea, and respiratory issues.
39
Shanese Crosby et al., Transporting Alberta Oil Sands Products: Defining the Issues and Assessing the Risks, NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS
OR&R43 (Seattle,WA: Emergency Response Division, 2013), 63-65. The report uses the example of Athabasca River. Although not directly oil spill related,
the study investigates the impacts of toxic materials in the oil sands on aquatic and semi aquatic species.
40
Skinner and Sweeney, Impact of Tar Sands, 5-10.
41
Lyman Welch, et al., Oil and Water: Tar Sands Crude Shipping Meets the Great Lakes? (Alliance For The Great Lakes, 2013), 2.
42
Maude Barlow, Liquid Pipeline: Extreme energys threat to the Great lakes and the St. Lawrence River (The council of Canadians, 2014), 10.
43
Frittelli et al., US Rail Transportation of Crude Oil, 7.
44
Welch, et al., Oil and Water,7-8. According to Coast Guard data, the average annual spill for commercial vessels from 2003-07 was approximately 3,157
gallons (60 events), and the average annual spill from 2008-12 was approximately 10 gallons (50 events).
45
With Production on the rise, oil by barge traffic sets off greater safety concerns, Alberta Oil Magazine 2014, accessed July 25, 2014,
http://www.albertaoilmagazine.com/2014/06/athabasca-mississippi-oil-by-barge/. The cost of transporting crude oil through barge is $0.72 per ton-mile, as
compared to $2.24 per ton-mile for equivalent rail capacity. Truck transportation, for the same capacity, is 37 times more expensive
46
Environmental and Social Impacts of Maritime Transport in the Great Lakes St. Lawrence Seaway Region (Research Traffic Group, 2013), 7
47
Welch, et al., Oil and Water,7-8. According to Coast Guard data, the average annual spill for commercial vessels from 2003-07 was approximately 3,157
gallons (60 events), and the average annual spill from 2008-12 was approximately 10 gallons (50 events).
48
Moving Energy Safely: A Study of the Safe Transport of Hydrocarbons by Pipelines, Tankers and Railcars in Canada (Standing Senate Committee on Energy,
the Environment and Natural Resource, 2013), 24.
49
Oil Pollution Act of 1990, (U.S DOT 1990), accessed July 29, 2014, https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2000/06/23/00-15955/oil-pollution-act-of-1990phase-out-requirements-for-single-hull-tank-vessels
50
Welch, et al., Oil and Water,7-8. In January 2005, a large explosion aboard Egan Marine Corporations tank barge, EMC-423, discharged about 84,000
gallons of crude oil into the Chicago Sanitary and Ship canal.
51
Emergency Preparedness And Response Programs For Oil and Hazardous Materials Spill: Challenges and Priorities For The Great Lakes St. Lawrence
River (Great Lakes Commission, 2012), 21.
52
Welch, et al., Oil and Water,4. Based on the lessons learnt from Kalamazoo River spill in 2010, the authors claim that extracting of one barrel of tar sands oil
removes four tons of sand and soil and three barrels of water in the process.

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53
54
55
56
57

58
59
60
61
62
63

Not for Citation

09/30/2014

Great Lakes Basic Information, U.S Environmental Protection Agency, accessed August 19, 2014, http://www.epa.gov/greatlakes/basicinfo.html.
Consumptive Water Use in the Great Lakes Basin, U.S. Geology Survey 2008, accessed July 24, 2014, http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2008/3032/pdf/fs20083032.pdf
Discussion on Oil Spill Impact, Planete-Energies, accessed June 14,2014, http://www.black-tides.com/index.php?chapitre=chap_3&menu=c2
Frittelli et al., US Rail Transportation of Crude Oil, 1.
More oil spilled from trains in 2013 than in previous 4 decades, federal data show, McClatchy Washington Bureau, accessed July 4, 2014,
http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2014/01/20/215143/more-oil-spilled-from-trains-in.html. Oil spilled in 2013 was 1.1 million gallon as opposed to 792,600
gallons between 1975-2012.
Frittelli et al., US Rail Transportation of Crude Oil, 14.
Furchtgott-Roth and Green, Intermodal Safety, 2. The study states that while Canada shipped 20,000 barrels per day (bbl/d) by rail in 2011, the United States
ships 115,000 barrels of oil per day, as of 2013 with a projected trend showing an increase to 300,000 barrels shipped per day by rail by 2015.
Xiang Liu, et al., Analysis of causes of major train derailment and their effect on accident rates, Journal of Transportation Research Board, No. 2289
(Transportation Research Board of the National Academies: Washington, 2012)
Frittelli et al., US Rail Transportation of Crude Oil, 12.
Alabama Oil-Train Derailment, Huffington Post 2013, accessed July 31, 2014, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/11/11/alabama-oil-trainderailment_n_4252887.html
Presentation on DOT-111 Tank Car Design, Office of Railroad, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety, National Transportation Safety Board, 2012,
accessed July 5, 2014,
http://www.ntsb.gov/news/events/2012/cherry_valley/presentations/hazardous%20materials%20board%20presentation%20508%20completed.pdf.

64

Railway Investigation Report R13D0054. Transportation Safety board of Canada., accessed August 20, 2014, http://www.tsb.gc.ca/eng/rapportsreports/rail/2013/r13d0054/r13d0054.asp
65
Bill Demarest, Train Accident in West Nyack, Nyack Free Press, December 6, 2013, accessed Aug 16, 2014,
http://nyackfreepress.blogspot.com/2013/12/train-accident-in-west-nyack.html
66
Frittelli et al., US Rail Transportation of Crude Oil, 22.
67
Safe Placement of Train Cars: A Report (U.S. Department of Transportation and Federal Railroad Administration, 2005), 5-10.
68
Frittelli et al., US Rail Transportation of Crude Oil, 16.
69
David Pumphrey, et al., Safety of Crude Oil by Rail (Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2014), 3.
70
Rail Safety: Improved Human Capital Planing Could Address Emerging Safety Oversight Challenges (U.S Government Accountability Office, 2013), 24.
71
See http://www.stb.dot.gov/filings/all.nsf/ba7f93537688b8e5852573210004b318/ce390a014c57664785257cb7006eb630/$FILE/235863.pdf
72
Rail Safety Staff Activities: Federal rulemaking follow-up to the Lac Megantic crude oil train tragedy, California Public Utilities Commission Safety and
Enforcement Divisions, accessed June 15,2014, http://www.cpuc.ca.gov/NR/rdonlyres/A51DD641-447D-4C07-9B68C8928618B2B0/0/9513CommissionMeetingAgenda3321.pdf. The report states that there were 47 causalities from explosion and fire and the effects of the
blast were felt to about 1 mile radius.
73
Marry-Jane Bennett, M, Lessons from Lac Megantic Risk in Transportation of Dangerous Goods, Frontier Center For Public Policy, Backgrounder No.
113, 2013, 3-4. The pricing of railways is structured to increase traffic and to decrease operational cost/expenses. Moreover, with market prices of TIH (toxic
inhalation hazards) and other dangerous goods remaining relatively low, the transportation price remains relatively low in relation to risk as well. Not only is
the pricing low, federal laws in both Canada and United States limit the extent to which railways can raise rates in an attempt to cover the risks in the
transportation of these goods. Following this, in the Lac Mgantic incident in 2010, the railroad company sought bankruptcy and eventually the government
used the taxpayers money to rebuild the local economy.
74
Refer footnote 39 in this article.
75
Oil Shipment by rail, truck, and barge up substantially, Institute For Energy Research, accessed June 24, 2014,
http://instituteforenergyresearch.org/analysis/oil-shipments-by-rail-truck-and-barge-up-substantially/
76
U.S. Rail Transportation of Crude Oil: Background and Issues for Congress, (Congressional Research Service, 2014), Figure 3, 4.
77
CSX Transportation claims that For every billion ton-miles of hazardous materials transported, trucks are involved in more than 10 times as many accidents
as the railroads. Union Pacific Railroad claims that trucks are 16 times more likely thank train to have hazmat incident..
78
Portion of I-69 remains closed due to tanker explosion, ABC12 News, accessed July 6, 2014, http://www.abc12.com/story/24347559/portion-of-i-69remains-closed-following-tanker-explosion. In Genesee County, Michigan, a tanker carrying crude oil slipped, crashed and exploded on January 2, 2014.
Hydro carbons were released in the air and there was a temporary evacuation.
79
Cargo Tank Trucks (U.S. Government Accountability Office,2013), 6. Figure 2A points out the possible risks associated during loading-unloading process at
delivery points and fuel loading terminals.
80
Cargo Tank Trucks (U.S. Government Accountability Office,2013), 1-7.
81
Cargo Tank Trucks: Improved Incident Data and Regulatory Analysis Would Better Inform Decisions about Safety Risks, (U.S Government Accountability
Office, 2013), 3.
82
Furchtgott-Roth and Green, Intermodal Safety, 11. The authors use Hazmat incident database for incidents between 2005-2009 to conclude that road
transportation have the highest incidents per billion ton-miles in the U.S. Moreover, road transportation also has the highest fatality rate amongst the different
modes of crude oil transport.
83
Tanker truck spill oil, explodes on Long Island, Fox Twelve News. accessed June 24, 2014, from: http://www.myfoxny.com/story/24248525/tanker-truckoverturns-on-nys-long-island-2-hurt. Twelve vehicles and three homes were damaged while the driver suffered minor injuries in the incident.
84
Tanker spills, pipelines raise questions about crude oil transport, Desert News, accessed June 24, 2014,
http://www.deseretnews.com/article/865602091/Health-department-concerned-about-culinary-water-after-semi-accident.html?pg=all. On April 30, 2014, a

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tanker crashed and spilled 4,800 gallons of oil in Parleys Canyon, Utah. Salt Lake City Department of Public Utility said about 100 feet of active stream was
affected by the spill.
85
For more information on the air permit issued by Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, see http://dnr.wi.gov/news/breakingnews_lookup.asp?id=3237
86
New Town, North Dakota has a make shift facility where trucks transfer the Bakken oil from well heads to Central Pacific rail cars . he Central Pacific Rail
branch line terminates at New Town, ND. The Google image shows the make shift facility where tank trucks load oil onto railcars. At the bottom of the
image, a more permanent loop track construction can be seen. http://goo.gl/maps/uBRR5
87
For details on BNSF Crude Oil trans-load facilities, see https://www.bnsf.com/customers/oil-gas/interactive-map/pdfs/BNSF-OG-Overview-Map.pdf.
88
For details on Canadian Pacific intermodal terminals, see http://www.cpr.ca/en/our-network-and-facilities/Pages/default.aspx
89
Barlow, Liquid Pipeline, 10.
90
For a detailed understanding of associated risks during loading and unloading processes that can cause a catastrophic accident, please see
http://www2.uwstout.edu/content/lib/thesis/2000/2000trianag.pdf
91
Curt Hart and John Bernhardt, Department of Ecology Spill Management Program: Prevention and Response Activities: 1994 Annual Report (Washing State
Department of Ecology, 1994).
92
100 gallons of oil spiked from rail car at Port of Albany, Times Union, accessed July 3, 2014, http://www.timesunion.com/local/article/100-gallons-of-oilspills-from-Port-of-Albany-5588442.php.
93
Crude Loves Rock n Rail Bakken Oil Express, Dakota Plains, Bakken Link, & Savage, RBN Energy 2013, accessed July 30, 2014,
https://rbnenergy.com/bakken-oil-express-dakota-plains-bakken-link-and-trenton-railport. The article says that both the transshipment points, Bakken Oil
Express and Dakota Plains have increased their infrastructure and oil storing capacity since 2011.
94
Manual of Best Management Practices for Port Operations And Model Environmental Management System, Great Lakes Maritime Research Institute,
accessed July 30, 2014, http://greatlakesports.org/pp/uploads/CorsonStudyFinal.pdf.
95
For more information on Great Lakes natural hazards, see http://www.greatlakesresilience.org/climate-environment/coastal-hazards-risks. For more
information on Great Lakes Coastal Analysis and Mapping, see http://www.greatlakescoast.org/great-lakes-coastal-analysis-and-mapping/.
96
Oil Spill Cleanup Operation Continues At Texas City Dike After Barge and Tanker Collide, ABC13 News, accessed June 15, 2014,
http://abc13.com/archive/9476801/. The Houston Ship Channel was blocked for 2 days following a collision of a barge with an oil tanker at the Texas City
Dike on March 22, 2014. As many as 60 vessels, most of them petrochemicals, were restricted to get out and get in the port.
97
Risk Assessment for Railroads, Sightline Daily, accessed July 3, 2014, http://daily.sightline.org/2014/05/19/risk-assessment-for-railroads/. James Beardly,
as quoted in Eric De Places article. The maximum possible coverage is $1.5 billion in liability insurance for Class 1 railroads. Considering that the Lac
Megantic impact alone was more than $2 billion, the coverage seems insufficient especially when the impacts can be severe in a more dense urban area.
98
On May 7, 2014, Anthony Foxx (Secretary of Transportation, U.S. DOT) signed an order that requires all operating trains containing 1,000,000 gallons or
larger amount of crude oil to provide the appropriate SERC State Emergency Response Commission with notification regarding their movement through
the states counties. However, such a step is yet to be amended and requires huge logistical planning of the current human capital with the FRA.
99
Shanese Crosby et al., Transporting Alberta Oil Sands Products, 6.
100
A Survey of Bakken Crude Oil Characteristics Assembled For the U.S. Department of Transportation, Submitted by American Fuel & Petrochemical
Manufacturers (Dangerous Goods Transport Consulting, 2014), 4.
101
For more information on land use planning in Great Lakes, see http://www.great-lakes.net/teach/pollution/sprawl/sprawl_2.html

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Great Lakes Commission Issue Brief 3