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teleological.)
analysis: division of a representation into two opposing representations,
with a view toward clarifying the original representation. Philosophy* as
metaphysics employs analysis more than synthesis. (Cf. synthesis.)
analytic: a statement or an item of knowledge that is true solely because of
its conformity to some logical laws. "All bachelors are unmarried" is a
typical analytic proposition*. (Cf. synthetic.)
anarchy: a politicalsystem having "no ruling power" ("an" and "arche" in
Greek) and serving as the basis for many versions of utopian visions.
appearance: an object of experience, when viewed from the transcendental
perspective. Though often used as a synonym for phenomenon, it technically
refers to an object considered to be conditioned by space and time, but not
by the categories. See also appearance*. (Cf. thing in itself.)
architectonic: the logical structure given by reason (especially through the
use of twofold and threefold divisions), which the philosopher should use as
a plan to organize the contents of any system.
autonomy: the principle of self-legislation, whereby the subject freely
chooses his or her own ends by imposing the moral law onto the will. An
action must be autonomous in order to be moral. (Cf. heteronomy.)
belief: holding something to be true on the basis of subjective certainty,
even though objective certainty is lacking. See also faith. (Cf. knowledge.)
categorical imperative: a command expressing a general, unavoidable
requirement of the moral law. Its three formulations convey the
requirements of universalizability, respect and autonomy. Together they
establish that an action is properly called "morally good*" only if (1) we can
will all persons to do it, (2) it enables us to treat other persons as ends and
not merely as the means to our own selfish ends, and (3) it allows us to see
other persons as mutual law-makers in an ideal "kingdom of ends".
categories: the most general concepts, in terms of which every object must
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law.
empirical: one of Kant's four main perspectives, aiming to establish a kind
of knowledge that is both synthetic and a posteriori. Most of the knowledge
we gain through ordinary experience, or through science*, is empirical.
"This table is brown" is a typical empirical statement. (Cf. transcendental).
experience: the combination of an intuition with a concept in the form of a
judgment. "Experience" in this (mediate) sense is a synonym for "empirical
knowledge". The phrase "possible experience" refers to a representation
that is presented to our sensibility through intuition, but is not yet known,
because it has not been presented to our understanding through concepts.
"Experience" in this (immediate) sense contrasts with "knowledge".
faculty: a fundamental power of human subjects to do something or
perform some rational function.
faith: in the first Critique, a synonym of belief. Kant encouraged a more
humble approach to philosophy* by claiming to deny knowledge in order to
make room for faith-i.e., by distinguishing between what we can know
empirically and what is transcendent, which we can approach only by
means of faith. "Practical faith" refers to the conviction that God will
reward those who adopt a good* disposition. "Rational faith" is Kant's term
for pure (moral) religion, in contrast to "historical faith", which refers to
the extra-rational tradition that attempts to explain what we cannot
understand by reason alone.
formal: the active or subjective aspect of something-that is, the aspect that
is based on the rational activity of the subject. (Cf. material.)
heteronomy: the principle of letting something other than the moral law
determine what ought to be done. This replaces freedom with something
outside of practical reason, such as a person's inclinations. Such actions on
their own are nonmoral-i.e., neither moral nor immoral-but can be immoral
if they prevent a person from doing their duty. (Cf. autonomy.)
hypothetical: one of Kant's four main perspectives, aiming to establish
knowledge that is both analytic and a posteriori-though Kant himself
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judicial: one of Kant's three main standpoints, relating primarily to experience-i.e., to what we feel, as opposed to what we know or desire to do.
Judicial reason is virtually synonymous with "Critique" itself, and is
concerned with questions about our deepest ways of experiencing the
world. Finding the source of two examples of such experiences is the task of
the third Critique. (Cf. theoretical and practical.)
knowledge: the final goal of the understanding in combining intuitions and
concepts. If they are pure, the knowledge will be transcendental; if they are
impure, the knowledge will be empirical. The certainty produced must be
objective as well as subjective. In a looser sense, "knowledge" also refers to
what arises out of adopting any legitimate perspective. (Cf. belief.)
logical: one of Kant's four main perspectives, aiming to establish a kind of
knowledge that is both analytic and a priori. It is concerned with nothing
but the relationships between concepts. The law of noncontradiction
(A-A) is the fundamental law of traditional, Aristotelian or analytic logic*.
Synthetic logic* is based on the opposite, the law of contradiction (A=-A).
(Cf. hypothetical.)
material: the passive or objective aspect of something-that is, the aspect
that is based on the experience a subject has, or on the objects given in such
an experience. (Cf. formal.)
maxim: the material rule or principle used to guide a person in a particular
situation about what to do (e.g., "I should never tell a lie"). It thus provides a
kind of bridge between a person's inner disposition and outer actions.
metaphysics: the highest aspect of philosophy*, attempting to gain
knowledge of the ideas. Because the traditional, speculative perspective fails
to succeed in this task, Kant suggests a new, hypothetical perspective for
metaphysics. Metaphysics can succeed only when it is preceded by
Critique. See also metaphysics*.
moral law: the one "fact" of practical reason that is present in every
rational person, though some people are more aware of it than others. The
moral law, in essence, is our knowledge of the difference between good* and
evil, and our inner conviction that we ought to do what is good. See also
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categorical imperative.
noumena/noumenal: objects viewed as having transcendent reality. Also
the realm consisting of such objects. (Cf. phenomena/phenomenal.)
object: a general term for any "thing" that is conditioned by the subject's
representation, and so is capable of being known. The thing in itself is a
thing that cannot become an object of human knowledge. (Cf. subject.)
objective: related more to the object or representation out of which knowledge is constructed than to the subject possessing the knowledge.
Considered transcendentally, objective knowledge is less certain than
subjective knowledge; considered empirically, objective knowledge is more
certain. (Cf. subjective.)
opinion: holding something to be true even though both objective and
subjective certainty are lacking. (Cf. ignorance*.)
perspective: Kant himself did not use this word, but he used a number of
other, equivalent expressions, such as standpoint, way of thinking,
employment of understanding, etc. The main Critical perspectives are the
transcendental, empirical, logical, and hypothetical. See also perspective*.
phenomena/phenomenal: objects of knowledge, viewed empirically, in
their fully knowable state-i.e., conditioned by space and time and the
categories. Also the realm consisting of such objects. See also appearance.
(Cf. noumena/noumenal.)
practical: one of Kant's three main standpoints, relating primarily to
action-i.e., to what we desire to do as opposed to what we know or feel.
Finding the sources of such action is the task of the second Critique.
Practical reason is a synonym for will; both terms relate to issues
concerning morality. (Cf. theoretical and judicial.)
predisposition: the natural tendency a person has, apart from (or before
having) any experience, to be morally good* or evil. (Cf. disposition.)
pure: not mixed with anything sensible. Although its proper opposite is
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knowledge and speculation about the transcendent realm. "Every event has
a cause" is a typical transcendental proposition*. (Cf. empirical.)
transcendental argument: Kant's special method of proof by reference to
the possibility of experience; it claims that something (e.g., the categories)
must be true because if it were not true, experience itself would be
impossible.
understanding: in the first Critique, the faculty concerned with actively
producing knowledge by means of concepts. This is quite similar to what is
normally called the mind. It gives rise to the logical perspective, enabling us
to compare concepts with each other, and to the empirical perspective
(where it is also called judgment), enabling us to combine concepts with
intuitions in order to produce empirical knowledge. The first Critique
(adopting the theoretical standpoint) examines the form of our cognitions
in order to construct a system based on the faculty of understanding. (Cf.
sensibility.)
will: the manifestation of reason as viewed from the practical standpoint,
including but not limited to the faculty of choice.
II. Other Technical Terms used in The Tree of Philosophy
2LAR: see second level analytic relation.
analytic logic: the type of logic based on the laws of identity (A=A) and
noncontradiction (A-A). (Cf. synthetic logic.)
analytic method: see deduction.
angst: the Danish word for anxiety or dread. Kierkegaard used this term to
refer to a special kind of existential fear, involving a person's fear of
non-being. It therefore includes not only a fear of death, but a fear of the
meaninglessness of life.
appearance: Plato's term for an object* or event in the material world,
indicating it is an illusory reflection of an ultimate reality* in the world of
forms. See also appearance*.
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("demos" in Greek) people have the power and authority to rule. He calls it
the "least bad" of the three bad types of political systems. (Cf. polity.)
demythologizing: the process of questioning a myth in order to distinguish
between aspects that are worth believing and aspects that should be given
up as meaningless.
dialogue: Plato's method of philosophizing, whereby two or more persons
discuss various philosophical questions, in the hope that reason will lead
them to the truth.
Dionysian: Nietzsche's term for the type of person who is more concerned
about personal greatness and other life-affirming values than about
following traditional moral and political norms. Following a "master"
morality and a "hero" mentality, they tend to be unconscious, irrational, and
passionate in their actions, and aristocratic in their politics. (Cf.
Apollonian.)
ecclesiocracy: Palmquist's term for the worst kind of political system*,
wherein leaders believe God directs the people solely through their
mediation and/or church structures are imposed onto the secular political
realm. Following this system requires people to give up their God-given
freedom in exchange for the presumed right to claim salvation. (Cf.
theocracy.)
empiricism: the approach to philosophy that regards sense* experience*
and observation as the fundamental means of finding philosophical truth.
Empiricists usually tend to mistrust evidence based solely on logical
argumentation. Hume is a typical example of an empiricist. (Cf.
rationalism.)
epistemology: the branch of philosophy dealing with questions about the
origin and nature of knowledge*. One of its most fundamental questions is:
"How do we come to know something that we do not already know?" Since
Descartes, most philosophers have thought one's epistemology determines
one's metaphysics, rather than vice versa.
existence: Tillich's term for the quality of "standing out" ("ex-sistere" in
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Latin) from being-itself. Also Palmquist's term for the common factor
uniting metaphysics and science through the application of ignorance and
knowledge*, respectively. (Cf. meaning.)
existentialism: the major school of twentieth century western philosophy
inspired largely by Heidegger and based on the conviction that discovering
the meaning of human existence is philosophy's main role. This is typically
accomplished by means of analogical reasoning, based on the fundamental
distinction between existing things and being-itself and/or nothing. (Cf.
hermeneutics and linguistic analysis.)
fallacy: a mistake in the formal* structure of an argument used to draw a
conclusion based on some evidence. A fallacious argument may appear to
prove something that is not actually true. Aristotle was the first to give a
systematic* account of the various types of logical* fallacies.
geometry of logic, the: Palmquist's method of mapping logical relations
onto simple geometrical figures. The simplest analytic* relations are
twofold while the simplest synthetic* relations as threefold; these are best
mapped onto the endpoints of a line and a triangle, respectively. See also
compound relations and second-level analytic relations.
goodness: according to Plato and many subsequent philosophers, one of the
three aims of the philosophical quest. It corresponds to the belly and is
powered by appetite.
hermeneutics: the major school of twentieth century western philosophy
inspired largely by Gadamer and based on the conviction that grasping the
art of meaningful interpretation is philosophy's main role. This is typically
accomplished by reflecting on the nature of texts-e.g., by focusing on the
fundamental interplay between the author's intentions and the reader's
prejudices. (Cf. existentialism and linguistic analysis.)
idealism: the metaphysical position inspired largely by Plato and based on
the conviction that the objects* we perceive in the external world are not
ultimately real, but are "shadows" or appearances of a higher or deeper
reality*.
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as king, who wisely distributes the power and authority to a trusted body of
advisers and representatives.
science: a product of human judgment; derived from "sciens", Latin for
"knowing". Viewed in this broad sense, it is one of the four main aspects of
philosophy, aiming to determine the transcendental* boundary between
knowledge* and ignorance in various fields. Viewed more narrowly, as
empirical* or natural science, it is the discipline that attempts to transcend
philosophy by ignoring all myth, yet paradoxically ends up creating one of
the greatest modern myths.
second-level analytic relation (2LAR): the most widely used term in
Palmquist's geometry of logic, referring to any set of four concepts* that can
be derived by relating two sets of opposites to each other. A 2LAR is most
often mapped onto the four poles (or the four quadrants) of a cross, though
the corners of a square can also be used.
self-reference, the problem of: a paradox that arises by applying a certain
type of proposition to itself. For example, "This sentence is false" makes
sense if it refers to some other proposition; but if it refers to itself, it
produces a logically impossible situation.
skepticism: a metaphysical position that calls into question the human
capacity to obtain knowledge*, expressed in its most influential form by
Hume.
spirit: together with mind and body, one of the three traditional aspects of
human nature. Kierkegaard regarded the human spirit as the paradoxical
key to both human sinfulness and genuine religious faith*.
symbol: Tillich's term for an empirical* object* that points beyond itself to a
transcendent* object and somehow participates in the reality* of that more
real object.
synthetic logic: the type of logic based on the laws of nonidentity (AA)
and contradiction (A=-A). (Cf. analytic logic.)
synthetic method: see induction.
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Original URL:
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