Lecture on

Aircraft Systems and Instruments

(Session I)

by

L. Anantha Raman, M.E., (Ph.D.),

Assistant Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Tirunelveli Regional Campus,
Anna University Chennai.

Contents
Aircraft Systems
Aircraft Instruments
Auxiliary systems
Aircraft Brakes
Drum Brakes
Disc Brakes

Hydraulic System
Pneumatic System
Aircraft Cooling System
Air Cycle
Vapour Cycle
Evaporative Cooling Cycle

Aircraft Systems
Aircraft systems is a complex system. In the design stage and in the
operating process to ensure continued airworthiness of the aircraft.
It is broken down into simpler sub systems that carry out
homogeneous functions. Some examples include:
Flight controls
Landing gear
Electrical system
Bleed system
Hydraulics
Avionics System
Oxygen
Fuel

Power plant
Navigation
Communication
Ice protection (ant icing and deicing)
Cooling system
Instrumentation and recording
Fire protection

Aircraft Instruments
Aircraft instruments are the instruments in the cockpit of an
aircraft that provide the pilot with information about the
flight situation of that aircraft, such as altitude, airspeed and
direction. The flight instruments are of particular use in
conditions of poor visibility, such as in clouds, when such
information is not available from visual reference outside
the aircraft.
The term is sometimes used loosely as a synonym for cockpit
instruments as a whole, in which context it can include
engine instruments, navigational and communication
equipment.

Auxiliary Systems
Auxiliary or secondary systems help the aircraft perform its
main function: flying from a to b.
They are necessary and important for a safe conduct of the
flight although a failure of one of these systems would not
cause the it to loose control or crash immediately.

Aircraft Brakes
Wheel brakes are normally used to slow the aircraft down during
landing roll on the runway and to aid in directional control during
ground handling operations as taxi and parking.
In small aircraft the brakes are connected to the main landing gear
only and are operated independently from each other.
The brake systems are operated by hydraulic pressure and the rudder
pedals have the brakes installed on top and are toe operated. Some
aircraft use heel brakes or even with separate levers in the cockpit
operated by hand (e.g. DynAero MCR and Tecnam).
With larger aircraft the weight increases but the force pilots can
apply will usually about the same for every human being.
It is therefore important that the pilot gets help in the form of brake
boosters or power assisted brakes.

Wheel Brakes Drum Type

Drum type
With this model the two brake shoes are operated by either
pneumatic (air) or hydraulic (oil) pressure or maybe even manually
with a cable (very rare).
Inside there are a couple of springs attached to the shoes to make
sure that the brake contacts the drum evenly as friction will try to
move them slightly.
The springs also make sure that the shoes retracts when brake
pressure is released.

Wheel Brakes Drum Type (contd.)

Wheel Brakes Drum Type (contd.)

Wheel Brakes Drum Type (contd.)

Wheel Brakes Drum Type (contd.)

Wheel Brakes Drum Type (contd.)

Wheel Brakes Disc Brakes

Disc brakes
Very popular as they are lightweight and the disc sits between the
braking pads clamping them when brake pressure is applied.
For heavier aircraft multiple brake calipers and or multiple discs can
be used.
The brake disc is made from steel and bolted onto the wheel and
rotates.
The clamping part, caliper, contains two brake pads and is self
centering.
When brakes are applied the pressure moves a piston cylinder
arrangement inside the caliper and the pads will clamp the disc. With
even pressure on both sides.

Wheel Brakes Disc Brakes (contd.)

Wheel Brakes Disc Brakes (contd.)

Wheel Brakes Disc Brakes (contd.)

Wheel Brakes Disc Brakes (contd.)

Wheel Brakes Disc Brakes (contd.)

Wheel Brakes Disc Brakes (contd.)

Hydraulic System
It is a system where liquid under pressure is used to transmit
this energy.
Hydraulics systems take engine power and converts it to
hydraulic power by means of a hydraulic pump.
This power can be distributed throughout the airplane by
means of tubing that runs through the aircraft.
Hydraulic power may be reconverted to mechanical power
by means of an actuating cylinder, or turbine.

Hydraulic System (contd.)

Advantages of Hydraulic Systems
It is lighter in weight than alternate existing systems.
It is dead beat, that is, there is an absence of sloppiness in its
response to demands placed on the system.
It is reliable.
It can be easily maintained.
It is not a shock hazard; it is not much of a fire hazard.
It can develop practically unlimited force or torque.

Hydraulic System (contd.)

Some Devices Operated by Hydraulic Systems in Aircraft
Primary control boosters
Retraction and extension of landing gear
Sweep back and forth of wings
Opening and closing doors and hatchways
Automatic pilot and gun turrets
Shock absorption systems and valve lifter systems
Dive, landing, speed and flap brakes
Pitch changing mechanism, spoilers on flaps
Bomb bay doors and bomb displacement gears

Hydraulic System (contd.)

Hydraulic System (contd.)

Hydraulic System (contd.)

Hydraulic System (contd.)

Hydraulic System (contd.)

Hydraulic System (contd.)

Hydraulic System (contd.)

Hydraulic System (contd.)

Hydraulic Fluid
The fluid used must transmit the pressure, lubricate the
parts of the hydraulic system and act as a coolant.
The oil used with these qualities has a low viscosity for easy
filling of all lines and aluminum pipes. But, as the oil will
heat up it must retain these properties over a wide
temperature range.
Three types of hydrailic oil are used: vegetable, mineral and
synthetic based. Each of these have their own properties
and requirements.

Hydraulic System (contd.)

Vegetable
Colored blue and made from castor oil and alcohol. It is mostly used on older
aircraft where natural rubber seals are used (until they are replaced with
synthetic types). Can also cause sludge and corrosion.
Mineral
Colored red and based on a widely used kerosene petrochemical product.
Good lubricating properties with additives inhibiting corrosion and foaming.
Very stable and low viscosity change with temperature changes. Mineral oil
may not be used with natural rubber and is flammable.
Synthetic
Colored purple and less flammable than the mineral type. Base on synthetic
(man made) phosphate ester and tends to attract water (moisture) and
attacks certain plastics and paint. Can degrade aircraft wiring eating away
the insulation. Known as Skydrol and other synthetic grades are
dyed green or amber.

Pneumatic System
Pneumatic systems use compressed air as a working fluid
and it acts much like the hydraulic systems.
In comparison with hydraulics there are advantages to be
found by using air instead of hydraulic fluid to transmit
power.
The principles (Pascal's law) in using air are the same as for
hydraulic fluids but with a remarkable difference.
A Change in pressure at any point in an enclosed fluid at
rest is transmitted undiminished to all points in the fluid

Pneumatic System (contd.)

Advantages of air
No fire problem - Air will not burn by itself, however, bottles
can explode and cause damage
Light weight - Air systems do not need a return line as is the
case with hydraulic fluids
Simple - Pneumatic systems are by design very simple
Supply - Air can be pumped in from around us and is virtually
unlimited in supply

Pneumatic System (contd.)

Disadvantages
One disadvantage is that air does not transmit pressure as
easy as a fluid would do.
It is springy in nature and therefore not really suitable for
precise control operations.
This, however, is an advantage when air is used in tires and
damping in undercarriage to smoothen the ride when taxiing
on rough surfaces.
It is not suitable for large and heavy mechanical devices.
Air must be compressed to a large degree to have enough
energy and this would require large air tanks and actuators
with very high working pressures.

Pneumatic System (contd.)

Applications
Some aircraft engines have an airstart system in where pressurized
air in a bottle starts the engine, and as long as the engine runs it
keeps the bottle topped up.
Larger aircraft use bleed air from the engines to actuate a number of
systems from deicing boots, cabin pressurization, backup and main
pneumatic systems.
Backup systems
Used when, for example, the landing gear hydraulic systems fails for a
reason. A backup pneumatic system uses a storage bottle with air
and an actuator as an emergency means to extend the gear.
Low pressure systems
These are pressurized up to about 1000 psi and use an engine driven
vane type pump and they are used to drive the aircon, door seals, deicer boots, mainly small low power applications.

Pneumatic System (contd.)

High pressure systems
An engine driven compressor feeds air via an unloading valve to the
system keeping the pressure around 3000 psi, but this may vary from
aircraft manufacturer to another. There will usually also be a ground
valve on the aircraft to enable the system to be pressurized when the
main engines are not running.
You will also find a moisture separator, dryer (desiccant) and filter to
keep the air clean and free from water before it is stored in the high
pressure bottles.
Pressurized air at 3000 psi is reduced before it is routed to valves and
actuators, this reduced pressure is monitored by gauges. Actuators
can be a single acting device where air moves them one way and a
strong spring inside pushes the piston actuator back, or can they be
double acting. These are sometimes used with flap extension
systems.

Pneumatic System (contd.)

Pneumatic System (contd.)

Pneumatic System (contd.)

Pneumatic System (contd.)

Pneumatic System (contd.)

Pneumatic System (contd.)

Aircraft Cooling System

VARIOUS COOLING SYSTEMS IN AIRCRAFT REFRIGERATION
1. Simple Air Refrigeration System
Without evaporator cooling,
With evaporator cooling

2. Boot Strap Air Refrigeration System

Without evaporator cooling,
With evaporation cooling

3. Reduced Ambient Air Refrigeration System

Without evaporator cooling,
With evaporation cooling

4. Regenerative Air Refrigeration System

Without evaporator cooling,
With evaporation cooling

Aircraft Cooling System (contd.)

Sr.
No.

Air refrigeration

Vapor compression Refrigeration

1.

Refrigerant is gas (Air)

Refrigerant is vapor

2.

Cooling is by sensible effect only.

COP is less and <1.

Cooling is caused by latent heat. COP

is high and >>1.

3.

No phase change of
refrigerant

There is a phase change of

refrigerant

4.

System is bulky

System is compact

5.

More refrigerant used

Less refrigerant used

6.

Weight of equipment is small since

a compressor and a turbine already
exist in the aircraft

Weight of equipment per ton of

cooling is 2.5 times than for the air
refrigeration

7.

Work of expansion is recovered in a Work of expansion is not recovered.

turbine.

Aircraft Cooling System (contd.)

NUMBERING OF REFRIGERANTS

(i)For saturated hydrocarbons and their derivatives three digit

number
First digit
= C 1 = one less than the C atoms in the
compound
Second digit
= H + 1=one more than the H atoms in the
compound
Third digit
= Number of fluorine atoms
FOR EXAMPLE:
C2H2Cl2F2
CH4

= R-132
= R-50

Aircraft Cooling System (contd.)

NUMBERING OF REFRIGERANTS

(ii)For unsaturated hydrocarbons and their derivatives four digit

number
First digit
= 1 (number of double or triple bonds)
Second digit
= C-1 = one less than the C atoms in the
compound
Third digit
= H + 1=one more than the H atoms in the
compound
Fourth digit
= Number of fluorine atoms
FOR EXAMPLE:
C2Cl2F2
C2H2

= R-1112
= R-1130

Aircraft Cooling System (contd.)

NUMBERING OF REFRIGERANTS
(iii) Inorganic compounds700 + molecular weight
FOR EXAMPLE:
Water

= R-718

Air

= R-729

NH3

= R-717

(iv)Azeotropes
These are numbered starting from R-500
First known azeotrope in refrigeration has been numbered as R-500.
Next known azeotrope as R-501 and so on.
FOR EXAMPLE:

Azeotrope

B.P.

Composition by MASS

R-500

-33.3

R-501

-45

R-22/R-12, 75/25

R-502

-46

R-22/R-115, 48.8/51.2

R-503

-88

R-23/R-13, 40.1/59.9

R-504

-57

R-32/R-115, 48.3/51.7

R-12/R-152, 73.8/26.2

Aircraft Cooling System Air Cycle

Air as Refrigerant in Aircraft refrigeration
{AIR(GAS) REFRIGERATION}
MOST IMPORTANT FEATURES OF AIR AS REFRIGERANT IN AIRCRAFTS
(i) Air is safe and cost free.
(ii) Light weight equipment: It requires only 2kg equipment /ton of
refrigeration against 25 kg equipment/per ton of refrigeration in vapor
compression refrigeration system.
(iii) It uses sensible cooling effect which is usually small as compared
to latent cooling effect in vapor compression systems. Hence COP is
less.

Aircraft Cooling System Air Cycle (contd.)

RAM EFFECT
At high altitudes, the outside pressure will be sub-atmospheric.
When air at this low pressure is compressed and supplied to the
cabin at pressures close to atmospheric, the temperature increases
significantly.
For example, when outside air at a pressure of 0.2 bar and
temperature of 223 K (at 10000 m altitude) and is compressed to 1
bar, its temperature increases to about 353 K.
If the cabin is maintained at 0.8 bar, the temperature will be about
332 K. This effect is called as RAM EFFECT.
This effect adds heat to the cabin, which needs to be taken out by the
cooling system.

Aircraft Cooling System Air Cycle (contd.)

NECESSITY OF AIRCRAFT COOLING
In an aircraft, cooling systems are required to keep the cabin
temperatures at a comfortable level.
Even though the outside temperatures are very low at high altitudes,
still cooling of cabin is required because of the following reasons.

(i) Large internal heat generation due to occupants, equipment etc.

(ii) Heat generation due to skin friction caused by the fast moving
aircraft.
(iii) Heat due to ram effect is to be removed.
(iv) Solar radiations

Aircraft Cooling System Air Cycle (contd.)

ADVANTAGES OF USING AIR AS REFRIGERANT IN AIRCRAFTS

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)

The working fluid (air) is free,

Environmentally friendly,
Safe and non-flammable
Nontoxic
Air cycle equipment is extremely reliable,
Reduces maintenance costs
Less system down-time
Very cold air can be produced

Aircraft Cooling System Air Cycle (contd.)

ADVANTAGES OF USING AIR AS REFRIGERANT IN AIRCRAFTS

(ix) The performance of an air cycle unit does not deteriorate as much as
that of a vapor-compression unit when operating away from its design
point.
(x)
Leakage of air is not a problem
(xi) Cold air can directly be used for cooling thus eliminating the low
temperature heat exchanger (open systems) leading to lower weight
equipment.
(xii) The aircraft engine already consists of a high speed turbocompressor, hence separate compressor for cooling system is not required.
This reduces the weight of equipment per kW cooling considerably less than
50% of an equivalent vapor compression equipment weight.
(xiii) Design of the complete system is much simpler due to low working
pressures.

Aircraft Cooling System Air Cycle (contd.)

Air Cycle Refrigeration

Refer PDF file Air Cycle

Aircraft Cooling System Air Cycle (contd.)

Open and Closed Air Refrigeration Cycles
TWO WAYS OF OPERATING OF BELL COLEMAN CYCLE
(i) Open air refrigeration cycle: When cooled air from the turbine
enters the cabin and comes in physical contact with the occupants. It is
not much in use because of moisture added to air in the cabin.
(ii) Closed air refrigeration cycle OR dense cycle: When cooled air
from the turbine passes through the coil and a fan circulates cabin air
over it. The pressure of cooled air in such systems is much higher than
open system. Because of high pressure, volume is less and hence
density of air is high. It is therefore also called a dense system.

Aircraft Cooling System Air Cycle (contd.)

Advantages of open cycle
(i) Eliminates a heat ex-changer and makes it compact and light.
(ii) Cabin pressurization and air conditioning can be combined into one
operation.
Disadvantages of open cycle
(i) Increases volume to be handled both by compressor and turbine and thus
increases the sizes of the compressor and cooling turbine.
(ii) Causes fog formation at the outlet of turbine because of moisture addition
in the cabin. Therefore a drier must be used before the turbine.
Advantages of closed cycle
(i) Increases pressures in the cycle and reduces volume to be handled both by
compressor as well as turbine. The sizes of compressor and turbine are
reduced. Thus it makes the system compact.
(ii) Reduces compression ratio. Thus reduces work input. Increases COP.
Operating cost reduces.

Aircraft Cooling System Bootstrap Cycle

Aircraft Cooling System Bootstrap Cycle (contd.)

The bootstrap air conditioning system mainly consists of two
units, the cold air unit and a heat exchanger, both of which
are mounted on a common shaft.
This assembly was supported on ball bearings until they
were replaced by air bearings which provide a lighter
solution, requiring less maintenance.
The compressor increases the air pressure with a
corresponding increase in temperature.
The increased temperature is now reduced in the heat
exchanger which is cooled by ram air.

Aircraft Cooling System Bootstrap Cycle (contd.)

This reduction in temperature might lead to formation of
water, especially when the aircraft is flying in humid
conditions.
The water extractor placed at the turbine inlet removes
most of the water thus preventing damage to the turbine
blades and spraying water into the cabin and electronic
equipment.
As the air expands across the turbine, the temperature can
drop below 0o and hence a cold air bypass line is used to
vary turbine outlet temperature to get the required
temperature for cabin and equipment cooling.

Aircraft Cooling System VCR Cycle

Vapour Compression Refrigeration System

Refer PDF File VCR Cycle

Aircraft Cooling System VCR Cycle (contd.)

Aircraft Cooling System Evaporative Cooling

Evaporative Cooling Cycle

Refer PDF File ECR Cycle

Thank You !