Shri Govindram Seksaria Institute of

Technology and Science, Indore

Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

A REPORT ON

EVOLUTION OF PROCESSORS
Submitted on 3rd April 2014

SUBMITTED TO: -

SUBMITTED BY: -

Smt. S.V CHARHATE

SANDESH AGRAWAL
Roll no. AB37039
Enroll. No. - 0801EI11047

Dr. S. K. Jain

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:
Many people have contributed to the success of this. Although a single sentence hardly suffices, I
Sandesh Agrawal, AB37039 would like to thank Almighty God for blessing us with His grace. I
extend my sincere and heartfelt thanks to Mrs. S. V. Charhate (Dean Academics) Electronics and
Telecommunication, for providing us the right ambience for carrying out this work. I am profoundly
indebted to my seminar guide Dr. S. K. Jain for innumerable acts of timely advice, encouragement
and I sincerely express my gratitude to him.
I express my immense pleasure and thankfulness to all the teachers and staff of the
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, SGSITS for their cooperation and support.
Last but not the least, I thank all others, and especially my classmates who in one way or
another helped me in the successful completion of this work.

BySandesh Agrawal (EI 3rd Year)

AB37039
0801EI111047

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ABSTRACT:
The brain or engine of the PC is the processor (sometimes called microprocessor), or central
processing unit (CPU). The CPU performs the systems calculating and processing. The processor is
easily the most expensive single component in the system, costing up to four or more times greater
than the motherboard it plugs into. Intel is generally credited with creating the first microprocessor in
1971 with the introduction of a chip called the 4004. Today Intel still has control over the processor
market, at least for PC systems. This means that all PC-compatible systems use either Intel
processors or Intel-compatible processors from a handful of competitors (such as AMD or Cyrix).
Intels dominance in the processor market had not always been assured. It is generally credited
with inventing the processor. It is interesting to note that the microprocessor had only existed for 10
years prior to the creation of the PC! The microprocessor was invented by Intel in 1971. The PC was
created by IBM in 1981. Now nearly 20 years later, we are still using systems based more or less on
the design of that first PC (and mostly backward compatible with it). The processors powering our
PCs today are still backward compatible in many ways with the 8088 selected by IBM in 1981.
Processors can be identified by two main parameters: how wide they are and how fast they are. The
speed of a processor is a fairly simple concept. Speed is counted in megahertz (MHz), which means
millions of cycles per secondand faster is better! The width of a processor is a little more
complicated to discuss because there are three main specifications in a processor that are expressed in
width. They are
l. Internal registers
2. Data input and output bus
3. Memory address bus
Systems below 16MHz usually had no cache memory at all. Starting with 16MHz systems, highspeed cache memory appeared on the motherboard because the main memory at the time could not
run at 16MHz.
Microprocessors are mainly found in 4, 8, 16, 20, 32, 64-bit configuration. Many embedded uses of
4-bit and 8-bit microprocessors, such as terminals, printers, various kinds of automation etc., followed soon
after. Affordable 8-bit microprocessors with 16-bit addressing also led to the first general-purpose
microcomputers from the mid-1970s on.
Thousands of items that were traditionally not computer-related include microprocessors. These include large
and small household appliances, cars (and their accessory equipment units), car keys, tools and test
instruments, toys, light switches/dimmers and electrical circuit breakers, smoke alarms, battery packs, and hi-fi
audio/visual components (from DVD players to phonograph turntables). Such products as cellular
telephones, DVD video system and HDTV broadcast systems fundamentally require consumer devices with
powerful, low-cost, microprocessors.

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Table of Contents:1.

Introduction

iv

2.

Microprocessor

3.

2.1.

Definition

2.2.

block diagram

2.3.

Microprocessor based system

Microcontroller

4.

3.1.

Definition

3.2.

Block diagram

3.3.

Basic difference between microcontroller & microprocessor

Memory

5.

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4.1.

Types of Memory

4.2.

Description in brief

Evolution of computer
5.1.

Mechanical

5.2.

1st generation- Vacuum tubes

5.3.

2nd generation transistors

5.4.

3rd generation IC

5.5.

4th generation Microprocessor

ix

xi

6.

Description of Each microprocessor

xiii

7.

Various facts regarding Microprocessor

xx

8.

Future

xxi

9.

Conclusion & Recommendation

xxi

10.

Bibliography

xxii

11.

Appendix: Year-wise table for evolution of Intel microprocessor xxiii

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INTRODUCTION:If we take a look around us, we would be sure to find a device that uses a microprocessor in some
form or the other. Microprocessors have become a part of our daily lives and it would be difficult to
imagine life without them today. From digital wrist watches, to pocket calculators, from microwaves,
to cars, toys, security systems, navigation, to credit cards, microprocessors are ubiquitous. All this
has been made possible by remarkable developments in semiconductor technology enabling in the
last 30 years, enabling the implementation of ideas that were previously beyond the average
computer architects grasp.
The basic evolution in microprocessor was came in to known with the invention of Intel 4004,
The 4004 processor was introduced on November 15, 1971, and originally ran at a clock speed of
108KHz (108,000 cycles per second, or just over one-tenth a megahertz). The 4004 contained 2,300
transistors and was built on a 10 micron process. And then in April 1972, Intel released the 8008
processor, after this various 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, 64-bit and various dual core Pentium, Celeron
processors. But there is a big question.
What was before microprocessor??
We will also come to learn this thing in our syllabus. We will start our discussion with mechanical
age, followed by 1st, 2nd, 3rd and present generation.
I have said lot of things regarding microprocessor and its evolution but beginners have a lot of
questions which are related to basics of microprocessor, they also have various questions like what
is microprocessor ?, what is the difference between microprocessor and microcontroller? How
many types of memory exist? How microprocessors programming is done? And a lot of questions,
queries.
So we will also cover some of these questions, some in detail and some in brief, depending upon
the requirements. While discussing regarding evolution we will restrict ourselves to some Intels
microprocessors including Pentium series, Celeron series etc. and will touch to some of the
processors which are being produce by AMD, it is because only if we look around us we will found
most are Intel processor, mostly used in laptops like i3, i5, i7 processor. AMD processors are also
seen in the market.

SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

Microprocessor
A microprocessor incorporates the functions of a computer's central processing unit (CPU) on a
single integrated circuit (IC) or at most a few integrated circuits. All modern CPUs are
microprocessors making the micro- prefix redundant.
Definition- The microprocessor is a multipurpose, programmable device that accepts digital data as
input, processes it according to instructions stored in its memory, and provides results as output.
It is an example of sequential digital logic, as it has internal memory. Microprocessors operate on
numbers and symbols represented in the binary numeral system.
The advent of low-cost computers on integrated circuits has transformed modern society. Generalpurpose microprocessors in personal computers are used for computation, text editing, multimedia
display, and communication over the Internet. Many more microprocessors are part of embedded
systems, providing digital control over myriad objects from appliances to automobiles to cellular
phones and industrial process control.
In the NASA Apollo space missions to the moon in the 1960s and 1970s, all onboard computations
for primary guidance, navigation and control were provided by a small custom processor called
"The Apollo Guidance Computer". It used wire wrap circuit boards whose only logic
elements neither were three-input NOR gates.[1]
The integration of a whole CPU onto a single chip or on a few chips greatly reduced the cost of
processing power. The integrated circuit processor was produced in large numbers by highly
automated processes, so unit cost was low. Single-chip processors increase reliability as there are
many fewer electrical connections to fail. As microprocessor designs get faster, the cost of
manufacturing a chip (with smaller components built on a semiconductor chip the same size)
generally stays the same.
Microprocessors integrated into one or a few large-scale ICs the architectures that had previously
been implemented using many medium- and small-scale integrated circuits. Continued increases in
microprocessor capacity have rendered other forms of computers almost completely obsolete
(see history of computing hardware), with one or more microprocessors used in everything from the
smallest embedded systems and handheld devices to the largest mainframes and supercomputers.
The first microprocessors emerged in the early 1970s and were used for electronic calculators,
using binary-coded decimal (BCD) arithmetic on 4-bit words. Other embedded uses of 4-bit and 8-bit
microprocessors, such as terminals, printers, various kinds of automation etc., followed soon after.
Affordable 8-bit microprocessors with 16-bit addressing also led to the first general-purpose
microcomputers from the mid-1970s on.

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BLOCK DIAGRAM

A simple block diagram is shown in the figure which is clearly showing all the parts of a
microprocessor-

Microprocessor Based System:Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

ALU is one of the basic units of a microprocessor. All the computing functions are maintained in this
unit. As the name shows, the ALU can perform all the arithmetic operations (,-,*, /, %, etc) and all
logical operations (AND, OR, NOT, XOR, etc).
Control Unit (CU)
Control unit is another important part of a microprocessor. The CPUs control unit coordinates and
times the CPUs functions, and it uses the program counter to locate and retrieve the next instruction
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from memory. Another purpose of control unit is, controlling the data flow between microprocessor
and peripheral devices/peripheral chips.

Registers
Registers are the important section of microprocessor chip. Registers are primarily used to store the
data temporarily during the execution/runtime of the program. A microprocessor contains several
kinds of registers that can be classified according to the instructions provided to the processor. These
instructions are called instruction sets. The registers are basically 8bit, 16bit or 32 bit according to the
type. Registers can easily accessible to the user by using various commands (instructions). Some
registers are used to store address of memory locations that can be easily accessed by the
microprocessor.
Memory
As in the name shows, memory are used to store the information (data & instructions) as in the binary
form. According to this binary informations, a microprocessor perform its operation during the
execution period.

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Microcontroller
A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated C, uC or MCU) is a small computer on a
single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and
programmable input/output peripherals. Programmer memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP
ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers
are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal
computers or other general purpose applications. Micro-controllers may not implement an external
address or data bus as they integrate RAM and non-volatile memory on the same chip as the CPU.
Using fewer pins, the chip can be placed in a much smaller, cheaper package.

General Block diagram

As we will see over block diagram we will found that CPU, memory, and various I/O functions are
inbuilt to Microcontroller.
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Difference between Microprocessor and microcontroller:-

MEMORY
Memory refers to the physical devices used to store programs (sequences of instructions) or data
(e.g. program state information) on a temporary or permanent basis for use in a computer or
other digital electronic device. The term primary memory is used for the information in physical
systems which function at high-speed (i.e. RAM), as a distinction from secondary memory, which are
physical devices for program and data storage which are slow to access but offer higher memory
capacity. Primary memory stored on secondary memory is called "virtual memory". An archaic
synonym for memory is store [2].

SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

Types of memory

Primary Memory / Volatile Memory:

Primary Memory is internal memory of the computer. RAM AND ROM both form part of primary
memory. The primary memory provides main working space to the computer. The following terms
comes under primary memory of a computer are discussed below:

Random Access Memory (RAM): The primary storage is referred to as random access memory
(RAM) because it is possible to randomly select and use any location of the memory directly store
and retrieve data.
Read Only Memory (ROM):
There is another memory in computer, which is called Read Only Memory (ROM). Again it is the
ICs inside the PC that form the ROM. The storage of program and data in the ROM is permanent.
The ROM stores some standard processing programs supplied by the manufacturers to operate the
personal computer. The ROM can only be read by the CPU but it cannot be changed. The basic
input/output program is stored in the ROM that examines and initializes various equipment attached
to the PC when the power switch is ON. The memories, which do not lose their content on failure of
power supply, are known as non-volatile memories. ROM is non-volatile memory.
PROM: There is another type of primary memory in computer, which is called Programmable Read
Only Memory (PROM). You know that it is not possible to modify or erase programs stored in ROM,
but it is possible for you to store your program in PROM chip.

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EPROM: This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, which overcome the problem
of PROM & ROM. EPROM chip can be programmed time and again by erasing the information
stored earlier in it. Information stored in EPROM exposing the chip for some time ultraviolet light
and it erases chip is reprogrammed using a special programming facility. When the EPROM is in use
information can only be read.

Evolution of processor:
Mechanical Computers
A French engineer by the name of Blaise Pascal built the first working mechanical computer. This
device was made completely from gears and was operated using hand cranks. This machine was
capable of simple addition and subtraction, but a few years later, a German mathematician by the
name of Leibniz made a similar machine that could multiply and divide as well. After about 150
years, a mathematician at Cambridge, Charles Babbage made his Difference Engine. This was
primarily used to computer navigational charts, but could only add or subtract. This machine was
designed to run a single algorithm and output the result by punching it into a copper engravers 4
plate. He then began to design the successor, the Analytical machine. This device had memory, a
computational unit, input subsystems (card reader) and output systems (card puncher and printed
output). The advantage of this machine was that it was the first general-purpose machine. It could
read instructions from punched cards and then carried them out. Since this was one of the first
rudimentary programmable machines, it needed assembly software [3]

1st Generation Vacuum Tubes

The first vacuum tube machine was the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer). It
consisted of 18,000 vacuum tubes and 1500 relays. Architecturally, the machine had 20 registers,
each capable of holding a 10 digit decimal number. Programming this behemoth was a herculean
task; one had to set up 6000 multi-position switches and connect a multitude of sockets with jumper
cables. This was followed by a myriad of other such machines including EDSAC, EDVAC.
However, one of the most important inventions of the time was by Jon Von Neumann, who figured
out that programming computers with huge number of switches and cables was slow and inflexible.
He came to realize that the program could be represented in digital form in the computer memory,
along with the data. He also figured that data could be manipulated in parallel rather than in series.
The basic design, which he first described, is known as the Von Neumann machine. It was first used
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in the EDSAC, the first stored program computer, and is still the basis for nearly all digital
computers, even now, more than half a century later [4]
2nd Generation- Transistors
The transistor was invented at Bell labs in 1948. Within 10 years the transistor revolutionized
computers, and by the late 50s, vacuum tube computers were obsolete. The first of these devices
were built at Lincoln Lab, MIT, called the TX-0 (Transistorized Experimental Computer 0). Ken
Olsen, one of the engineers working at this lab, formed a company, Digital Equipment Corporation
(DEC) in 57 and in 61 rolled out the PDP-1 the transistorized successor to the 709, the fastest
computer in the world at the time. The PDP-1 cost $120,000; a direct result of the PDP-1 was a visual
display and the ability to plot points anywhere on its 512 by 512 screen [3]. Within a few years, DEC
released the PDP-8, a 12-bit machine, much cheaper than its predecessor, but with one important new
invention: a single bus or omnibus as they called it, a collection of parallel wires used to connect
the components of the machine.

3rd Generation Integrated Circuits (IC)

With the invention of the IC, it was possible to make processors smaller, faster and cheaper than with
transistors. IBM introduced its System 360 series of machines based on integrated circuits. These
systems were designed so that they could perform both scientific as well as business calculations,
since the entire family shared the same assembly language. Therefore commercial computing could
be performed on low end System /360 Model 30s while scientific computing could be performed on
higher end System /360 Model 75s. [5].

4th Generation VLSI (Microprocessor)

When the IC was invented, it was feasible to put dozens of transistors on a single chip, but as time
passed by, a few dozen became thousands, and tens of thousands and soon millions of transistors
could be fit on a single chip. This allowed for more complex microprocessor design and faster
processors. By the 80s, the prices for the processors had dropped so low, that even individuals could
afford small personal computers or PCs. Intels 8088 was the processor of choice and they built the
machine from commercially available parts, introduced in 1981 and instantly became one of the best
selling computer in history. However, in an effort to push the sales of PCs even further by allowing
other companies to make plug in boards for the IBM PC, they committed one of the biggest blunders
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in computing history. They published the entire plans and circuit diagrams and sold it for $49. Since
the design was now completely public, other small companies started to build clone machines and
thus the IBM PC clone market was born. Other companies also started to sell machines some of the
interesting ones have been by Apple, Amiga, Commodore and Atari. However, the IBM PC was so
popular, that others found it difficult to compete. The IBM PCs came with MS DOS installed,
supplied by Microsoft, together forming an alliance that has revolutionized home computing, as we
know it. What was earlier an entire machine can now be fit into a small part of a microprocessor. In
1965, Gordon Moore had postulated that the power of these microprocessors would grow
exponentially, doubling every two years. This law, better known as Moores law has, has more or
less been accurate till this date in predicting microprocessor complexity and power.

Description of microprocessors
INTEL 4004
The 4004 processor was introduced on November 15, 1971, and originally ran at a clock speed of 108
KHz (108,000 cycles per second, or just over one-tenth a megahertz). The 4004 contained 2,300
transistors and was built on a 10 micron process. This means that each line, trace, or transistor could
be spaced about 10 microns (millionths of a meter) apart. Data was transferred four bits at a time, and
the maximum addressable memory was only 640 bytes. The 4004 was designed for use in a
calculator, but proved to be useful for many other functions because of its inherent programmability

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Intel 8008
In April 1972, Intel released the 8008 processor, which originally ran at a clock speed of 200 KHz
(0.2MHz). The 8008 processor contained 3,500 transistors and was built on the same 10 micron
process as the previous processor. The big change in the 8008 was that it had an 8-bit data bus, which
meant it could move data 8 bits at a timetwice as much as the previous chip. It could also address
more memory, up to 16KB. This chip was primarily used in dumb terminals and general-purpose
calculators.

Intel 8080
Introduced in April 1974, running at a clock rate of 2MHz. due mostly to the faster clock rate, the
8080 processor had 10 times the performance of the 8008. The 8080 chip contained 6,000 transistors
and was built on a 6 micron process. Like the previous chip, the 8080 had an 8-bit data bus, so it
could transfer 8 bits of data at a time. The 8080 could address up to 64KB of memory, significantly
more than the previous chip. It was the 8080 that helped start the PC revolution, as this was the
processor chip used in what is generally regarded as the first personal computer, the Altair 8800. The
CP/M operating system was written for the 8080 chip, and Microsoft was founded and delivered its
first product: Microsoft BASIC for the Altair. These initial tools provided the foundation for a
revolution in software because thousands of programs were written to run on this platform. In fact,
the 8080 became so popular that it was cloned. A company called Zilog formed in late 1975, joined
by several ex-Intel 8080 engineers. In July of 1976, it released the Z-80 processor, which was a
vastly improved version of the 8080. It was not pin compatible, but instead combined functions such
as the memory interface and RAM refresh circuitry, which allowed cheaper and simpler systems to
be designed. The Z-80 also incorporated a superset of 8080 instructions, meaning it could run all
8080 programs. It also included new instructions and new internal registers, so software that was
designed for the Z-80 would not necessarily run on the older 8080. The Z-80 ran initially at 2.5MHz
(later versions ran up to 10MHz), and contained 8,500 transistors. The Z-80 could access 64KB of
memory.

Intel 8085
Intel released the 8085, its follow up to the 8080, in March of 1976. Even though it predated the Z-80
by several months, it never achieved the popularity of the Z-80 in personal computer systems. It was
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popular as an embedded controller, finding use in scales and other computerized equipment. The
8085 ran at 5MHz and contained 6,500 transistors. It was built on a 3-micron process and
incorporated an 8-bit data bus.

Intel 8086
Intel introduced the 8086 in June 1978.The 8086 chip brought with it the original x86 instruction set
that is still present on x86-compatiblechips such as the Pentium III. A dramatic improvement over the
previous chips, the 8086 was a full16-bit design with 16-bit internal registers and a 16-bit data bus.
This meant that it could work on 16-bit numbers and data internally and also transfer 16-bits at a time
in and out of the chip. The 8086contained 29,000 transistors and initially ran at up to 5MHz. The chip
also used 20-bit addressing, meaning it could directly address up to 1MB of memory. Although not
directly backward compatible with the 8080, the 8086 instructions and language was very similar and
allowed older programs to be ported over quickly to run. This later proved important to help
jumpstart the PC software revolution with recycled CP/M (8080) software. Although the 8086 was a
great chip, it was expensive at the time and more importantly required inexpensive 16-bit support
chip and board design. To help bring costs down, in 1979, Intel released crippled version of the 8086
called the 8088. The 8088 processor used the same internal core as the8086, had the same 16-bit
registers, and could address the same 1MB of memory, but the external data bus was reduced to 8
bits. This allowed support chips from the older 8-bit 8085 to be used, and far less expensive boards
and systems could be made. It is for these reasons that IBM chose the crippled chip, the 8088, for the
first PC. This decision would affect history in several ways. The 8088 was fully software compatible
with the8086, so it could run 16-bit software. Also, because the instruction set was very similar to the
previous 8085 and 8080, programs written for those older chips could be quickly and easily modified
to run. This allowed a large library of programs to be quickly released for the IBM PC, thus helping it
become a success. The overwhelming blockbuster success of the IBM PC left in its wake the legacy
of requiring backward compatibility with it. In order to maintain the momentum, Intel has pretty
much been forced to maintain backward compatibility with the 8088/8086 in most of the processors it
has released since then.

Intel 80286
Introduced February 2, 1982

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 Clock rates:

6 MHz with 0.9 MIPS

8 MHz, 10 MHz with 1.5 MIPS
12.5 MHz with 2.66 MIPS
16 MHz, 20 MHz and 25 MHz available.

Bus width: 16 bits data, 24 bits address.

Included memory protection hardware to support multitasking operating systems with perprocess address space.
Number of transistors 134,000 at 1.5 m
Addressable memory 16 MB
Added protected-mode features to 8086 with essentially the same instruction set
36X the performance of the 8086
Widely used in IBM-PC AT and AT clones contemporary to it.

Intel 80386
Introduced October 17, 1985
Clock rates:

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16 MHz with 5 MIPS

20 MHz with 6 to 7 MIPS, introduced February 16, 1987

25 MHz with 7.5 MIPS, introduced April 4, 1988

33 MHz with 9.9 MIPS (9.4 SPECint92 on Compaq/i 16K L2), introduced April 10,
1989

Bus width 32 bits data, 32 bits address

Number of transistors 275,000 at 1 m
Addressable memory 4 GB
Virtual memory 64 TB
First x86 chip to handle 32-bit data sets
Reworked and expanded memory protection support including paged virtual memory and
virtual-86 mode, features required at the time by Xenix and UNIX. This memory

SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

capability spurred the development and availability of OS/2 and is a fundamental

requirement for modern operating systems like Linux, Windows, and OS X.
Used in desktop computing

Pentium Pro

Introduced November 1, 1995

Precursor to Pentium II and III
Primarily used in server system
Socket 8 processor package (387 pins) (Dual SPGA)
Number of transistors 5.5 million
Family 6 model 1
256 KB integrated L2 cache
60 MHz system bus clock rate

Pentium II

Introduced May 7, 1997

Pentium Pro with MMX and improved 16-bit performance
242-pin Slot 1 (SEC) processor package
Voltage identification pins
Number of transistors 7.5 million
32 KB L1 cache
512 KB bandwidth external L2 cache
The only Pentium II that did not have the L2 cache at bandwidth of the core was the
Pentium II 450 PE.

Pentium III
Katmai 0.25 m process technology

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Introduced February 26, 1999

Improved PII, i.e. P6-based core, now including Streaming SIMD Extensions (SSE)
SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

Number of transistors 9.5 million

512 KB bandwidth L2 External cache
242-pin Slot 1 SECC2 (Single Edge Contact cartridge 2) processor package
System Bus clock rate 100 MHz, 133 MHz (B-models)
450, 500 MHz Introduced February 26, 1999
550 MHz Introduced May 17, 1999
600 MHz Introduced August 2, 1999
533, 600 MHz Introduced (133 MHz bus clock rate) September 27, 1999

Coppermine 0.18 m process technology

Introduced October 25, 1999

Number of transistors 28.1 million
256 KB Advanced Transfer L2 Cache (Integrated)
242-pin Slot-1 SECC2 (Single Edge Contact cartridge 2) processor package, 370-pin FCPGA (Flip-chip pin grid array) package
System Bus clock rate 100 MHz (E-models), 133 MHz (EB models)
Slot 1, Socket 370

Intel Pentium
Clarkdale 32 nm process technology

2 physical cores/2 threads

3 MB L3 cache

Introduced January 2010

Socket 1156 LGA

2-channel DDR3

Integrated HD GPU

Variants

G6950 2.8 GHz (no Hyper-Threading)[7]

G6960 2.933 GHz (no Hyper-Threading)

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Core i3

Clarkdale 32 nm process technology

2 physical cores/4 threads

64 Kb L1 cache

512 Kb L2 cache

4 MB L3 cache

Introduced January, 2010

Socket 1156 LGA

2-channel DDR3

Integrated HD GPU

Variants

530 2.93 GHz Hyper-Threading

540 3.06 GHz Hyper-Threading

550 3.2 GHz Hyper-Threading

560 3.33 GHz Hyper-Threading

Core i5
Lynnfield 45 nm process technology

xx

4 physical cores
32+32 Kb (per core) L1 cache
256 Kb (per core) L2 cache
8 MB common L3 cache
Introduced September 8, 2009
Family 6 Model E (Ext. Model 1E)
Socket 1156 LGA
2-channel DDR3
Variants
SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

750S 2.40 GHz/3.20 GHz Turbo Boost

750 2.66 GHz/3.20 GHz Turbo Boost
760 2.80 GHz/3.33 GHz Turbo Boost

Clarkdale 32 nm process technology

2 physical cores/4 threads

64 Kb L1 cache

512 Kb L2 cache

4 MB L3 cache

Introduced January, 2010

Socket 1156 LGA

2-channel DDR3

Integrated HD GPU

AES Support

Various facts regarding Microprocessor

In 2003, about US$44 billion worth of microprocessors were manufactured and
sold.[6] Although about half of that money was spent on CPUs used in desktop or
laptop personal computer, those count for only about 2% of all CPUs sold.[7]
About 55% of all CPUs sold in the world are 8-bit microcontrollers, over two billion of which
were sold in 1997.[8]
As of 2002, less than 10% of all the CPUs sold in the world are 32-bit or more. Of all the 32bit CPUs sold, about 2% are used in desktop or laptop personal computers. Most
microprocessors are used in embedded control applications such as household appliances,
automobiles, and computer peripherals. Taken as a whole, the average price for a
microprocessor, microcontroller, or DSP is just over $6.[7]
About ten billion CPUs were manufactured in 2008. About 98% of new CPUs produced each
year are embedded.[9]

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Future
There may be less cores and less GHz! However, there will be more GPU power. The most
advanced games will require less CPU power, but more GPU power.
It's possible in the future multiple processors could be getting used instead of a single
processor, like some servers do, but that's not a change in the processor itself, so much as
motherboard and OS
Currently Intel is working with new materials (not silicon) to make CPUs. Carbon structured
materials like Nano-tubes are being worked with to reduce wire sizes (which are already
microscopic) and improve efficiency to make CPUs either smaller or far more powerful.
Tomorrow's machines won't just be faster they may be radically different. By aping how the

brain works or making use of sci-fi grade goo, tomorrow's computers will likely be
unrecognisably by today's standards and definitions. In 25 years' time we may look back on
silicon in the same way we now regard Babbage's Difference Engine.

Conclusion
New applications that make use of voice recognition, and image recognition use a lot of
computational power. These kinds of applications have not been the research focus in the past in
academia, where the focus is more on scientific and heavy engineering workloads. Indeed, ENIAC,
one of the earliest computers was built to calculate missile trajectories, but now the focus of
computing has shifted to non-scientific areas such as multimedia and graphics. The thinking in
academia is still influenced by this early history and has led to the development of research areas that
may not be the most relevant today. Future research in microprocessor architecture should span a
wide variety of subjects, from incremental improvement in design and fabrication to revolutionary
new designs and architectures. Parallelism, an area of research that has been already explored
widely, has had mixed results. Although these machines are not difficult to build, the difficulty in
programming has presented a formidable barrier to the use of massively parallel processors.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Back to the Moon: The Verification of a Small Microprocessor's Logic Design NASA Office of Logic Design
2. A.M. Turing and R.A. Brooker (1952). Programmer's Handbook for Manchester Electronic
Computer Mark II University of Manchester
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1990
4. Brey: The Intel x86 Architecture, 1998
5. Hennessy & Patterson: Computer Architecture A Quantitative Approach, 2nd Ed. 1996
6. WSTS Board of Directors. "WSTS Semiconductor Market Forecast World Release Date: 1
June 2004 - 6:00 UTC".Miyazaki, Japan, Spring Forecast Meeting 1821 May 2004(Press
release). World Semiconductor Trade Statistics. Archived from the original on 2004-12-07.
7. Turley, Jim (18 December 2002). "The Two Percent Solution". Embedded Systems Design.
TechInsights (United Business Media). Retrieved 2009-12-23.
8. Cantrell, Tom (1998). "Microchip on the March". Archived from the original on 2007-02-20.
9. Barr, Michael (1 August 2009). "Real men program in C".Embedded Systems Design.
TechInsights (United Business Media). p. 2. Retrieved 2009-12-23.

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Appendix:

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