Errata - A Most Incomprehensible Thing

Errata and amendments:
A Most Incomprehensible Thing: Notes Towards a Very Gentle Introduction to the

Mathematics of Relativity
by Peter Collier
First Edition published July 2012.

Second Edition published July 2014.
The version number, which can be found on the copyright page, is of the form v*** for ebooks (Kindle and
EPUB books) and v***CS or v***IS for the paperback editions. For example, a version number v61CS
paperback would contain the errata listed in Section (3) plus all the subsequent Sections.
The current published versions are: v112 for the second edition ebooks (Kindle and EPUB) and v74IS for
the second edition paperback, so errata for these books are to be found in Section (7)
The author apologises for these errors and amendments and for any inconvenience caused. Please contact
the author to update this list: incomprehensiblething @ gmail.com.
Contents
1 First Edition: versions 95 (ebook), 55 (paperback) and earlier
12
13
7 Second Edition: versions 112 (ebook), 74 (paperback) and earlier
16

1. Section 1.14.1
Problem 1.23. Equation
dy = sin sin dr + r cos cos d + r sin sin d
should read:
dy = sin sin dr + r cos sin d + r sin cos d.
Thanks to Naeem Rashid.
2. Section 5.3.6
Change where = 0, 1, 2, 3 = t, x, y, z to = 0, 1, 2, 3 = t, x, y, z, for example.

1. Section 1.7.1
sin 25 equals 0.4226 not 0.4426, therefore
sin 25 = 0.4426 =
c=
8
= 18.075.
0.4426
should read:
sin 25 = 0.4226 =
c=
8
c
8
c
8
= 18.930.
0.4226
Thanks to Derek Steel.
sin 140 equals 0.643 not 0.623.

Thanks to Derek Steel.
2. Section 3.4.3
Equation 3.4.15
vx
ct = c t
c
0
should read:
vx
ct = c t 2 .
c
0
Also, the equation after Equation 3.4.15 should read:

vx
0 = c t 2 .
c

Thanks to James Bowie.
3. Section 5.1
This section has been significantly rewritten. Rather than give piecemeal amendments, delete from the start
of the paragraph starting Unfortunately, the vectors used in general relativity to the end of the section.
Insert:
Unfortunately, the vectors used in general relativity are not directed line segments stretching from one
point to another in space. Instead, each vector is located at a single point in spacetime. In fact, each point
in spacetime is itself a vector space and home to an infinite number of vectors. The vector space will be
both a tangent space (home to those objects known as contravariant vectors), and a cotangent space
(home to those objects known as one-forms). Contravariant vectors and one-forms should be thought of as
different representations of the same geometrical object at a point in spacetime. Details to follow, but for a
contravariant vector, think of a tangent vector to a parameterised curve; for a one-form, think of a gradient
of a scalar field. Well see later how the metric tensor is used to convert a vector to its corresponding
one-form and vice versa. The reason that the simple vectors in Section 1.13 and the more abstract vectors
we are now talking about are both loosely referred to as vectors is that they both obey the rules that define
a vector space. In brief, a vector space consists of a group of objects (call the group X, for example) that
can be added together and multiplied by a scalar, and the result will be another member of the group X.
Up until now, our indices have referred to particular coordinate systems: x, y, z for Cartesian, r, , for
spherical, etc. Differential geometry demands a more abstract use of indices, where they can refer to
any permissible coordinate system. Similarly, in general relativity, because we are dealing with curved
spacetime, there are no preferred coordinate systems and we need to be able to transform from any one
coordinate system to any other (the terminology is that we are using general coordinates). So if x are
the old coordinates and y are the new coordinates ( = 0, 1, 2, 3), then any functions linking x and y are
2
permissible as long as (a) the functions are differentiable, and (b) each point in spacetime is uniquely labelled
by a set of four numbers. We move freely between different coordinate systems by using the transformation
properties (involving partial derivatives of the coordinate functions) of contravariant vectors and one-forms.
Contravariant and one-form basis vectors are also defined in terms of derivatives of the coordinate functions.
We dont need to go into details, but can just note that contravariant basis vectors are tangent to the
coordinate curves (along which only one of the coordinates changes), and one-form basis vectors are gradients
of the coordinate surfaces (on which only one of the coordinates remains constant). Bases of this sort (unlike
the constant non-coordinate bases of Cartesian coordinates) that change with the coordinates, are known
as coordinate bases. These are the bases well be implicitly using from now on.
However (thankfully!), the transformation properties of the components of vectors and one-forms (and
tensors in general) are basis-independent, meaning we usually dont need to worry too much about basis
vectors and basis one-forms. Crucially, basis-independence means that if a tensor equation is true in one
coordinate system it will be true in all coordinate systems. Because we tend to refer only to the components
of vectors, one-forms, etc, well continue our habit of loosely referring to a vector V or a one-form V
when, strictly speaking, this notation refers to the components of those objects. Though not totally accurate,
this terminology is good enough for our purposes.
Although, in the context of general relativity, we cant meaningfully talk about directed line segments
stretching from one point to another in space, we can define an infinitesimal displacement vector in spacetime:
d~x = dx e .
The power of the mathematics that follows is that it allows us to manipulate d~x and end up with physical
measurable quantities (time, distance, velocity, momentum, etc).
Any contravariant vector or one-form is the product of its components and a basis of some kind. Contrav~ ) so we can say, using the Einstein
ariant four-vectors are often represented by an arrow over the letter (egV
summation convention, that
~ = V e ,
V
~
where V and e are respectively the components and basis vectors of V.
One-forms are often represented by a tilde over the letter (eg V ) so we can say, again using the Einstein
summation convention, that
V = V e ,
where V and e are respectively the components and basis one-forms of V .
A contravariant vector acts linearly on a one-form (and vice versa) to give a scalar (a real number). This
works because the relationship between the basis vectors and basis one-forms is defined (using the Kronecker
delta) by the equations
e (e ) = .
Therefore, for any one-form and vector

~
P V
= P V e e = P V = P V
= P0 V 0 + P1 V 1 + P2 V 2 + P3 V 3 ,
which is a scalar.
Before looking at the transformation properties of contravariant vectors and one-forms well see what happens
to scalar fields when we change from one coordinate system to another.
4. Section 5.3.3
Delete the final paragraph.
5. Section 5.4
First bullet point should read: Because the transformation properties of tensor components are basisindependent, if a tensor equation is true in one coordinate system it will be true in all coordinate systems.
3
6. Section 5.4
After leading us to the famous mass-energy equation E = mc2 insert:
Its worth making a small detour here in order to see just why the metric tensor is involved when taking
the scalar product of two vectors. We first need to note that the components gij of the metric are defined
in terms of the coordinate basis vectors as
gij = ei ej
or, in spacetime, using Greek indices
g = e e .
Using this definition, and recalling that an infinitesimal displacement vector in spacetime is given by
d~x = dx e ,
we can see that the scalar product of this vector with itself will be
(d~x)2 = (dx e ) (dx e ) = (e e ) dx dx
= g dx dx .
This equation is the spacetime version of (4.2.1)
dl2 = gij dxi dxj ,
the line element for an n-dimensional manifold that we met in the previous chapter. In a similar fashion,
the scalar product of two different vectors must then be given by
~ W
~ = (V e ) (W e ) = g V W .
V
Hence the need for the metric tensor.
7. Section 5.4.1
After second equation, delete Well see shortly, when looking at tensor algebra, that.
8. Section 5.4.2
After equation
T = A B ,
insert:
A single tensor can also be contracted by summing over identical upper and lower indices. For example,
we can contract a tensor T to give another tensor T = X , which is a contravariant vector.
Lets see how this contraction works. The tensor X = T will transform as follows:
x0 x0 x
T
x x x0
x x0
x0
=
T = T .
x x
x
Remember that the x coordinates (represented by the , , indices) are independent of each other. The
Kronecker delta (here used as a tensor with an upper and lower index) in the final term tells us that the
derivative of any of these coordinates with respect to any other is zero, and the derivative of a coordinate
with respect to itself is 1 (if x = x then dx
dx = 1). We can therefore write
X 0 = T 0 =
x0
x0
x0
T
=
T
=
X ,
x
x
x
meaning the contracted tensor transforms, as it should, as a contravariant vector.
X 0 = T 0 =
9. Section 5.4.2
Problem 5.3. Delete representing two arbitrary coordinate systems and replace with representing an
arbitrary coordinate system.
Also, after true in any coordinate system insert:
A similar argument shows that any tensor equation if true in one coordinate system will be true in all
coordinate systems.
4

1. Section 1.5
Last but one bullet point: will only be a tiny bit less than 1.
should read:
will only be a tiny bit more than 1.
Thanks to Don Berry.
Also, final bullet point: cannot equal zero because v < c, and therefore v/c can never equal 1.
should read:
cannot equal zero because the numerator (the top bit of the fraction) is a non-zero constant, ie equals 1.
Thanks to Jeremy Roach.
2. Section 1.5.1
Figure 1.1. The origin should be at the lowest point of the surface.
3. Section 1.6
Problem 1.3. The solution should read:
q
(3x + 8)2
x2
3x + 8
.
7 =
x
Taking the left-hand side as +7, multiply both sides by x
49 =
7x = 3x + 8
4x = 8
8
x = = 2.
4
If we take
49 = 7, we obtain another solution, ie x = 4/5.
Thanks to Bob Bazely.
4. Section 1.10.1.4
Figure 1.15
The origin should be at the lowest point of the surface.
5. Section 3.2.7
Equation 3.2.2
v =w+u
should read:
u = w + v.
Thanks to Jeremy Roach.
6. Section 3.4.9
Replace two occurrences of z1 0 = z1 with z1 0 = z1 .
7. Section 3.4.10
Problem 3.10. The
frame
(x2 +y2 +z 2 )
t2
term is actually your velocity measured by an observer in the Earth
should read:
(x2 +y2 +z 2 )
The
term is actually the square of your velocity as measured by an observer in the Earth
t2
frame.
Also, equation
v = 1 1.25 1013
should read:
v = 1 1.25 1013 .
8. Section 3.6.5
A missing minus sign means that equation
c2 m
2
should read:
c2 m
1
ds
s
1
ds,
s
meaning
c2 m s + c
should read:
c2 m s + c,
and
q
c2 m 1 (v/c)2 + c
should read:
c2 m 1 (v/c)2 + c.
9. Section 5.4.1
Equation 5.4.1
m
T 01 21...
2 ...n =
x0m
x1 x2
xm
x01 x02
m
.
.
.
.
.
.
T 1 2...
0
0
1 2 ...n
x 1 x 2
x m
x 1 x 2
x0m
should read (a slight mix up with the m0 s and n0 s):

m
T 01 21...
2 ...n =
x01 x02
x0m
x1 x2
xn
m
.
.
.
.
.
.
T 1 2...
.
1 2 ...n
x1 x2
xm
x01 x02
x0n
10. Section 5.4.2


Aa = 1, r2 0
should read:
Aa = 1, r3 , 0 .
11. Section 5.4.2

V
V
=
g
x
x
should read (theres a missing ):
V
V
=
g
.
x
x
12. Section 6.3

The section starting Finding the covariant derivative of a contravariant vector or tensor field is equivalent
to should read:
Using an identical upper and lower index (ie a dummy index), the covariant derivative of a contravariant
vector or tensor field is equivalent to the fields divergence. Then, in flat space using Cartesian coordinate,
the covariant derivative (6.3.6)
V
V =
+ V
x
reduces to
V
V =
,
x
which is the same ...
Thanks to Steve Burk.
13. Section 6.5

y=
should read:
c
x
a
c
y = x+
a
cb + ad
a
ad bc
.
a

14. Section 7.5.3

Change We mentioned earlier that the covariant derivative of a tensor field is equivalent to the divergence
of that field. to:
We mentioned earlier that, using a dummy index, the covariant derivative of a tensor field is equivalent to
the divergence of that field.
Also, the section starting In the flat spacetime of special relativity, the fundamental laws of conservation
of energy should read:
In the flat spacetime of special relativity, the fundamental laws of conservation of energy and momentum
can indeed be expressed by saying
T
=0
x
or, using comma notation,
T,
= 0.
These equations describe conservation of energy when = 0, and conservation of the ith component of
momentum when
T i
= 0.
x
In other words ...
Also, equation
T; = 0
should read:
T;
= 0.

1. Section 1.13.2
In the first paragraph delete (the Greek letter nabla) and insert at the end of the paragraph:
(Nabla is from the Greek word for a Phoenician harp, which nineteenth century mathematicians thought
the inverted Delta symbol resembled.)
Thanks to Stuart Collins.
2. Section 1.15
In the rules of index notation, the first sentence of Rule 4 should read:
Dummy indices appear twice in a term, either as subscripts in Cartesian vectors/tensors, or once as
superscript and once as subscript in the more general vectors/tensors we tend to use in this book.
Thanks to Michael Guggenheimer.
3. Section 3.4.2
After Strictly speaking, the brackets in (3.4.13) mean we are referring to matrices insert:
(From now on we wont bother to use this clunky bracket notation for single index vectors.)
4. Section 3.6.5
To avoid confusion with the speed of light, the constant of integration c should be C.
Thanks to Frits van der Laan.
5. Section 3.6.6
At the end of the first paragraph (after which is the particles mass energy Eo ) insert:
It can be shown theoretically and has been verified experimentally that, providing no external forces act,
total relativistic energy is conserved in all inertial frames, irrespective of whether mass or kinetic energy
are conserved. In high-speed particle collisions, for example, mass, kinetic energy, even the total number of
particles may not be conserved, but the total relativistic energy of the system will be.
Suggested by Frits van der Laan.
6. Section 5.4
Delete everything between (but not including) A type (0, 0) tensor is therefore just a number, a scalar, 106
for example and Tensors of rank 3 can be thought of as ... and insert:
A type (1, 0) tensor (aka a contravariant vector) is conventionally written in column form, eg
V =
a
b
c
d
A type (0, 1) tensor (aka a one-form) is conventionally written in row form, eg

X = (e, f, g, h) .
These two tensors can be multiplied together (known as taking the tensor product) to form a rank 2
tensor, which can be written as a 4 4 matrix:
T = [V X ] =
ae af
be bf
ce cf
de df
ag
bg
cg
dg
ah
bh
ch
dh
So, for example, T 30 = V 3 X0 = de. In a similar fashion, two contravariant vectors or two one-forms may
also be multiplied together to give a rank 2 tensor.
7. Section 5.4.2
After where we have again used the Kronecker delta as a tensor with an upper and lower index insert:
8
Double contraction to zero In order to understand this somewhat counter-intuitive result we need to
introduce the tensor properties of symmetry/antisymmetry.
A rank 2 tensor is symmetric if S = S . Such a tensor can be represented by a symmetric matrix
w
a
b
c
a
x
d
e
b c
d e
y f
f z
So, for example, S02 = S20 = b, S23 = S32 = f , etc. Symmetric tensors we meet in this book include the
metric tensor, the energy-momentum tensor, the Ricci tensor and the Einstein tensor.
Conversely, a rank 2 tensor is antisymmetric if
the tensor is of the matrix form
0
a
b
c
A = A . If you think about it, this is only possible if

a
b
0
d
d 0
e f
c
e
f
0
where the diagonal terms are all zero. The Riemann curvature tensor, written as Rhijk , is antisymmetric on
the first and second pair of indices, meaning Rhijk = Rhikj = Rihjk .
The double contraction of a symmetric tensor S and an antisymmetric tensor A is zero, ie A S = 0.
We can show this as follows:
A S = (A ) (S )
= (A S ) .
As and are dummy indices, we can swap them to give
A S = (A S ) ,
which can only be true if
A S = (A S ) = 0.
This may be clearer if we write out the double contraction in component form. Well use two simple tensors,
a symmetrical one
x a b
h i
S ij = a y c ,
b c z
and an antisymmetrical one
0
d
[Aij ] = d 0
e f
f ,
0
giving
Aij S ij = (0 x) + da + eb da + (0 y) + f c eb f c + (0 z) = 0.
8. Section 5.4.2
g
B =
should read:
g
B =

1
2
2
sin
cos
r2

1
2
cos
.
2
r2 sin
Thanks to Frits van der Laan.
9. Section 5.5
This section has been rewritten. It should now read:

Weve now looked at scalars, vectors, one-forms and tensors, and we know that these objects live on the
manifold. This is all quite abstract. Can we picture these things in the real world?
Visualising four-dimensional spacetime is beyond the imaginations of most of us, so well simplify the
situation and model a manifold using a rough and ready mental picture of a real two-dimensional surface.
Im going to visualise a pebble, but any smooth surface will do an apple, a bottle, the bodywork of a
car etc. The surface has to be smooth because it needs to be differentiable, so use an imaginary file to
remove any imaginary sharp edges from your imaginary surface. Picture the surface in your mind (or put
a real pebble on the table in front of you) and using our imagination well construct our simple model of a
manifold.
The surface of the pebble is our manifold, or curved space. Its two-dimensional because if we choose the
right coordinate system we only need two coordinates to describe any point on the surface of the pebble.
Next, imagine we stretch a red elastic net over the pebble to represent an arbitrary x, y coordinate system,
followed by a blue elastic net to represent an arbitrary x0 , y 0 coordinate system. Now we can describe any
point on the surface of the pebble using both x, y and x0 , y 0 coordinates. Lets consider a point P on the
surface of the pebble.
First, because our manifold is a Riemannian manifold, we can assign a symmetric metric tensor g = g
to P and to every other point on the surface of the pebble. In the jargon, we say we have defined a metric
tensor field over the surface of our pebble (a tensor field assigns a tensor to each point of a manifold, just
as a vector field assigns a vector to each point). The metric defines the separation of infinitesimally adjacent
points on the manifold. Because our manifold is two-dimensional, the metric will be a 2 2 matrix. We
dont know what the metric actually is, but we do know its coefficients will not be constant (otherwise our
pebble would be flat!), and that the metric for the red coordinate system will be different to the one for the
blue.
Next, we can use our coordinates to construct a scalar field on the surface of the pebble. Im going to make
one up, call it S, and say
S = x2 + 3y.
Now we can assign a scalar value S to the point P. For example if x = 7, y = 2, then S = 55.
By taking the gradient of S we can define a one-form (5.3.4) at P

S =
S S
,
x y
But we can define an infinite number of scalar fields, and therefore an infinite number of one-forms at P.
We therefore have a vector space at P, which is called the cotangent or dual-space.
Now draw a number of imaginary curves on the surface of the pebble, each going through P. These are our
parameterised curves. If we were clever enough, each curve could be expressed in terms of a parameter (t
for example), so x = f (t) and y = f (t) . Now take a piece of paper, draw a point on it and carefully draw
a number of infinitely short (just do your best) straight lines through that point. Rest the paper on the
pebble so that the point on the paper is touching point P on the pebble. We can see that the straight lines
drawn on the paper are tangent to the curves drawn on the pebble at point P. The direction of each tangent
is given by (5.3.3) and defines a contravariant vector. There are an infinite number of parameterised curves
we could draw on the pebble, and therefore an infinite number of tangent vectors passing through P. We
therefore have a vector space at P, which is called the tangent space.
At any point on the surface of the pebble we can now, if we wish, take a contravariant vector or one-form
and use the transformation equations to flip between the red and blue coordinate systems. But, as stressed
earlier, in practice we dont need to worry about physically calculating transformation equations. The prime
advantage of defining the geometry of the pebbles surface in terms of general coordinates is that we can then
proceed to define tensors that are true in any coordinate system, tensors that describe both the pebbles
curvature (the Riemann curvature tensor) and physics (the field equations, for example). Then, if we can
somehow ascertain the metric, we can use these tensors to calculate measurable physical quantities.
10. Section 6.2
10
Equation
V
= x
ex + 2
ey
y
should read:
V
= x
ex + 2
ey + 2
ez .
y
Also, in the sentence immediately before Equation 6.2.2, change in terms of a new set of basis vectors e
to:
in terms of basis vectors e .
Thanks to Fred Mandelkorn.
11. Section 6.5

d2
d2
d
=
=
=0
d
d
d
should read:
d2
d2
d
=
=
= 0.
2
2
d
d
d
12. Section 7.5

Change the three sentences in the paragraph after Equation 7.5.2 from These world-lines cross two surfaces:
AB of constant x and BC of constant time ct. The world-lines crossing AB represent the flux across constant
x, (ie, nv from (7.5.2)). The same world-lines also cross BC, a surface of constant time. to:
These world-lines cross two surfaces: BC of constant x and AB of constant time ct. The world-lines crossing
BC represent the flux across constant x, (ie, nv from (7.5.2)). The same world-lines also cross AB, a surface
of constant time.
13. Section 10.3

Problem 10.1 (b). Equation
=
2 5.12 106
= 0.121 ms
8.47 1010
2 5.20 106
= 0.123 ms.
8.47 1010
should read:
Problem 10.1 (c). Equation

0.121 0.103 = 0.018
should read:
0.123 0.103 = 0.020.
14. Section 10.5

Equation 10.5.4
RS
ds = 1
r
2
RS
RS
c dt 2
cdt0 dr r2 1 +
r
r
2
02
dr2 r2 d2 + sin2 d2
should read (theres a superfluous r2 term):

RS
ds = 1
r
2
RS
RS
c dt 2
cdt0 dr 1 +
r
r
2
02
11
dr2 r2 d2 + sin2 d2 .
15. Section 11.3.2

Equation just after Equation 11.3.9
should read:
= sin if k = +1
R
= sin1 if k = +1.
R
16. Section 11.4.5

The final equation
R0 =
should read:
R0 =
c
c
= 1/2
4G
c
1
= 1/2 .
4G

1. Section 6.2
Problem 6.1. Delete We can find the transformation rule for basis vectors using (5.3.2) and insert:
For the rules of tensor algebra to work, the basis vectors e must transform in the same way as the one-form
V . So we can find the transformation rule for basis vectors using (5.3.2)
Thanks to Giancarlo Bernacchi.
2. Section 6.3
Problem 6.5 should now read:
Show that the covariant derivative of the Euclidean metric tensor gij for any coordinate system is zero.
Substituting the Euclidean metric tensor for Cartesian coordinates (1.14.6)
1 0 0
[gij ] = 0 1 0
0 0 1
into (6.3.9)
T =
T
T T
x
gives
gij
gj i gi j .
x
In Cartesian coordinates the right-hand side equals zero (because the Euclidean metric is constant, and the
connection coefficients are zero), therefore
gij = 0.
gij =
But (and this is the clever thing about tensors) if this equation is true in Cartesian coordinates, it must be
true for the Euclidean metric in all coordinate systems.
Actually, it is straightforward to show, by substituting (6.2.6)
1
g
g g
= g
+
2
x
x
x

into (6.3.9)
T =
T
T T ,
x
12
(and, of course, substituting g for T ) that the covariant derivative of the general metric tensor is zero
for any coordinate system, ie
g = 0.
Intuitively, we can also show this by knowing that the covariant derivative of the metric tensor must vanish
in the flat spacetime of special relativity (where the metric is constant). Being a tensor equation, g = 0
must also then be true in any coordinate system.
3. Section 6.4
The equation after So, using the chain rule, we can write should read:
DV
dx dV
dx
+
V
=
= U
d
d dx
d
dV
+ V .
dx

4. Section 6.6
Problem 6.9. The final sentence of the second paragraph should read: Well take one of these, R for
example, and calculate it.
5. Section 7.3
The third paragraph should start In free fall, of course, the spacetime ... .
6. Section 7.5.2
At the end of this section delete Because of the equivalence principle, any physical law that can be expressed
as a tensor equation in special relativity has exactly the same form in a local inertial frame in the curved
spacetime of general relativity. We can therefore rewrite and insert:
The principle of general covariance allows us to replace the Minkowski metric and rewrite.
7. Section 8.2.2
Delete The comma goes to semi-colon rule (where we use covariant derivatives instead of partial derivatives) and insert:
The principle of general covariance.

1. Section 1.7.3
Change the opening sentence from An identity is a relationship between two equations that is always
true. to An identity is a relationship between two expressions that is always true..
Thanks to Walter Vanhimbeeck
2. Section 1.8.2
Property 4. Equation
logx (ay ) = y log a
should read (theres a missing subscript):
logx (ay ) = y logx a.
Thanks to Don Golfen
3. Section 1.9.1
13
Delete the sentence ie Ps perpendicular distance from the x, y and z axes..

4. Section 1.10.2.1
Problem 1.11 (c) 3tx dx should read (missing brackets): (3t)x dx. And the solution (yet more missing
brackets)
3tx
3tx dx =
+C
ln 3t
should read:
(3t)x
+ C.
ln (3t)
(3t) x dx =
Thanks to Thomas Laming
5. Section 1.13
In the final paragraph of this section delete eg F = Fx + Fy + Fz and insert:
eg (Fx , Fy , Fz ) for F.
6. Section 1.13.3
Equation 1.13.9 (paperback only, not ebooks)
2 = =
2 2 2
+ 2 + 2
x2
y
z
should read (theres a superfluous superscript 2):

2 = =
2 2 2
+ 2 + 2.
x2
y
z
Thanks to Yong Tang
7. Section 1.15.
In the Kronecker delta section delete because, from the definition of the Kronecker delta, when =
(which it always does of course) then = 1 and there are four possible values of .
8. Section 2.5.7
In the sentence immediately before Equation 2.5.18, change we do work on the object equal to to:
gravity does work on the object equal to.
9. Section 2.5.7.3
Poissons equation in Cartesian coordinates is given as
2
=
but should read:
2 2 2
,
,
x2 y 2 z 2
= 4G,
2 2 2
+ 2 + 2
x2
y
z
= 4G.
Similarly, in Problem 2.5,

= GM

, ,
x y z
x, y, z
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )3/2
should read:
2
= GM
+
+
x y z
Thanks to Richard Oppenheim
14
x, y, z
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )3/2
10. Section 3.3.1

In the fifth and seventh paragraphs, the time t (3 108 s) should be time t ((1/3) 108 s).
11. Section 3.3.6

In the second bullet point under Time Dilation, the sentence However, observer O0 measures the same
event occurring at time ct = 1 on his ct0 axis. should read (theres a missing prime): However, observer
O0 measures the same event occurring at time ct0 = 1 on his ct0 axis.
Thanks to Mark Mitchell
12. Section 3.3.6

In the paragraph starting Its essential to realise that both time dilation ... , delete the sentence starting
An astronaut in a rocket ... and insert:
An astronaut in a rocket flying past the Earth near the speed of light would measure the planet as being
squashed along her direction of travel (see Figure 3.18). However, measurement is not the same as visual
appearance. What an observer of a rapidly moving object actually sees or photographs depends not only on
the mathematics of length contraction, but also on the time lag of photons from different part of the object
arriving at her eyes or camera, a phenomenon known as the Terrell or PenroseTerrell effect.
Thanks to Kees Kuijlaars
13. Section 3.4.1

Just before the end of this section, equation
x0 = (a1 )2 x0 v 2 a1 x0 /c2
should read:
x0 = (a1 )2 x0 v 2 (a1 )2 x0 /c2 .
14. Section 5.3.4.1

In the final paragraph, where r, , are all functions of x, y, z should read: where x, y, z are all functions
of r, , .
15. Section 5.4.2

In the Contraction section, change we can contract a tensor T to we can contract a tensor T .
16. Section 6.7.1

After Equation 6.7.2 insert:
The Ricci tensor can also be formed from other contractions of the Riemann curvature tensor (many authors
use one and three). However, because of the symmetries of the Riemann tensor, they all give either zero or
R .
Also, in Problem 6.10, change and obtain to (for example) and obtain.
Thanks to Steve Burk
17. Section 7.5.1

In the final line of this section, U 0 = 1 should read: U 0 = c.
18. Section 9.3.2

15
In the final paragraph, g 11 = 1/ e2 = e2 should read: g 11 = 1/ e2 = e2 .

19. Section 9.4.6

Problem 9.5. Equation 9.4.29 should read:
d
d
dr
d
2
d2 r dr
d2 r dr
d2 r dr
+
=
2
.
d 2 d
d 2 d
d 2 d
Also, delete equation

dx
2GM
= 2 ,
dr
r
and delete which we can rearrange and divide by d to give and insert:
Using the chain rule, we can then say. And change Equation 9.4.30 to
dx
dx dr
2GM dr
=
= 2
.
d
dr
d
r d
Thanks to Bill Parsons
20. Section 11.2.2

In the final paragraph delete An isotropic universe is necessarily homogeneous, but the reverse isnt true
and insert:
A universe that is isotropic for all observers is necessarily homogeneous, but the reverse isnt true.
Thanks to Bill Parsons
7 Second Edition: versions 112 (ebook), 74 (paperback) and earlier

1. Section 1.4
Change the sentence immediately before the equation
q =3+t
u
5 s
v
from Heres a function containing five variables to:

Heres a function containing five variables (where we are only considering non-negative values of
Thanks to John Hudson
2. Section 7.4.2
The geodesic deviation equation
D2
dx dx
+
R
=0
D2
d d
should read
D2
dx dx
+
R
= 0.
D2
d d
Thanks to Frank Cook
3. Section 9.3.4
The final equation

R33 = sin2 e2 1 + r 0 0
should read (theres a missing minus sign before 2)

R33 = sin2 e2 1 + r 0 0
Thanks to Dave Proffitt
16
1 .
s).

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A Most Incomprehensible Thing: Notes Towards a Very Gentle Introduction to the

First Edition published July 2012.

2 First Edition: versions 98 (ebook), 58 (paperback) and earlier

3 First Edition: versions 101 (ebook), 61 (paperback) and earlier

4 First Edition: versions 105 (ebook), 66 (paperback) and earlier

5 First Edition: versions 107 (ebook), 68 (paperback) and earlier

6 First Edition: versions 108 (ebook), 70 (paperback) and earlier

7 Second Edition: versions 112 (ebook), 74 (paperback) and earlier

1 First Edition: versions 95 (ebook), 55 (paperback) and earlier

2 First Edition: versions 98 (ebook), 58 (paperback) and earlier

Thanks to Derek Steel.

sin 140 equals 0.643 not 0.623.

Also, the equation after Equation 3.4.15 should read:

Thanks to James Bowie.

3 First Edition: versions 101 (ebook), 61 (paperback) and earlier

49 = 7, we obtain another solution, ie x = 4/5.

Thanks to Bob Bazely.

term is actually your velocity measured by an observer in the Earth

should read (a slight mix up with the m0 s and n0 s):

Thanks to James Bowie.

10. Section 5.4.2

11. Section 5.4.2

12. Section 6.3

13. Section 6.5

Thanks to James Bowie.

14. Section 7.5.3

4 First Edition: versions 105 (ebook), 66 (paperback) and earlier

A type (0, 1) tensor (aka a one-form) is conventionally written in row form, eg

A = A . If you think about it, this is only possible if

Thanks to Frits van der Laan.

This section has been rewritten. It should now read:

11. Section 6.5

Thanks to James Bowie.

12. Section 7.5

13. Section 10.3

Problem 10.1 (c). Equation

14. Section 10.5

should read (theres a superfluous r2 term):

Thanks to James Bowie.

15. Section 11.3.2

Thanks to James Bowie.

16. Section 11.4.5

Thanks to James Bowie.

5 First Edition: versions 107 (ebook), 68 (paperback) and earlier

Thanks to Giancarlo Bernacchi.

6 First Edition: versions 108 (ebook), 70 (paperback) and earlier

Delete the sentence ie Ps perpendicular distance from the x, y and z axes..

should read (theres a superfluous superscript 2):

Thanks to Yong Tang

Similarly, in Problem 2.5,

Thanks to Richard Oppenheim

10. Section 3.3.1

11. Section 3.3.6

12. Section 3.3.6

13. Section 3.4.1

14. Section 5.3.4.1

15. Section 5.4.2

16. Section 6.7.1

17. Section 7.5.1

18. Section 9.3.2

In the final paragraph, g 11 = 1/ e2 = e2 should read: g 11 = 1/ e2 = e2 .

19. Section 9.4.6

Also, delete equation