Space Solar Array Design 11 03 2012

SPACE SOLAR ARRAY DESIGN
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
Page. No.
2. SOLAR ARRAY CONCEPTS

3. SOLAR ARRAY REQUIREMENTS
4. SPACE MISSION TYPES
5. SPACE SOLAR CELL TECHNOLOGY CHOICE
6. SOLAR ARRAY TECHNOLOGY CHOICE
7. SOLAR ARRAY DESIGN
8. BLOCKING DIODES / SHUNT DIODES
9. SOLAR ARRAY RELIABILITY
10. SOLAR ARRAY PERFORMANCE METRICS
11. POWER PREDICTION CALCULATIONS
LIST OF FIGURES :
1.
Page No.
1. INTRODUCTION:
Several spacecraft subsystems require power for their operation. The most important
of these is the payload which generally consumes the greatest amount of power This
power can be generated from a variety of sources. Most use solar arrays to generate
electricity from the sun. Others use fuel cells to convert chemical energy to
electricity, and some even use the radioactive decay of plutonium.
The preferred power source for most spacecraft launched today is a solar cell array.
Space Solar arrays are designed to operate primarily outside of the earths
atmosphere (AMO) and withstand the space environment.
Solar cell arrays provide clean, long term spacecraft power at a reasonable cost.
Great benefits to the spacecraft mission can be realized with any significant increase
in solar array specific power. The resultant reduced solar array mass allows for the
allocation of more mass to other spacecraft features. These can be additional
communication transponders or scientific instruments, or additional station keeping
fuel to allow longer mission life. In addition, overall spacecraft mass may be reduced,
to allow
for the use of
a smaller, more economical launch vehicle or a more
profitable mission orbit.

Solar array technologies evolution was closely coupled with expanding spacecraft
power requirements. Enhancements in spacecraft and launch vehicle systems tended
to increase spacecraft capability which requires to develop more efficient solar array
technologies.
Array structural platforms evolved throughout the years from simple spacecraft body
mounted configurations, to complex multi-panel deployable systems.
Body mounted array systems are limited in capacity and
multipanel sun-oriented
deployable solar array is the most common system utilized for high power
applications.
The most prominent requirements which have played key roles in evolving many
array technologies have been system cost, mass and power growth capability. Other
secondary requirements which have also contributed in evolving solar array
technologies have included space radiation / plasma environments, spacecraft life,
stowage volume, operating and survival temperatures, deployed stiffness, on-orbit
voltage, sun tracking capabilities, transfer orbit power, deployed area, dimensional
stability and survivability from auxiliary environments. The requirements listed
above, or combination thereof, varies with a particular mission application.
There are three important sets of missions, LEO, MEO and GEO, involving low and
medium altitude or operation at geosynchronous altitude.
Solar
array
structural
platforms
can
be
categorised
as rigid, flexible and concentrator systems. An array platform can be configured as a

deployable or non-deployable system.
Ideal
solar
array
system
for
any
spacecraft
will
simultaneously
maximize
performance, while minimizing cost. In reality these factors must be traded against
one another to configure a system that best meets mission objectives. A standard
way to indicate the performance of solar array is to express in terms of Specific
power W/Kg, Power density W/sq. m, Specific mass Kg/ sq. m
and
Specific cost
($ /W ) .
Solar cells have proved to be a very effective power source for spacecraft for over
thirty-five
years.
When sunlight strikes a PV cell, the photons of the absorbed sunlight dislodge the
electrons from the atoms of the cell. The free electrons then move through the cell,
creating and filling in holes. It is this movement of electrons and holes that
generates electricity. The physical process in which a PV cell converts sunlight into
electricity is known as the photovoltaic effect.
The bandwidth of allowable photon
energies puts an inherent limit on the efficiency of PV cells, which can be further
reduced by heating effects of the cell. PV cells are made of semiconductor materials.
The major type of materials are crystalline and thin films, which vary from each
other
in
terms
of
light
absorption
efficiency,
energy
conversion
efficiency,
manufacturing technology and cost of production. PV cells have no moving parts and
are very reliable, degrading slowly over the years with exposure to radiation.
Cells flown in space require high efficiency, because of limited space to mount the
arrays. Also the cells must have acceptably low degradation when exposed to
radiation by charged particles, especially in the Van Allen belts around the earth.
Following accepted space standards, the cells ( and arrays ) must have high
reliability and tightly controlled performance.
Single-crystal- silicon photovoltaics were the standard cell type for the space
industry since 1960s, 1970s and early 1980s. Throughout this period, efficiencies
for the silicon solar cell improved from approximately 10% to 17% BOL, with better
radiation resistance for the lower efficiencies. This improvement in cell efficiency is
the primary result of improved cell design (i. e, back surface reflectors, front side
light trapping structures, etc. ) and manufacturing process technologies. The
radiation resistance of these cells is not high, because some of the properties giving
increased efficiency from increased bulk performance also lead to increased
degradation when irradiated. There is a limited set of conditions where the advanced
Si cells may be used. These conditions involve low radiation exposure and include
operation in LEO, on moon Landers, on far-sun missions or in concentrator systems
with good shielding. Cell thickness was reduced from a robust 12-mils to as thin as
2. 5mils through the processing of thin wafers. This significantly reduced cell
thickness provided a decrease in array system level weight.
Successive launches
confirmed the high reliability and good performance of these
cells. The advanced
Si cells with 17% BOL efficiency, provides many commercial
users with an intermediate solution between standard silicon and GaAs/Ge and
produces comparable array level mass characteristics.
In the late 1980s and 1990s, single junction gallium arsenide ( GaAs/Ge ) based
photovoltaics with efficiencies exceeding 19% were developed and employed. Hughes
Aircraft company pioneered the early development of GaAs/Ge photovoltaics with
their Liquid Epitaxy (LPE) process. Later Tecstar
GaAs/Ge
growth
through
high
volume
and Spectrolab demonstrated

Metal
organic
chemical
vapor
deposition( MOCVD ) reactor.

We are now at a stage where the system advantages of high efficiency solar cells and
arrays are recognized. Many spacecraft missions have now incorporated GaAS /Ge
Solar cells in their designs because of their technical advantages of higher efficiency(
19% at BOL) combined with higher radiation resistance and reduced fall-off at
elevated temperatures. The increased efficiency of GaAs cells over Si cells resulted in
significant advantages for the space PV array and also for the satellite. Clearly the
area required was reduced .
In addition the system weight was reduced, because of the reduced weight of
structural elements or deployment mechanisms more than compensated for the
higher weight of GaAs/Ge cells. Trade studies have shown that even when GaAs /Ge
cells cost six to eight times as much as Si cells, when the system advantages were
evaluated, the system costs using GaAs/Ge cells decreased steadily, approaching or
even falling below the corresponding costs using Si cells.
The system advantages included reduced launching fuel because the array system
was lighter, and increased stowage because the array area was smaller, this
advantage also requiring less fuel per launch, and reducing the complexity of
launching multiple satellites into prescribed orbits. For LEOs where drag was a factor,
the reduced area per satellite also reduced the amount of station keeping fuel
required. GaAs/Ge cells were preferred for small satellites, to provide sufficient
power in the limited satellite area available. This enabling capability often justified
the higher costs of GaAs/Ge cells.
As power requirements continue to grow, mass and volume requirements remain
constrained, even higher efficiency photovoltaics was needed.
High efficiency multijunction solar cells have been providing power for multitudes of
earth orbiting spacecrafts for the past few years. Telecom satellites with high power
needs (from 3KW to 20KW ) have used the more efficient multijunction cells that
have enabled smaller area solar arrays. Two main factors have largely contributed to
the rapid acceptance of the multijunction cells in place of more traditional silicon cells
for space applications. These are higher solar to electric conversion efficiency and
better radiation hardness.
Dual junction and triple junction solar cells are commercially available from several
vendors. Dual junction cells are 21 to 22% efficient. Currently triple junction cells
( comprising
GaInP, GaAs, and Ge layers) are grown in tunnel-junction connected
layers, and are 26-28% efficient in production lots. There will probably cells with
30% lot-average efficiency on Ge substrates within a few years.
For a typical GEO mission of 15 years, the multijunction solar cell degradation in
output power is only about 12%.
Thin film cells for space are currently being developed and currently not ready for
mission application.
Thin film cells require substantially less material and have promised the advantage of
large area, low cost manufacturing. Much progress has been made to date on thin
film cells based on materials such as CdSe, Cu(In, Ga)Se2 and amorphous silicon.
Space cell requirements dictate a more complicated trade space.
Mission destinations with a need for high temperature, high intensity, include
Mercury orbiters and landers, Venus orbital missions and close encounters to the
sun.
For near sun missions, solar power sources are ideal. However, the high solar
intensity has a deleterious effect on solar cell performance, since the equilibrium
temperatures of the solar arrays will also be high, and photovoltaic device
performance typically decreases with temperature. GaInP cells should operate
efficiently in the high temperature, high intensity environment of Mercury orbit.
Presently various types of solar cells with different materials, sizes, designs and
configurations are available . The wide range of solar cell and array systems gives
the spacecraft designer large tradeoffs to select the optimum choice of solar cell/
array technology for specific space mission applications.
The system trades become more complicated when one consider various solar cells
and array technologies. Present state of art spacecraft solar array technology utilises
the rigid solar panels made with lightweight honeycomb composite structures When
this technology is considered for largesats high power requirements and smallsats
low power requirements with smaller array area available on the spacecraft, the
trades are favourable in using higher efficiency solar cells in order to reduce
the
total launch weights and to reduce the solar cell area.
With flexible planar array technologies, the trades are changing, such that weight
benefits of high efficiency solar cells are decreased by increased mechanism weights
and high cell costs.
Concentrator technology in solar array design appears to be one way to reduce the
system cost, since fewer cells are required. Concentrator array can also provide
additional weight and area reductions, so that they can offer attractive benefits to
the spacecraft.
2. SOLAR ARRAY CONCEPTS:

2. 1. SOLAR ARRAYS:
A
Solar cell array is an arrangement of solar cells, electrically connected into
circuits, that have appearance of rows and columns. Solar cells produce electricity
from sunlight directly without utilizing a chemical process.
2. 2. SOLAR ARRAYS, Panels, Parts and Components:
Solar cell arrays are fabricated and installed in several pieces, known as solar cell
assemblies, modules, panels, subarrays and others.
A Solar cell panel is comprised of solar cells,
solar cell covers, wiring, solar cell
support and structure. The solar cells are the heart of the array, converting solar
energy in the form of sunlight into electricity. The panel wiring collects the electricity
from all solar cells and routes it to panel terminals. Transparent solar cell covers
protect the solar cells from adverse environmental influences, while permitting the
sunlight to pass through them. The solar cell support, a substrate, holds the solar
cells mechanically in place. The support structure mounts the substrate or panel to
the ground, to a sun tracking mechanism.
2. 3. SPACE SOLAR ARRAY TYPES :
1. a)Body mounted, Spin stabilised arrays:
They are rigidly held to the internal structure of a vehicle, are contrasted by arrays
that are mounted on protruding structures such as on rigid or articulated frames,
cantilevers or booms. They are less efficient due to lack of full cell illumination, but
have higher stiffness. A small satellite requiring up to 100Watts can use body
mounted solar arrays.
b) Fixed arrays:
They are rigidly held to a spacecraft. The angle between the solar cell surfaces and
the sun varies continually.
c)Oriented arrays:
They are being pointed into direction of the sun to maximise the electrical power
output from the arrays. Array orientation towards the sun, also known as sun
tracking is done with orientation drive mechanisms.
Body mounted array systems were limited in power growth potential.
2. Deployable Solar arrays:
Deployed solar arrays can be either fixed or articulated to always follow the sun.
Deployable solar arrays are typically wing type of structure, which are stowed on a
compact form during launch and deployed from the spacecraft after final orbit
acquisition.
They are best candidates for high power requirements.
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3. SOLAR ARRAY REQUIREMENTS:

The primary purpose of the solar array for any spacecraft is to provide the power for
the defined mission life and subjected to the following requirements.
After fabrication as flight worthy arrays, they must provide the power required for
the spacecraft under orbital operating conditions throughout the mission life with
high reliability.
Size of the solar array must be minimised to accommodate stowage requirements

imposed by the launch vehicle and deployment requirements on orbit.
Mass must be minimised to accommodate the mission goal of maximum payload

and to minimise the propulsion requirements for launch, orbit adjustment and
station keeping.
Cost must be minimised to assure affordability.
Finally the technology must be available with an acceptably complete and

accurate design database within the necessary timeframe.
4. Space Missions:
Most spacecraft launched into Earths orbit fulfill one of four primary space missions:
Weather
Navigation
Communications
Intelligence/Surveillance/Reconnaissance
4. 1: Orbits:
Part of defining a spacecrafts mission is to choose an orbital path suitable for
carrying out the mission. In general, the mission type dictates what orbit must be
chosen, and the mission and orbit together determine many aspects of the
spacecraft design. This is because the type of environment a spacecraft encounters is
highly dependant on the orbital path. Some of the factors that go into selecting an
appropriate orbit for a spacecraft are mission requirements, Earth coverage, space
environments to be encountered, and whether it will function as a single satellite or
as part of a constellation.
Orbits are characterised by several aspects : altitude, eccentricity, inclination, and
synchronization. An orbit can be considered as a complete geometric loop around a
celestial body, where the farthest point on the loop from the body is the apogee, the
nearest point is the perigee, the elapsed time for one complete circuit is the orbit
period, and the angle between the orbital plane and the equatorial plane is the
inclination. The altitude is simply the height above the earth, or the distance of the
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satellite from the earths surface. The eccentricity is the degree to which the orbital
path is elliptical. The direction of the orbit, in most cases, is either direct or
retrograde. A direct (or prograde) orbit is any type of orbit that moves in the same
direction as the Earths rotation. ( East with respect to the earth). A retrograde orbit
is any type of orbit that moves in a direction opposite to that of the Earths rotation
(west with respect to the earth)
4. 2:Types of Orbits:
Three important types of orbits are LEO, MEO and GEO, involving low and medium
altitude or operation at geosynchronous altitude.
4. 2. 1(a) Low Earth Orbit: (LEO)
The low Earth orbit is up to 1500km above the Earth, and is mostly circular ( an
eccentricity near zero). The orbit period at these altitudes varies between ninety
minutes and two hours. Communication satellites in LEO have the advantage of a
significantly reduced signal delay, as compared to satellites in GEO (as they are
much closer to earth) Satellites in LEO can cover every area of the Earths surface,
although it may take several orbits. The maximum time during which a satellite in
LEO orbit is above the local horizon for an observer on the earth is up to 20 minutes.
There are long periods during which the satellite is out of view of a particular ground
station may be acceptable for a store- and -forward type of communication system
as in an ecological/ earth monitoring application. Most small LEO systems employ
polar, or near-polar orbits. Accessibility can be improved by deploying more than one
satellite and using multiple orbital planes. A complete global complete global
coverage system using LEO orbits requires a large number of satellites, in multiple
orbital planes, in varied inclined orbits.
Satellites in LEO are
affected by atmospheric drag which causes the orbit to
gradually deteriorate: The typical life of a LEO satellite is 5-8 years. Launches into
low earth orbit are much less costly than to geo orbit and due to their much lesser
weight, multiple LEO satellites can be launched at one time whereas only two GEO
satellites can be launched at one time with todays best heavy rocket technology.
The LEO missions are characterized by low levels of radiation damage from the
trapped electrons and protons and 5500 thermal cycles that the spacecraft
encounters each year as it moves in and out of earths shadow. This translates into a
set of solar cell and array requirements that places a very high premium on power
conversion efficiency at beginning of life ( BOL ) and thermal cycles survivability.
There are two exceptions for this statement. ie High inclination orbits ( those passing
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near or over the polar regions) suffer greater radiation damage because shielding by
earths magnetic field is not as effective as it is near the equator.
The LEO missions are commonly characterised by frequent eclipse periods of typically
one third of the orbit period, placing an emphasis on the need to quickly charge the
on-board energy storage device (normally a rechargeable battery ) before reentering eclipse.
The power system design must also be able to compensate for the changing solar
array characteristics as the panel temperature changes over the orbit.
In addition, because many satellites have operated at LEO, there are thousands of
residual objects left in orbit and there are serious consequences if these debris
impact a satellite.
4. 2. 1 (b) Polar Orbit:
Polar orbit is a LEO orbit. A polar orbit has a very high angle of inclination close to
90 degrees to the equator and is typically at an altitude of 700-850 km above the
surface of the earth. A polar orbit is fixed in space, and the earth rotates
underneath: a polar orbit travels from north to south pole. Their applications can be
to view only the poles or to view the same place on the earth at the same time each
24hr day. By placing a satellite at an altitude of about 850 km, a polar orbit period of
roughly 100 minutes can be achieved. A special polar orbit that crosses the equator
and each latitude at the same time each day is called a sun-synchronous orbit.
The polar sun-synchronous circular orbit which is a common low Earth orbit choice
for remote sensing satellites has a number of advantages for simple communications
services. Most importantly only a single satellite is needed for 100% coverage of the
Earths surface within 12 hours. This orbit also has advantages for low cost simple
satellite platforms, as the sun-angle is fixed allowing constant orbital power profiles
and fixed solar arrays.
A typical polar satellite can cover the entire globe every 14 days . Polar satellites
may carry sensors sensitive to both visible light and infrared ( IR ) radiation and can
make measurements of temperature and humidity in the Earth' atmosphere, record
surface ground and surface sea water temperatures and monitor cloud cover and
water / ice boundaries. They may have the capability to receive, measure, process
and retransmit data from balloons and remote automatic stations distributed around
the globe. These satellites may also carry search and rescue transponders to help
locate downed airplanes or ships in distress. Polar orbiting satellites provide many
services in communication and observation applications which GEO satellites are not
capable of.
4. 2. 2 Geostationary earth orbit ( GEO ) mission:
13
Geostationary orbit is a circular orbit around the earth having a period of 24 hours. A
geosynchronous orbit with an inclination of zero degrees is called a geostationary
orbit. To be a geostationary satellite, the geosynchronous satellite must be in orbit in
Earths equatorial plane . Geostationary is a small subset of orbits that are
geosynchronous. In a geostationary orbit, the satellite appears stationary, i. e. in a
fixed position, to an observer on earth. A satellite in a geostationary orbit will appear
fixed above the surface of the earth, i. e at a fixed latitude and longitude. r Fothis
reason they are ideal for some types of communication and meteorological satellites.
A spacecraft
in an inclined geosynchronous orbit will appear to follow a regular
figure-8 pattern in the sky once every orbit. The footprint, or service area, of a
geostationary satellite covers almost 1/3 of the earths surface (from about
75degrees south to about 75 degrees north latitude), so that near global coverage
can be achieved with a minimum of three satellites in orbit. By placing the satellite at
an
altitude
where
its
orbital
period
exactly
matches
the
rotation
of
the
earth( approximately 35, 800 km), the satellite appears to hover over one spot on
the Earths equator and thus appears to stay stationary over the same point. A
geostationary satellite completes one orbit revolution in circular orbit, round the
earth, every 24 hours. If the orbit is in the equatorial plane, and if rotation is in the
same direction as the earth (rotating at the same angular velocity as the earth) and
it
overflies the same point on the globe permanently then the satellite is termed
geostationary. Geostationary satellites, do not see the poles at all as geosynchronous

satellites .
In general, all geostationary orbits are geosynchronous, but not all geosynchronous
orbits are geostationary.
Geosynchronous means that a satellite makes one orbit every 24 hours so that it is
synchronised with the rotation period of the earth. This will happen
when a
satellite is in a circular orbit at a rough distance of 36, 000 km above the surface of
the earth .
To attain geosynchronous orbit, a spacecraft is first launched into an elliptical orbit
with an apogee of 35, 786 km ( 22, 236 miles ) called a geosynchronous transfer
orbit. The orbit is then circularised by firing the spacecrafts engine at apogee
Geo satellites are ideal for some types of communication and meteorological
satellites
Geo satellites are also used for earth observation purposes in addition to
communication purposes.
The salient features of a satellite in an ideal geostationary orbit are as follows:
The orbit is direct or prograde( eastward motion or counter clockwise as viewed

from the North pole)
14
The orbit is in the plane of the equator( ie, has zero inclination)
The orbit is circular with zero eccentricity. Therefore, there is no perigee or

apogee.
The orbit radius is 42, 164 km or 35, 786 km altitude( 6. 61 earth radii)
The ground track is a fixed point on the equator at the longitude of the satellite
location.
Satellite linear velocity is 3 km/sec (constant for circular orbit)
Satellite angular velocity is 72. 9X 10-6 rad/sec.
Period is one sidereal day or 23 h, 56 m, 4 s (0. 9973 of a solar day)
The earth subtends an angle of 17. 3 from geostationary altitude.
Circumference of orbit is 264, 925 km.
The
GEO
spacecrafts
are
used
primarily
for
commercial
telecommunication
applications and designed for longer lifetime. The main environmental concern on
solar array is radiation damage of solar cells primarily from the trapped electrons.
Trapped protons are lower in number compared with electrons in this orbit, although
still significant In addition the flux of high energy protons emitted during solar flares
may be very damaging to the solar cell, because geomagnetic shielding is much
weaker in GEO. Solar array performance degradation during a single solar flare
activity may be equal or greater than the accumulated dose during the life time of
spacecraft due to normal trapped radiation fluxes.
The most important solar cell characteristics for this mission is high end-of-life
efficiency, a characteristics that can be achieved by improved efficiency, lower
temperature sensitivity and better radiation resistance.
In GEO, as the spacecraft comes out of eclipse, the solar arrays will quickly reach
their equilibrium temperature, resulting in a largely unchanging array characteristics
over the orbit. However, irradiation of solar arrays over the spacecraft lifetime in GEO
is a factor, and the array characteristics will change significantly from BOL to EOL.
5. SPACE SOLAR CELLS TECHNOLOGY CHOICE:

Solar cells- Theory:
Solar cell is the major cost deciding component of solar array.
15
Solar cells are large area semiconductor diodes with the junction very near to the
surface to facilitate the conversion of the energy in the shorter wave length regions.
Solar cells directly convert light into electricity . Most of the energy in the suns
spectrum between 0. 3 to 1. 1 micron, even though other wavelengths are present.
The free space sun-energy at 1 Astronomical unit distance from sun is 135. 3mW/sq.
cm. The direct conversion of sunlight into energy using solar cells is called the
photovoltaic effect. The word photovoltaic is a combination of the Greek word for
light and the name of the physicist Allesandro Volta.
Solar cells perform the conversion without moving parts, noise pollution, radiation or
maintenance.
The
special
properties
of
semiconductor
materials
make
this
conversion possible.
The first step in the conversion of sunlight into electricity is the absorption of light.
Solar radiation contains elementary particles of energy called Photons. The energy
of photons corresponds to packages which are called quanta. The energy of each
quantum depends on wavelength of the visible light or electromagnetic waves. The
electrons released, however the electric current flows only if the energy of each
quantum is greater than boundaries of valence band and conductive bands.
The relation between frequency and incident photon energy is as follows:
E = h, where h is the Planck constant. And is frequency.
The photovoltaic effect starts with the absorption of photons in a semiconductor
above its band gap energy, leading to the generation of charge carriers (electrons
and holes). These charge carriers are then separated by an electric field created
either by a p-n junction or by a hetero-junction between the semiconductor and
another material.
Finally the charge carriers are collected by electrode and can be used to generate a
current in the outer circuit. The front electrode of the cell should be designed to allow
high transmission of photons, which can be accomplished either by a fine grid of
metal, or by using a transparent conductive oxide such as Indium-Tin-oxide (ITO),
Tin-Oxide (SnO2) or Zinc-Oxide (ZnO).
A pn junction consists of two different regions of a semiconductor material, with one
side called p-type region and the other the n-type region. In p-type material,
electrons gain energy when exposed to light but also readily to their original low
energy position. However, if they move into the n-type region, then they can no
longer go back to their original low energy position and remain at a higher energy.
The process of moving a light generated carrier from where it was
originally generated to the other side of the pn junction where it retains its
higher energy is called collection. Once a light generated carrier is collected,
it can be either extracted from the device to give a current, or it can remain
in the device and give rise to a voltage.
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Cover Glass:
The output of a solar cell deteriorates in space due to the effects of corpuscular
radiation. To avoid this, a cover glass that has mass-stopping power against
corpuscular radiation is attached to the solar cell surface exposed to incident light.
The two types of covers most frequently used were fused silica and microsheet.
Fused silica was used in a thickness range from 75 to 300 m. Microsheet. was used
in a thickness range from 75 to 150 m. The protection of cover glass adhesive was
obtained through the incorporation of ultraviolet reflective coatings having cut-on
wavelengths of 450 nm initially. Present superblue or violet sensitive cells require
approximately a 350 nm cut-on wavelength to fully realize their improved energy
conversion capability.
To optimise the solar cell cover and filter design and at the same time protect the
ultraviolet reflective coating from possible degradation by low energy, heavy particles
in space the ultraviolet reflective coating was placed inside the solar cell cover/ cover
stack, while the outside surface of the cover was coated with an antireflective
coating. This antireflective coating, vacuum deposited magnesium fluoride (MgF 2),
reduced reflection losses on the first surface from approximately 4% to 2%.
Cover materials:
Fused Silica: (Corning Glass 7940)
It is a synthetic, colorless, and highly transparent silicon dioxide glass. Ultravioletgrade fused silica is completely free of impurities that result in transmission
impairing color centers during UV or charged particle radiation. Like other glasses,
fused silica is a supercooled liquid, exhibiting a softening at elevated temperatures
(above 1000deg. C) rather than a well defined melting point. Due to its low
coefficient of thermal expansion, it can endure severe thermal shock without
shattering. The material is brittle but can withstand severe thermal shock
treatments. Fused silica has excellent resistance to ordinary weathering.
Microsheet:
Microsheet is thin, optical-quality glass sheet with a flame polished surface finish.
It is made in several thickness ranges, from 50 to 600 m.
Cover thickness variables give a wide range of radiation fluence to the cells. ., thus
providing different degradation rates.
17
Ceria-doped Microsheet:
The addition of a small percentage of cerium oxide to some glasses has been to
prevent the formation of color centres in these glasses during exposure to UV and
charged particle radiation. Ceria-doped micro sheet, in 0. 1mm thickness, exhibits a
natural, sharp, cut-on wavelength at approximately 0. 35m and thus does not
require the application of blue-reflecting coating.
Cover glasses produced by Pilkington are designated as CMX and CMZ
Coatings and Filters:
Filters on solar cell covers block certain wave-length bands and transmit others.
Cover filters may be of absorbing or reflecting type. Examples of absorbing filters are
the ceria doped glass filters: they absorb the UV radiation which may damage the
cover adhesive.
Examples of reflecting filters are the so called blue and blue-red reflecting, multilayer
interference type filters. The reflecting filters are located on the inner surface of the
(mounted) solar cell cover to be protected from environmental damage.
Cover sizes:
After the discovery of low-energy proton damage during 1967-68, oversized solar
cell covers began to be utilized for orbits through the radiation belts and at
synchronous altitude. For lower altitude orbits, where low energy protons are absent,
same size or undersize covers are acceptable.
Oversize covers typically overhang the solar cells on all four sides by between 0 and
1mm.
Conductive coatings:
Conductive coatings are thin ( about 10 m thick) transparent, electrically conductive
films that are deposited on the outer surface of solar cell covers and other optical
elements to achieve equipotential outer surfaces of a spacecraft. Conductive coatings
have been used only on a small number of spacecraft, but for certain missions they
are essential.
Conductive coatings are metal oxides such as tin oxide or indium oxide. Indium oxide
has been widely used for space hardware.
Cover Adhesives:
Discrete solar cell covers are permanently attached to solar cells using so-called
cover adhesives. Cover adhesives must posses high light transmission in the 0. 35
to1. 2m wavelength band; a low degree of darkening from UV and particulate
radiation; resistance to thermomechanically induced stresses, especially stresses
occuring at low temperature and during temperature cycling; and low outgassing
characteristics.
18
The following properties are required for a cover glass:

1. Optical Characteristics:
negligible transmission in the UV.
Aa sharp optical cut on, i. e. 50% transmission at a wavelength > 340 nm.
Maximum transmission in the visible.
2. Thermo-optical properties:
High emissivity
Low solar absorptance
3. End-of-life performance
electron irradiation stability
proton irradiation stability
UV stability
4. A thermal expansion coefficient match to silicon over the appropriate temperature

range.
5. It must not be susceptible to damage due to mechanical shock when the satellite
is
launched.
Solar cell interconnectors:
Solar cell interconnectors, also known as interconnects are conductive elements that
electrically connect individual solar cells in series and/ or parallel arrangements.
Interconnectors may simply consist of wires, but more typically, they consist of
metallic mesh or shaped metal ribbons.
Two types interconnectors are used based on the mission type.
1) interconnectors with out-of-plane stress relief loop
2) interconnectors with in-plane stress relief loop
Interconnector Design Requirements:
The purpose of solar cell interconnectors is to conduct electrical energy from the
individual solar cells to the power collection wire harness throughout the defined life
of solar array. To fulfill this purpose, the interconnectors must meet the following
general requirements:
Electrical conductivity
Temperature cycling endurance
Manufacturrability and repairability
For certain array design, consists of non-magnetic or low-atomic number metals.
For certain roll-up or fold-up arrays, possess rollability or foldability
Vibration (transportation or launch into space) endurance.
For certain array designs, fulfill other functions such as :

Heat transfer from the cell
Solar cell junction low energy proton and radiation shielding(for space only)
19
Reliability
Interconnector Material Selection:

The design of solar cell interconnectors calls for a material that possesses both high
electrical conductivity and low thermal expansion, a material that does not exist.
Therefore, engineering compromises must be made to at least approach the
properties of the ideal material. Thermomechanically imposed design requirements
call for thin, flat ribbons made from low-expansion (high electrical resistivity )alloys,
while electrical design requirements call for thick conductors made from low electrical
resistivity (high thermal expannsion) materials.
From the many available materials, the following metals and platings have been
found most suitable for long life or severe temperature cycling requirements:
Copper, annealed, oxygen free, unplated or silver plated
Kovar, annealed, nickel/ copper/ solder or silver plated
Invar, annealed, silver plated
Molybdenum, annealed, silver plated.
Beryllium-copper, annealed, silver or solder plated.
Interconnector Electrical Design:

The interconnector electrical design must be performed in conjunction with the
mechanical design because the thermomechanically imposed design requirements
tend to be in opposition to the design requirements for good electrical performance.
Design Criteria: The adequacy of the interconnector electrical design is judged on the
basis of electrical losses in the interconnector system. After an interconnector
material is selected for thermomechanical reasons and after the interconnector shape
is defined, the interconnector material may have to be plated to achieve the desired
electrical properties. If the basic interconnector material is a low expansion alloy
( Kovar, Invar, etc), the
electrical conductivity of this material can usually be ignored and only the highly
conductive plating (copper, silver, etc. ) needs to be considered.
Current-Voltage Characteristics :
I-V curves describe the solar cell electrical terminal characteristics most completely.
The electrical parameters of a solar cell are :
1. Isc, short circuit current ( cell terminal voltage is zero);
2. Imp, cell current @ maximum power point
3. Voc, open circuit voltage (cell terminal current is zero);
4. Vmp, cell voltage at maximum power point
5. Pmp, maximum power output point
20
The maximum power point Pmp corresponds to maximum conversion efficiency. This
point is located where the rectangle having the largest area can be drawn inside the
I-V curve.
Energy Conversion Efficiency:
Efficiency, , of a solar cell is defined as
= Pout / (Pin * Ac)
where Pout is the electrical power output of the cell, Pin is the solar illumination level
per unit area or the value of the solar constant and Ac is the active cell area upon
which the solar energy is incident.
A cell operates at its maximum efficiency, when its maximum power output
capability is utilized by an optimized load at a particular illumination intensity and
cell operating temperature.
The maximum solar cell energy conversion efficiency depends mainly upon the
following:
The solar cell internal construction, dimension, active area, specific material
properties, photovoltaic junction characteristics, antireflective coating, surface
texture contact and grid configuration, illumination level, cell operating temperature,
particulate irradiation damage, temperature cycling, and other environmental
exposure history.
Fill Factor:
The fill factor is a term that is used to quantitatively describe the squareness or
sharpness of the I-V curve. The squarer such a curve is, the greater the
maximum power output, Pmp, may be for a given Isc and Voc.
FF = (VmpImp) / (VocIsc) = Pmp / (VocIsc)
FF is always less than unity.
Effects of Solar Intensity:
The sunlight intensity, technically known as the radiant solar energy flux density and
measured in units of watts per squre meter (W/m 2) that is directly incident on the
solar cells depends upon the following:
Angle of incidence (the angle between a normal to solar cell arrays surface and a
light ray from the sun)
Solar distance (the distance of the array from the sun (i. e seasonal variations for
near
earth space
arrays,
or variations
in distance
of space
probes in
interplanetary orbits)
Concentration ratio of solar concentrators (mirrors, lenses, or other devices)
Light transmission losses in coverglasses, cover adhesive and other optical

elements.
21
Additional sunlight intensity modulations are caused by solar eclipses. Furthermore

shadows of objects may fall on portions of an array.
For most solar cell types that are designed to operate at approximately one solar
constant intensity, the I-V curve shape is essentially invariant with intensity over the
range from approximately 0. 5 to 2 solar costants.
The cells Isc is practically proportional to the intensity, Voc changes logarithmically,
and Rs is very nearly constant. The greater the intensity deviation from the cells
design intensity becomes, the greater will be the cells I-V curve shape change.
Effects of Temperature:
A change in cell temperature causes three changes in the cell I-V curve:
1. A scaling of the I-V curve along the current axis;
2. A translation (shifting) of I-V curve along the voltage axis; and
3.
A change in the I-V curve shape affecting the roundness of the knee region of
the I-V curve.
An increase in cell operating temperature causes a sliht increase in cells Isc and a
significant decrease in cell voltage. The increase in Isc is a function of illumination
level. Its value, typically less than 0. 1% / 0C, depends upon the spectral distribution
of the illuminating light and spectral response of solar cells.
The change in voltage with temperature is due to change in diode conduction
characteristics . With increasing temperature, the cells reverse saturation current
increases in the same way the reverse current of conventional diodes increases.
Spectral Response of Solar Cells:
Solar cell output may be shown relative to either the energy falling on to the cell
(constant energy input versus wavelength), or the number of photons incident on the
cell. (constant number of photons versus wavelength)
Solar cell spectral response chracteristics depend heavily on solar cell design,
construction, material properties, junction depth and optical coatings. The
solar cell spectral response changes both with temperature and radiation
damage.
Effects of Radiation on Solar Cells.
Solar cells are subjected to permanent electrical degradation when exposed to
particulate radiation, also known as corpuscular radiation. Of interest to solar array
designers are the effects of electrons and protons. . Electrons and protons are also
called charged particles.
In orbit, radiation damage is caused by a continuous bombardment of electrons to
which may be added the proton dose from an anomalously large solar flare. For this
22
reason, the order of particle radiation was electrons followed by protons, thus
effectively simulating a solar flare at the end of life period of the spacecraft. If this
flare occurs near the beginning of the mission, the effects would be more dramatic.
In some circumstances this could produce rapid falls of the same magnitude as might
be expected to occur from electrons during the whole life time of the spacecraft.
Effects of Electrons:
When solar cells are irradiated with electrons, experience an atomic process known
as ionisation. The incident particles or photons collide with atoms in the crystal
lattice and liberate otherwise bound electrons from them. Thus the irradiation of
solar cells by the above radiation species gives rise to a photocurrent, proportional to
the number of incident particles . The excess energy of the radiation species is so
great, that their energy is not only converted into heat, but may dislodge atoms from
their regular position in the crystal lattice, causing displacement damage. The
displacement sites are electrically active, causing a reduction in the minority carrier
diffusion lengths and life times in the cells base region, manifested by a reduction in
the cells output current, voltage and power.
In organic material, the ionization process causes destruction of molecular bonds,
resulting in the darkening
of clear materials and generally a deterioration of the
mechanical properties of the material. Coverglass materials darken similarly.

Effects of Protons:
Protons produce similar effects as electrons, except that the displacement damage
they produce is several orders of magnitude larger than that produced by electrons.
Furthermore, as the protons lose their energy inside a material by collision with its
atoms and finally comes to rest, they produce the largest damage just before they
reach the end of their travel.
Solar Flares:
Solar flares are eruptions of the sun that are associated with emission of energetic
particles. The emissions of importance to solar cell arrays are mainly protons and
alpha particles. The frequency with which sun spots occur increases to a maximum
and decreases again during approximately eleven year-long solar cycles.
The average 11 year solar cycle can be divided into four inactive years with a small
number of flare events (solar minimum) and seven active years with a large number
of events (solar maximum). During the solar minimum phase, few significant solar
flare events occur; therefore only the seven active years of the solar cycle are
usually considered for spacecraft mission evaluations. Large solar flare events may
occur several times during each solar maximum phase. The events last from several
hours to few days. The proton energies may reach a few hundred MeV . Solar flare
conditions exist for only about two percent of the total mission time during solar
maximum.
23
Damage-Equivalent of 1 MeV Fluence.

Particulate radiation damage to solar cells is dependent on the energy and type of
the particle. For analytical and test convenience, the concept of damage equivalent,
normally incident, 1 MeV fluence has been developed. The actual damage produced
in silicon solar cells by electrons of various energies is related to the damage
produced by 1 MeV electrons by the so called damage coefficients for electrons. The
unit of equivalent fluence is 1 MeV electrons per sq. cm, for a specified time period,
usually either 1 year or end of mission.
Similarly, the damage produced by protons of various energies is related to the
damage produced by 10 MeV protons by the damage coefficients for protons. The
damage produced by 10 MeV protons is in turn related to the damage produced by 1
MeV electrons by a single damage conversion factor .
One 10 MeV proton does approximately the same damage as 3000 electrons of 1
MeV energy for Si solar cells.
One 10 MeV proton does approximately the same damage as 1000 electrons of 1
MeV energy for GaAs solar cells.
In lower earth orbits, both geomagnetically trapped electrons and protons may be of
significance, while at higher altitudes, such as at synchronous altitude, during
periods of high solar activity, solar flare protons may add significantly to the total cell
damaging fluence.
The radiation particles of significance to solar damage have approximately the
following energy ranges when they impinge on the solar cell covers.
Electrons 0. 2 to 1MeV
Protons
- 4 to 40 MeV.
The actual radiation environments seen by the solar cells differ from the naturally
existing environment because the energy-flux spectra of the natural radiation
environments are modified by the solar cell radiation shields, and the solar cells
receive radiation
both through the front shield (coverglass) and the back shield
(substrate);
Classification According to Materials and Processing:
Solar cells can be classified according to basic semiconductor material type as
follows:
1. Silicon cells
2. Gallium arsenide cells
3. other cells
24
5. 1. Silicon cells
Silicon cells are divided into single crystal and polycrystalline cells.
Single crystal cells are cut from silicon crystal ingots that can be grown easily in 10
cm diameters or larger by approximately 50 cm in length or longer.
Classification according to construction:
Cell Polarity:
Cells may be either of the n-on-p or of
p-on-n type. The first letter indicates the
dominant semiconductor material type nearest to the cells upper, light sensitive side,
and the second letter that of the bulk, or base material.
The n-material assumes the negative, and the p-material the positive, polarity of the
photo voltage.
Planar junction cells:
The silicon cell as used for space applications consists essentially of a wafer, cut from
a single crystal boule of p-type silicon. (Boron is the p-type impurity) A shallow
junction
is
formed
on
one
surface
of
this
wafer
by
diffusion
of
n-type
impurities( phosphorus ) at high temperature, forming what is termed as an n-on-p

cell, with light incident on the n-side of the junction.
The n-layer is contacted by an evaporated grid consisting of an array of metallic
fingers extending from a strip at one edge of the cell. The rear of the cell is coated
with a continuous metel film to form the positive contact. The front surface of the cell
is usually given an antireflection coating and is also normally protected against
particle radiation by cementing thin glass or quartz covers to it. The rear of the cell is
protected by the mount to which the cell is attached.
p-on-n solar cells are identical in appearance to n-onp cells, except that all n and p
polarity indicators are reversed.
Contact gridlines:
Contact grid lines over the active cell area were utilized to reduce cell internal
resistance to between 0. 1 ohm and 1 ohm.
Base Resistivity:
The material property of interest to solar cell users is the cell base resistivity. Cells
are classified into typical resistivity ranges of 1 to 3 ohm-cm, 7 to 14 ohm-cm and
Generally cells made from lower base resistivity silicon exhibit higher efficiency but
lower radiation resistance than do cells made from higher resistivity material
Antireflecive coating:
25
Anti-reflective coatings are applied to the cells front surface of any roughness to
reduce light reflection losses. Conventional cells have used silicon monoxide (SiO)
coatings Modern, high efficiency and hybrid cells use the more transparent tantalum
pentaoxide
(Ta2 O5 ) or multilayer coatings.
The double layer antireflective coating was selected to minimise the reflection loss
instead of Tantalum pentoxide single layer coating. The combination of Al2 O3 and Ti
O2 was found best for the double layer anti-reflective coating Double layer coating
show lower reflectance at shorter wavelength region and infrared region than the
single layer coating. AR coatings are very thin, less than 1 micron thick, and are
usually applied by a vacuum deposition process
Manufacturing sequence of Si solar cells:
Grow large P-type single crystals;
Slice and polish the ingot.
Diffuse a PN junction.
Patterning of front grid pattern.
Vacuum evaporation of contacts
Cut to size
Evaporate AR coatings
The efficiency of silicon solar cell is limited due to several factors.

1. The energy of photons decereases at higher wavelengths The highest wavelength
when the energy of photon is still big enough to produce free electrons is 1. 15
micro-meter. Radiation with higher wavelength causes only heating up of solar cell
and does not produce any electrical current. Each photon can cause only production
of one electronhole pair. So even at lower wavelengths many photons do not
produce any electron-hole pairs, yet they effect on increasing solar cell temperature.
2. optical losses, such as the shadowing of the cell surface through contact with the
surface or reflection of incoming rays on the cell surface
3. Electrical resistance losses in the semiconductor and the connecting cable
4. Disrupting influence of material contamination, surface effects and crystal defects.
Blue-sensitive or violet cells:
The silicon cells spectral response is affected by the diffusion process. Classified as
deep diffused cells, having a junction depth of about 0. 5 microns, these cells have
little response at wavelengths below 450 nm. Shallow diffused cells exhibit greater
shorter wavelength response, but also greater internal cell series resistance losses.
Therefore,
26
Shallow diffused cells also known as blue-sensitive or violet cells, carry higherdensity gridline patterns to minimize series resistance losses.
Silicon solar cells are classified into
a)Conventional b)Back Surface Reflector Solar cells (BSR) c)Back Surface Field Solar
cells (BSF) d) BSF/ BSR Solar cells e) Textured Solar cells depending upon the type
of technology used.
Conventional Solar cells:
Junction depth ranging from 0. 2microns to 0. 3 microns having SiOx or TiOx as Anti
reflective coating., converting the Suns energy from 0. 4 microns to 1. 1 microns.
Back Surface Reflector Solar cells:
Back Surface Reflector Cells:
Abbreviated
BSR,
these
cells
are
provided
with
highly
reflective
metal
surface( Aluminium layer) between the solar cell wafer back surface and the cells
back side contact. Junction depth ranges from 0. 15 to 0. 2 microns Any solar
radiation having wavelengths greater than those absorbed by the cell for potential
conversion into electrical energy (about 1150 nm) penetrate easily through the
semiconductor material to the back side reflector. Upon reflection, this energy simply
emanates from the cell into space. As a result of BSR, the solar absorptance is
reduced significantly over that of non-reflecting contact cells, operates at lower
temperature in space, thus getting more power.
Back Surface Field Solar cells:
These are known as
p+ cells or drift field cells. a p+ -region is created in the p-base
region near the p-contact during an intermediate fabrication step. (Either Aluminium
paste is screen printed and alloyed, or a boron diffusion). These cells exhibited
higher output by virtue of an additional electrostatic field, that aided in the carrier
collection process. The cells response shifts to the red region due to efficient usage
of the red region spectrum of sun, and these cells are more prone to radiation
degradation.
BSF/ BSR Cells:
This contains both drift field and back surface medium, thus improving the power
output further.
Non-reflecting Surface Cells or Black Cells:
These cells are also known as rough, textured, black, velvet cells and they have the
lowest front surface reflectance of all cell types. This has a front surface having a
pyramidical structure to reduce reflection losses. This has also got shallow junction to
make use of violet portion of the spectrum(junction depth of the order of 0. 1
27
microns)These cells can show good electrical output at 28 0C and good radiation
resistance, but they have the high operating temperature in orbit due to large solar
absorptance.
The
increased
temperature
nearly
counteracted
any
efficiency
improvement that arose from non-reflective cell surface treatment. Texturing for
space cells was then mostly abandoned.
The nominal parameters and efficiencies of these cells are shown in the
table below:
S. No
Cell Type
Resistivity
Thickness
Pmp/sq. cm
Efficiency
1.
Conventional
2 Ohm-cm
200 micron
14. 4 mW
10. 64%
2.
Conventional
10 Ohm-cm
200 micron
13. 4 mW
9. 88%
3.
B. S. R
2 Ohm-cm
200 micron
17. 3mW
13%
B. S. R
10 Ohm-cm
200 micron
16. 35 mW
12. 05%
BSF/BSR
2/10 Ohm-
200 micron
19. 14mW
14. 1%
200 micron
20. 2 mW
14. 9%
cm
6.
Textured
10 Ohm-cm
Mechanical Characteristics:
Solar Cell Sizes and Shapes:
Space solar cells are square or rectangular in shape to maximize the number of cells
that can be packed on a solar panel. During 1960 to 1970 smaller solar cells of size
1cm X 2cm, 2cm X 2cm were used. Most larger solar arrays today utilize 2cm X
4cm, 4cm X 6cm and up to 8cm X 8cm.
Thickness:
During 1970s, most space cells ranged in the thickness range between 0. 2 and 0. 2
mm. Recently, silicon cells of nominally 0. 050 mm have been developed and
produced.
Thinner cells, 50m to 100m, has the advantage of better electrical output beyond
the fluence of 1 X 1014 e/cm2 and lighter weight compared to thicker cells.
Contacts:
Solar cell contacts are metallizations on the solar cell p-and n-type semiconductor
surfaces which permit the making of low resistance electrical connections to the cell,
typically by soldering or welding of solar cell interconnectors to the cell contacts. To
minimize internal electrical losses in the cell, the electrical resistance of cell contacts
should be low, the electrical resistance of the semiconductor to- contact interface
should be low, and the semiconductor to- contact interface should not form a
junction.
28
The contacts currently in use on silicon solar cells for space use are vacuumdeposited titanium/silver layers. The titanium, deposited first on the well cleaned
silicon surface, is typically 0. 1 m thick. The following silver layer is typically 3 to 5
m thick. Since
the titanium/silver contacts are sensitive to humidity, a thin
typically 20 to 50 nm thick-palladium interlayer between the silver and the titanium

is frequently used. This palladium layer has been found to passivate the contacts and
grid lines.
Coverglass for Si solar cells:
Material
Soft borosilicate base glass (CMX) with 5% cerium dioxide added.
Thickness
Avg. 150 or 100 microns.
Cg adhesive:
DC 93500
ARC
MgF2
Si solar cell designs have been largely confined to three generic types and
can be described as :
10 ohm-cm BSR, 2 ohm-cm BSR, 10 ohm-cm BSFR.
Typical Mechanical and Electrical data for BSR cells ( SCA Specs. )are as follows:
Vendor: AEG TELEFUNKAN SYSTEM. ( M/S. DASA)
Table 5. 1: 10 ohm-cm BSR Si cells : (Procured during year-2000)
Design and Mechanical Data:
Cell type
Mono crystalline Silicon, Back Surface

Reflector cell ( BSR)
Base resistivity
10 3 Ohm cm
SCA Dimensions
20. 2 mm X 40. 2 mm(0. 05mm)
Cell thickness
225 25 microns
Polarity
n-on-p, front negative and back positive
Type of contacts
Front: Ti/Pd/Ag
Back: Al/ Ti/Pd/Ag
Antireflection coating
Dual layer of TiOX and Al2 O3
Cover glass
150 micron thick CMX with MgF2 Antireflective

coating.
Cover glass bonding adhesive
DC93500
Interconnector
35 micron thick etched silver mesh.
Cell absorbtance ()
0. 76
Hemispherical emittance ()
0. 82
Electrical Data:
Standard test conditions:
29
Light Spectrum AMO: Intensity: 135. 3 mW/ cm2; Temperature: 280C

Average cell Electrical Characteristics:
Isc
306 mA
Iop
289 mA
Vop
454 mV
Voc
540 mV
Power
130 mw
Efficiency
12%
Temperature Cefficients @ 280C,

Parameter
@BOL
@EOL (12 yrs

eqvt. )
Isc
0. 2 mA/ C
0. 378 mA/0C
Iop
0. 04 mA/0C
0. 378 mA/0C
Vop
-2. 3 mV/0C
-2. 3 mV/0C
Voc
-2. 3 mV/0C
-2. 3 mV/0C
c) Degradation due to Radiation @ 280C

Electron Fluence
Isc
Imp
Vmp
Voc
Pmp
0. 98
0. 973
0. 984
0. 9835
0. 958
0. 976
0. 94
level of equivalent
1MeV el/ sq. cm
6. 0 X 1013
1. 0 X 10
14
0. 972
0. 966
2. 0 X 10
14
0. 955
0. 945
0. 963
0. 965
0. 908
4. 0 X 10
14
0. 933
0. 924
0. 945
0. 952
0. 873
6. 0 X 10
14
0. 918
0. 91
0. 933
0. 9
0. 894
0. 918
1. 0 X 1015
0. 976
0. 943
0. 932
0. 848
0. 818
These cells were used in INSAT 2A to INSAT 2D, and few missions of IRS and also in
charger arrays of INSAT-3B, GSAT 2, GSAT 3 and to be used in charger arrays of few
future missions.
30
Vendor: AEG TELEFUNKAN SYSTEM., GERMANY

Table 5. 2: 2 ohm-cm BSR Si solar cells: (procured during 1997)
a) Design and Mechanical Data:
Cell type

Base resistivity
2 1 Ohm cm
SCA Dimensions
37. 9mm (0. 05mm) X 62. 1 mm (0. 05mm)
Cell thickness / Mass
200 20 microns / 2 gms
Polarity
Type of contacts
Front: Ti/Pd/Ag
Back: Al/ Ti/Pd/Ag
TiOX + Al2 O3
Cover glass
100 10 micron thick, CMX with MgF2

Antireflective coating.
DC93500
Interconnector
25 micron thick Silver Plated Molybdenum

( 15micron thick Moly with 5micron thick silver
on either side)
Cell absorbtance ()
0. 74
0. 82
b) Electrical Data:
Isc
930 mA
Iop
870 mA
Vop
490 mV
Voc
595 mV
Power
424 Mw
Efficiency
13%

Parameter
@BOL
@EOL (5 yrs eqvt. For LEO)
@EOL (12 yrs eqvt. )
@ 2 X 10 e/sq. cm of 1MeV
@ 7 X 1014e/sq. cm of 1MeV
equivalent electrons
equivalent electrons
0. 993mA/ C
1. 14 mA/0C
14
Isc
0. 54 mA/ C
0
31
Imp
0. 062
0. 1mA/0C
0. 2 mA/0C
mA/0C
Vmp
-2. 0 mV/0C
-1. 95 mV/0C
-1. 93 mV/0C
Voc
-2. 0 mV/0C
-1. 95 mV/0C
-1. 93 mV/0C
Power
-1. 76 mW/0C
-1. 5mW/0C
-1. 3 mW/0C
c) Remaining Factors after 1-MeV electron irradiation @ 280C

Fluence level
Isc
Imp
Vmp
Voc
Pmp
1. 0 X 1013
0. 993
0. 9956
0. 994
0. 995
0. 991
2. 0 X 10
13
0. 998
0. 99
0. 99
0. 992
0. 982
4. 0 X 10
13
0. 98
0. 982
0. 982
0. 985
0. 964
6. 0 X 10
13
0. 968
0. 972
0. 978
0. 98
0. 95
1. 0 X 10
14
0. 953
0. 96
0. 97
0. 971
0. 93
2. 0 X 10
14
0. 927
0. 932
0. 952
0. 958
0. 89
4. 0 X 1014
0. 894
0. 898
0. 941
0. 943
0. 844
6. 0 X 10
14
0. 873
0. 875
0. 931
0. 934
0. 814
1. 0 X 10
15
0. 843
0. 844
0. 919
0. 921
0. 777
1MeV el/ sq. cm
These cells were used in few IRS missions and in INSAT 3B/ 3C/ 3E, and in GSAT 1/
2
32
Vendor: M/S. ASTRIUM., GERMANY

Table 5. 3: 2 ohm-cm BSR Si solar cells: (procured during 2005)
Cell type

Base resistivity
2 1 Ohm cm
SCA Dimensions
40. 15mm (0. 05mm) X 65. 15 mm (0.

05mm)
200 20 microns / 2. 2 gms
Polarity
Type of contacts
Front: Ti/Pd/Ag
Back: Al/ Ti/Pd/Ag
TiOX + Al2 O3
Cover glass

coating.
DC93500
Interconnector
25 micron thick Silver Plated Molybdenum

( 15micron thick Moly with 5micron thick silver
on either side)
Cell absorbtance ()
0. 74 0. 02
0. 82 0. 02
b) Electrical Data:
Isc
1053mA
Imp
986 mA
Iop
980 mA
Vmp
490 mV
Vop
492mV
Voc
592 mV
FF
0. 78
Power
485 mW
Efficiency
13. 6%
33
Parameter
@BOL
@EOL ( >12 yrs eqvt. )

@ 1. 5 X 1015e/sq. cm of
1MeV equivalent electrons
Isc
0. 728 mA/ C
1. 33 mA/0C
Iop
0. 229 mA/0C
0. 812 mA/0C
Vop
-2. 1 mV/0C
-2. 1 mV/0C
Voc
-2. 1 mV/0C
-2. 1 mV/0C
Power
-1. 965 mW/0C
-1. 5 mW/0C
5. 2. Gallium arsenide (GaAs/Ge) single junction solar cells:

Single crystyal Gallium arsenide solar cells offer potential advantages over single
crystal Silicon solar cells for space applications. Notable amongst them are I) higher
conversion efficiency
ii)higher radiation resistance to proton irradiation and iii)
compatibility with high temperature applications.

The higher radiation resistance of GaAs solar cells to protons in space is a
consequence of lower proton damage coefficient of GaAs material compared to Si.
Typical 10 MeV proton to 1MeV electron conversion factor for GaAs cell is only about
1000 as compared to about 3000 for Si.
GaAs cells, therefore are very attractive for orbits predominated by protons, where
Silicon would suffer heavy degradation.
Compatibiliy of GaAs solar cells to high temperature application arises due to the fact
that the FF and Voc of these cells are considerably higher. Typically, the FF of GaAs
cells is 80 to 85% against 75 to 80% of Si cells and Voc of GaAs cells is about 1V
against 550 to 600 mV for Si cells. Also the temperature coefficient of GaAs cell in
voltage is around 1. 9 mV/ deg. C against 2. 2 mV / deg. C for Si cells.
Single junction gallium arsenide solar cell grown on Ge substrate of 140-150 micron
thick using metalo-organic chemical vapour deposition (MOCVD) method. The
germanium substrate allows a thinner, lighter cell to be produced than the gallium
arsenide substrate as it is less brittle. Average efficiency is around 18. 5% at BOL.
Ge has good lattice and thermal match to GaAs, allowing epitaxial growth of high
quality GaAs and AlGaAs layers. The combination of higher power/ unit area
and
power/unit mass available from thin GaAs/Ge cells is of interest to many satellite
missions using lightweight arrays and in some cases requiring high survivability.
The GaAs/Ge interface is inactive.
The Mechanical and Electrical data of GaAs/Ge solar cells used in ISRO
Missions of INSAT 3A, METSAT, GSAT3
Vendor: M/S. Techstar/ M/S. Emcore
Design and construction:
34
5. 2. 1. Cell Material and Geometry:
The substrate material is Czochralski grown, single crystal, N+type, Antimony

(Sb) doped Germanium (Ge) with a near <100> orientation and a
base
resistivity of 0. 4 ohm-cms maximum. The substrate thickness is 102 to 178 m.
The base epitaxial layer is Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), N type, Selenium (Se) doped
at a concentration of 2-4X1017cm-3 and deposited at a thickness of 5m . The
buffered layer is heavily doped gallium arsenide with a thickness of 1 0. 5m,
Ntype, Selinium doped in excess of 4X10 17cm-3 . The resultant N layer of GaAs
thickness will be 6m within a typical tolerance of 1. 5 to +2. 5m.
The GaAs junction layer is P type, Zinc(Zn) doped at a concentration of 14X1018cm-3

with a typical deposition thickness of 0. 4 0. 05 m
The window layer (AlxGa1-x)As is of P+ conductivity type Zn, doped at a

concentration of 1-4X1018cm-3with a typical deposition thickness of 0. 06 0. 012
m. The Aluminium content is 80%-86%, nominally 80-83%.
Inactive GaAs to Ge Interface:

The growth rate, temperature, thickness and dopant of GaAs to Ge interface will
be controlled such that GaAs to Ge interface is inactive. Open circuit voltage Voc
of solar cell CIC assembly will be used to verify this requirement.
5. 2. 2. Anti-Reflective Coating:
The anti-reflective coating applied to the front surface of the solar cell will be multilayer films of titanium oxide (TiOx) and aluminium oxide. ( Al2 O3 ). This coating will
be designed to optimise the absorption of the space solar spectrum when interfaced
with Dow Corning DC93-500 transparent silicone cover glass bonding adhesive. The
process, control, test and inspection will ensure that the coating will not delaminate,
deteriorate and degrade any solar cell parameters during solar panel fabrication,
test, assembly and in space environment until the end of mission life.
5. 2. 3: Contacts and Gridlines:
5.2.3.1 Material:
The contacts and gridlines will be of gold-zinc-gold-silver construction for the front
p-contact side and gold-germanium-nickel-gold-silver construction for the back
n-
contact side, deposited in a vacuum chamber and then sintered.

The front and back contact will be weldable using parallel gap resistance welding to
interconnectors.
The p-side connecting bar between the contact pads will be continuous.
5.2.3.2 Solar cell Junction Area:
The solar cell junction area will be located only on the upper cell surface.
35
5.2.4
Solar Cell Dimension
The solar cell thickness including Ge substrate, MOCVD GaAs layer and contacts will
be 116. 0 to 202. 0 m. The dimensions will be 20. 066 mm by 40. 081 mm and the
tolerance will be 0. 0762mm
5.2.5
Cover glass
The cover glass used for the assembly of a CIC will have the dimensions of 20. 20
mm by 40. 20 mm with the tolerance of 0. 05 mm The cover glass thickness will be
15020 m. The cover glass material will be cerium oxide stabilized micro sheet with
a natural cut-on wavelength 0f 355 nanometers. The top side of the cover glass will
be coated with MgF2 antireflective coating designed to maximize the electrical output
of the CICs.
5.2.6
Series Interconnect
The series interconnect material will be silver foil. The interconnect will be designed
and fabricated with out of plane stress relief loop designed to withstand thermally
induced mechanical distortions during CIC and panel assembly.
5.2.7
Coverglass to Cell Bonding Adhesive
The adhesive used in bonding of coverglass to the solar cell will be the space proven
DC93-500. The coverglass will be bonded to the cell after the interconnectors are
soldered to the cell.
The Mechanical data, Electrical Parameters and temperature response of the cell are
given below:
Table 5. 2. 1: GaAs solar cells: (procured during 2000-2002)
Vendor: M/S. Emcore
Cell type
GaAs Single junction
Base resistivity
0. 4 ohm-cms.
SCA Dimensions
20. 25mm (0. 05mm) X 40. 25mm (0.

05mm)
140 20m / 1. 05gms (average)
Polarity
p-on-n, front negative and back positive
Type of contacts
Front: (p) Au-Zn-Au-Ag (soldered to the cell)

Back: (n) Au-Ge-Ni-Au-Ag
36
Window layer
AlGaAs, it is Zn doped p+ coductivity type
TiOX + Al2 O3
Cover glass

coating.
DC93500
Interconnector
25micron thick, silver foil
Cell absorbtance ()
0. 74 0. 02
0. 84
b) Electrical Data:
Isc
260mA
Iop
235 mA
Vop
870 mV
Voc
1010 mV
Power
200 mW
Efficiency
18. 4%
Temperature Cefficients @ 280C, measured by the Vendor

Parameter
@BOL
@EOL (>15 yrs eqvt. )

@ 1 X 1015e/sq. cm of
Isc
0. 21 mA/ C
0. 14 mA/0C
Imp
0. 15mA/0C
0. 07 mA/0C
Vmp
-2. 06 mV/0C
-1. 93 mV/0C
Voc
-1. 94 mV/0C
-1. 93 mV/0C
0. 37mW/0C
0. 329mW/0C
Power
c) Remaining Factors after 1- MeV electron irradiation @ 280C

Fluence level
Isc
Imp
Vmp
Voc
37
1MeV el/ sq. cm

1. 0 X 1012
1. 0
1. 0
1. 0
1. 0
5. 0 X 10
13
0. 98
0. 98
0. 975
0. 975
1. 0 X 10
14
0. 955
0. 955
0. 965
0. 965
3. 0 X 1014
0. 935
0. 935
0. 955
0. 955
5. 0 X 10
14
0. 884
0. 888
0. 920
0. 925
1. 0 X 10
15
0. 84
0. 84
0. 900
0. 900
38
5.3
Multijunction Solar Cells:
5. 3. 1
Dual junction Solar Cells:
Vendor: M/S. Emcore ( Year-2002)

Table 5. 3. 1: Dual junction solar cells: (procured during2000-2002)
Cell type
InGaP/GaAs/ Ge dual junction
Base resistivity
Not available.
SCA Dimensions
37. 34mm (0. 05mm) X 76. 28mm (0. 05mm)
140 microns / 3. 8 gms
Polarity
Type of contacts
Front:
Back:
TiOX + Al2 O3
Cover glass

coating.
DC93500
Interconnector
40micron thick, Silver plated Kovar(25 micron for

kovar and 6 to 10 micron for silver with gold
flash)
Cell absorbtance ()
0. 91
0. 84
b) Electrical Data:
Isc
445mA
Iop
405 mA
Vop
2. 03 V
Voc
2. 35 V
Power
856 mW
Efficiency
23%

Parameter
@BOL

@ 5 X 1014e/sq. cm of
Isc
0. 242 mA/ C
0
0. 231 mA/0C
39
Iop
0. 178 mA/0C
0. 093 mA/0C
Vop
-4. 4 mV/0C
-4. 1 mV/0C
Voc
-4. 0 mV/0C
-4. 1 mV/0C
Power
- 1. 35mW/0C
-1. 5 Mw/0C
c) Remaining Factors after 1-MeV electron irradiation

Fluence level
@ 280C
Isc
Imp
Vmp
Voc
5. 0 X 1013
0. 98
0. 99
0. 98
0. 99
1. 0 X 10
14
0. 97
0. 98
0. 98
0. 98
5. 0 X 10
14
0. 94
0. 94
0. 95
0. 94
1. 0 X 10
15
0. 93
0. 89
0. 93
0. 91
1MeV el/ sq. cm
40
5. 3. 2 Advanced Triple junction solar cells:

Vendor : M/S. Emcore, USA
Design and construction
The Coverglass-interconnected Cell (CIC) assembly consists of a solar cell with
bypass diode attached, a series interconnect weld to the n-contact of the cell with
coverglass bonded to cell-diode-interconnect assembly.
5. 3. 2. 1 Solar cell description:
The advanced triple-junction solar cell is constructed of an indium gallium phosphide
(InGaP) top cell, an indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs) middle cell, and a germanium
(Ge) bottom cell interconnected with tunnel diodes and grown on single crystal
germanium (Ge) substrate. The device is of n-on-p type configuration.
5.3.2.2 Contacts and Gridlines:
The contacts are vacuum vapor deposited layers of suitable low resistance. The last
metal or external layer is 4. 0 to 10. 0 m of silver, capped with 0. 1-0. 3 m of gold,
in order to be easily and robustly bondable. The contacts are annealed after
deposition so as to retain their strength and integrity throughout the operating life of
the solar cell. The top surface of the solar cell contain grids, connected to the top
collector pads to minimize the internal series resistance. The top and bottom
metallization contacts shall be weldable or solderable via conventional parallel-gap or
soldering methods.
5.3.2.3 Cell Dimension / Thickness / Weight/ Anti-reflective coating ( as CIC )
As given in the table below.
5.3.2.4 Bypass Silicon Diode for solar cell:
Each CIC has a bypass diode for reverse bias protection. The bypass silicon diode is
triangular in shape with each orthogonal side of 8. 0 0. 1 mm. The thickness is
140 20 m. The diode will be located in the upper left corner of the solar cell. The
diode is p-on-n electrical polarity and the diode chip is covered with electrode metal
except at the diode chip edges.
5.3.2.5 Interconnect between solar cell and bypass diode
There are two pieces of interconnects for each diode-to-solar cell assembly, one for
the front contact, and the other for the back contact.
a)
The interconnect of the diode front contact (p-contact) is a 3-toe-interconnector.

The silver-plated kovar material, has an average thickness of 40 m. It consists
of one left toe welded to p-contact of the diode and two right toes that are
welded to the n-contact of the solar cell.
41
b) The interconnect of the diode reart contact (n-contact) is 99. 9% pure silver with
an average thickness of 30 m. It provides the interconnection between the ncontact of the diode to the p-contact of the solar cell by a welding process.
5.3.2.6 In-plane Stress relief Silver-Plated Kovar Interconnect:
To ensure maximum reliability of the interconnection between the n-contact of the
diode to the p-contact of the solar cell, an in-plane stress relief silver plated kovar
interconnect is added to this connection. The nominal thickness is 25 m of kovar,
plated with 6 to 9 m of silver.
5.3.2.7 Series Interconnects between Cell:
There are 2 series interconnectors in each CIC assembly, a 2-toe and a 3-toe
interconnector which are composed of silver-plated-kovar with a thickness of 25 m
of kovar, plated with 6 to 9 m of silver. They are designed and fabricated with an
out-of plane stress relief loop on each toe to withstand thermally induced
mechanical distortions during CIC and panel assembly, as well as, on-orbit
environmental thermal cycling. They are also designed to be weldable and solderable
on both the n-contact and the p-contact of the solar cell.
5.3.2.8 Coverglass :
The coverglass used for the assembly of a CIC will have the dimensions of 76. 23
0. 05 mm by 37. 29 0. 05 mm and one left side cropped corner cut out of 8. 32
mm with the tolerance of 0. 05 mm The coverglass thickness will be 15020 m.
The coverglass material will be cerium oxide stabilized microsheet with a natural cuton wavelength 0f 355 nanometers. The top side of the coverglass will be coated with
MgF2 antireflective coating designed to maximize the electrical output of the CICs.
5.3.2.9 Coverglass to Cell Bonding Adhesive

The adhesive used in bonding of coverglass to the solar cell will be the space proven
DC93-500. The coverglass will be bonded to the cell after the interconnectors are
soldered to the cell.
Vendor: M/S. Emcore
Table 5. 3. 2: Advanced Triple junction solar cells: (procured during 20022004)
Cell type
In GaP/InGaAs/ Ge
Triple
junction
Base resistivity
Not available
SCA Dimensions
37. 34mm (0. 05mm) X 76. 28mm (0.

05mm)
155 microns / 3. 8 gms (average)
42
Polarity
Type of contacts
Front: Last metal or external layer is 4. 0 to

10. 0m of Silver, capped with 0. 1-0. 3m of
Gold
Back: Same as above.
TiOX + Al2 O3
Cover glass
150 m thick CMX with MgF2 Antireflective

coating.
DC93500
Interconnector
40 m thick, Silver plated Kovar
Cell absorbtance ()
< 0. 92
> 0. 83
b) Electrical Data:
Isc
465mA
Iop
447 mA
Vop
2. 257 V
Voc
2. 6V
Power
1000mW
Efficiency
27%

Parameter
@BOL
@EOL (5 yrs eqvt. )
@ 1 X 10 e/sq. cm
@ 5 X 1014e/sq. cm of
of 1MeV equivalent
1MeV equivalent
electrons
electrons
14
Isc
0. 33 mA/ C
0. 302mA/ C
0. 33 mA/0C
Iop
0. 302 mA/0C
0. 193mA/0C
0. 33mA/0C
Vop
-5. 93mV/0C
-5. 66mV/0C
-5. 92 mV/0C
Voc
-5. 48 mV/0C
-5. 46mV/0C
-5. 61mV/0C
-0. 054% /0C
-0. 057% /0C
-0. 053% /0C
Efficiency
43
c) Remaining Factors after 1-MeV electron irradiation @ 280C

Fluence level
Isc
Imp
Vmp
Voc
5. 0 X 1013
1. 00
1. 00
0. 97
0. 97
1. 0 X 10
14
1. 00
1. 00
0. 96
0. 96
5. 0 X 10
14
0. 98
0. 96
0. 92
0. 92
1. 0 X 1015
0. 96
0. 94
0. 90
0. 90
3. 0 X 10
0. 90
0. 87
0. 85
0. 86
1MeV el/ sq. cm
15
d) Integral Diode Electrical Specifications:

Sl. No.
IF
VF
0. 4 Amp
0. 9 Volts
1. 0 Amp
1. 0 Volts
IR
1. 0 mA
VR
50 Volts
44
5. 3. 3 Improved Triple Junction Solar Cells

Vendor: M/S. Spectrolab
5.3.3.1
Solar Cell Description:
GaInP2 / GaAs / Ge Stack Design:

Metal Organic Vapor Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE) is used to form the active regions of the
cell as shown in the cross-section of the cell.
An important feature of the Spectrolab GaInP2 / GaAs / Ge cell is a GaAs cap layer
grown on the AlInP window to complete the device. The cap layer is considered to be
an integral part of the front surface n-contact. During cell processing the GaAs cap
layer is selectively etched away to expose the underlying AlInP everywhere except
under the metal contact. There, it serves to physically separate the metal from the
sensitive p-n junctions of the cell. Lower cost, more robust assembly techniques such
as
parallel
gap
welding
can
consequently
be
used
without
degrading
cell
performance.
Cell Electrical Contacts:
Electrical contacts to the cell are comprised of Spectrolabs standard Ti/Au/Ag for the
front n-contact, and Au/Ni/Ag for the rear surface
p-contact to the Ge substrate.
Each contact system has been selected for its environmental stability for welded cell
integration.
Anti Reflective Coating:
A multiple layer antireflection coating of TiO2 and Al2O3 is applied to the cell in
thickness optimized for the filtered condition.
Coverglass:
Ceria doped (CMX), 150 micron thick, coverglass with a MgF2, AR coating (from
Pilkington Space technology) is bonded to the cell using DC93-500 adhesive.
5.3.3.2
Cell Size:
Two cells will be built on each 175 micron thick, 10. 0 cm diameter Ge wafer.
The base line cell has a dimension of 3. 92 cm X 6. 89 cm, with an area of 26. 41 sq.
cm including a small corner crop.
The Mechanical and electrical data of the cell and diode is tabulated in the Table
below.
Table 5. 3. 3: Improved Triple junction solar cells: (procured during 20032004)
45
Cell type
InGaP/ InGaAs/ Ge
Base resistivity
Not available
CIC Dimensions
Triple
junction
39. 47mm X 69. 11mm
Area including a small corner crop.
26. 41 sq. cm
175 microns / 4. 17 gms (average)
Polarity
Type of contacts
Front:
Back:
TiOX + Al2 O3
Cover glass

coating.
DC93500
Interconnector
40micron thick, Silver plated Kovar
Cell absorbtance ()
< 0. 92
> 0. 83
b) Electrical Data:
Isc
446mA
Iop
425 mA
Vmp
2. 270V
Vop
2. 230V
Voc
2. 565V
FF
0. 84
Power
948 mW
Efficiency@ V load
26. 5%

Parameter
@BOL
@EOL (5 yrs eqvt. )
@ 1 X 10 e/sq. cm
@ 5 X 1014e/sq. cm of
of 1MeV equivalent
1MeV equivalent
electrons
electrons
14
Isc
0. 304 mA/ C
0. 296mA/ C
0. 32 mA/0C
Imp
0. 193 mA/0C
0. 240Ma/0C
0. 221mA/0C
Vmp
-6. 2mV/0C
-6. 5mV/0C
-6. 5mV/0C
Voc
-5. 9 mV/0C
-6. 1mV/0C
-6. 41mV/0C
-2. 245mW/0C
-2. 324mW/0C
-2. 324mW/0C
Pmp
46
c)Remaining Factors after 1-MeV electron irradiation for ITJ cells @ 280C
Fluence level
Isc
Imp
Vmp
Voc
Pmp
3. 0 X 1013
0. 999
0. 999
0. 963
0. 957
0. 962
1. 0 X 10
14
0. 998
0. 996
0. 942
0. 934
0. 938
5. 0 X 10
14
0. 988
0. 979
0. 900
0. 901
0. 881
1. 0 X 1015
0. 978
0. 962
0. 877
0. 882
0. 843
3. 0 X 10
0. 947
0. 913
0. 839
0. 847
0. 766
1MeV el/ sq. cm
15
Integral Diode Assembly for the ITJ Cell:

The CIC is protected from shadow damage by means of an integral diode. The diode
is bonded to a thinned pocket in the back of the solar cell using a DC93500 adhesive.
The diode is electrically connected to the cell by means of two silver-plated, copper
clad molybdenum tabs soldered to the diode metal contacts. The tab that is
connected to the cell back side is soldered to the cell. The tab that connects to the
cell frontside ohmic bar is welded to it and insulated from the backside metal by a
1mil thick kapton tape attached to the cell. An out-of-plane stress relief loop is
incorporated to accommodate LEO mission environments.
a)Integral Diode Electrical Specifications
Temperature 0C
Ir @ -2. 2V
Vr @ -1mA
I (max)
(min)
Vf @ 2A
(max)
Tfr
Ns (max)
-180
N/A
N/A
2V
----------
25
30A
15V
0. 815V
20
120
970A
2. 0V
0. 670V
------------
Post 110 Gamma
30A
N/A
10% of
20
and 1MeV electron
initial
radiation @ 25 C
0
Description of the PIK6-P diode:

b) Mechanical Data:
Diode type
Base resistivity
Crucible grown single crystal, silicon

7-14 Ohm cm
47
Dimensions
0. 250 (0. 005) X 0. 250(0. 005)
Thickness
3. 1mils
Polarity
p-on-n
Type of contacts
Front: (p) Aluminium, titanium, palladium and

silver
Back: (n) Titanium, palladium and silver,
Silver thickness is 4. 5microns minimum for both
contacts
The diode meets the following specifications:

Radiation
: 110 Mrads (Si)
Temperature
: -150 to +60
Humidity
: 30 days, 95% Relative Humidity
Contact Pull Test
over 1200 cycles.
: 250 grams.
Silver Plated Molybdenum Wraparound Tab:

The tabs are made from silver-plated, copper-clad molybdenum.
48
6: Solar array technology choice:

The most prominent requirements for spacecraft solar array technologies are mass,
size, cost and power growth capability.
Three different classes of solar array configurations are:
6. 1 Rigid Planar Array:
Rigid planar array designs incorporate large number of solar panels hinged together
and each solar panel consists of a rigid substrate on to which solar cells and their
electrical subcomponents are mounted. The rigid substrate is made up of a light
weight honeycomb core (typically aluminium) onto which thin face sheets typically
aluminium, Kapton or fibre reinforced composites are bonded both on top and
bottom sides. Deployment of rigid planar arrays typically involves a yoke structure at
the root of the array from which a series of hinged solar panels can be unfolded
using either pulley based systems or pantograph structures. The solar panel
substrates are made with approximately 18mm thick aluminium honeycomb
sandwiched with two composite face sheets. Solar panel front side is insulated from
conductive composite with 0. 05mm Kapton sheet, which is cocured along with the
composite face sheet. This configuration of solar panel with hold down points and
hinges will have areal mass density of 1. 5kg/sq. m shall be used for both GEO and
LEO missions.
Solar Panel Substrate Specifications :
Substrate type, Vendor
Core thickness
Face skin type, material, thickness
Insulator type, thickness
Substrate flatness
Dimple depth
Bending radius
Frequency of vibration at panel level
Panel back surface emissivity
Co-efficient of linear expansion
Specific weight
The second column in the above table shall be filled by the concerned project
personnel based on GEO/ LEO.
49
B)Flexible planar array:

For some missions which demand reduced weight and/ or improved power growth
potential, honeycomb panels are being replaced in favor of a tensioned flexible
blanket system.
Flexible planar array is a light weight thin film composite structure. The solar panel
substrate consists of a graphite fibre reinforced plastic (GFRP) of approximately 0. 13
mm
Thick composite, enveloped with two sheets of 0. 05 mm thick Kapton on its outer
surfaces. The flexible planar solar panel of this configuration gives the areal mass
density of 0. 65 kg/sq. m. A conventional space quality flexible printed circuit is
considered as inter panel harness to transfer the power from the solar array to the
spacecraft. Special accomodations are required in the array packaging design to
withstand the stowed launch and handling environments.
Two types of stowage configurations have been implemented with flexible blanket
systems. The first type is a folded blanket configuration which deploys outward in a
similar accordion fashion as the rigid panel system. An open cell polymide foam
material is employed on each side of the stowed container or as an interleave
material between blanket folds. When stowed, the foam is preloaded against the
folded array to provide cushioning and protection for the delicate photovoltaic cells
during launch and handling.
The SAFE solar array, is an accordion type flexible blanket system.
An alternate stowage configuration is the roll-up type in which the blanket is rolled
up on a cylinder during launch and unrolled by a deploymentmechanism during
deployment. The Hubble Space Telescope Spacecraft employed a flexible roll-up
array.
The deployment mechanisms are generally coilable or articulated mass type
systems .
The first flexible blanket solar array developed was for the Communications
Technology Satellite ( CTS )
NASAs first major flexible blanket Solar Array Flight Experiment (SAFE) program,
employed a coilable mast deployer system. This system was also used in Olympus,
Milstar and EOS-AM solar arrays. These systems are extremely reliable, stow into a
compact volume, have reasonable deployed stiffness, and are relatively low cost.
50
Flexible blanket systems are becoming more popular and are being used on many
spacecraft. They are generally more mass efficient as power requirements increase.
For power systems less than 3 kW, flexible blanket arrays become less weight
competitive because of the large parasitic masses of their supporting deployment
system and stowage container.
C)Concentrator arrays:
Most of the commercial applications being proposed today consist of high power GEO
based systems, and low to medium earth orbit constellations composed of many
spacecraft. Solar array power requirements will climb from 5 to 10 kW ranges of
today to 15 to 20 kW within 5 years. Meeting these new aggressive GEO applications
will
require
consideration
of
alternative
array
technologies
which
minimize
performance/ cost
Impacts at the spacecraft system level and allow significant cost savings through
economics of scale.
Solar array platforms which concentrate sunlight onto a smaller area are being
seriously considered for many next generation systems in an effort to significantly
reduce cost and mass. In some applications, the cost of photovoltaics and their
laydown onto substrates represents as much as 70% of the cost of a complete array
system. NASA began the development of concentrators in the early 1980s with the
emphasis placed on developing a system which would provide cost benefits for high
power arrays, such as the International Space station.
Solar array concentrators utilize some devices for increasing the sunlight intensity on
the solar cells. Increasing the intensity, called solar concentration is done primarily
by mirrors(reflectors) or lenses(refractors). Concentrator arrays can convert more
solar energy with a smaller number of solar cells than the non-concentrator arrays,
but not without some penalties.
Two matured and flight proven concentrator solar array designs are 1) Reflective and
2) Refractive concentrator solar array structures.
Reflective concentrator array:
Reflective concentrator array design consists of a rigid solar panel similar to the rigid
planar array and the reflective concentrators for sunlight concentration. The
reflective concentrators consist of large thin film sheets held at their four corners and
positioned at an angle on both sides of each panel. The reflector sheets are
tensioned by spring elements at each corner and accurately positioned with respect
to the panel with tether cords. During launch the reflectors are compressed, folded
and stowed to the back of solar panels. As the wing slowly deploys, the reflectors are
released at specific wing shape configurations and then rotated into the position and
fixed using clamping mechanism.
51
Refractive concentrator array:

Refractive concentrator solar array consists of lightweight composite substrate and
stretched arched lens concentrators (SLA) are made with silicone adhesive. The
composite substrate acts as radiator and controls the thermal characteristics of the
solar array. Photovoltaic solar cells are mounted on composite sheet. The solar array
with concentrator elements, composite radiator sheets and photovoltaic receivers are
folded together in accordin fashion to stow with spacecraft body for launch. Since all
elements are very thin an extremely compact stowage volume can be achieved. Once
the array is in orbit, the solar array deploys, periodically along the length of the
array, pop-up lens arches provide lateral and vertical lens position control. When the
extended beam is fully deployed, the lens film forms one stretched membrane layer
and the composite radiator sheet form another parallel stretched membrane layer.
For both types of concentrator array designs, high efficiency multijunction solar cells
are preferable.
52
7. SOLAR ARRAY DESIGN

The Basic design process includes:
1. Mission Requirement
2. Power Requirement
3. Solar array sizing
Mission Requirement includes:
Mission operation modes
Orbit and inclination
Mission life
Mission operation modes:

This includes:
Launch date
Transfer orbit
On orbit
Apogee
Perigee
Inclination
Mission events
Solar distance
No. of Eclipses
Analyzing requirements includes performance, interfaces and physical characteristics.
Design trades includes different types of subsystem components and concepts,
selection criteria and design factors for specific mission.
For the trade off studies design drivers or key performance requirements are of great
importance because they have greatest impact on effective operation, weight and
cost of subsystem. All choices must meet design requirements within suitable
margins.
First baseline is to know the weight budget and power budget for the given mission.
For design of power system, the power budget needs to be estimated by adding the
payloads power requirements to power estimates for S/C bus subsystems.
To design a solar array, the designer must first determine the mission life and
average power requirements of the spacecraft. The array must be designed to meet
53
the power requirements of the spacecraft at end of life. (EOL). Thus the power
output will be oversized for the beginning of life requirements. (BOL).
Key design issues for solar arrays include S/C configuration, required power level
(peak and average ), operating temperatures, shadowing, radiation environment,
illumination or orientation, mission angle, mass and area, cost and risk. The
operating temperature of the array is a key issue because the solar cells performance
depends on temperature.
7. 1 GEO:
7. 1. 1 Introduction:
The concepts behind the electrical design of a solar array for use on a three axis
stabilized
Geo-stationary communication satellite is described.
The 12 to 15 year End of Life (EOL) Autumn Equinox point is usually the design
driver for solar arrays of large size. The structure of the array is assumed to be a
rigid deployable array, supplying a regulated spacecraft power bus.
7.1.2 Initial Requirements:
The power budget in sunlit and eclipse conditions shall be defined by the project.
Then power output required from the solar array is defined by the overall power
budget for the satellite with a 5% margin added to the mission requirement. Due to
size, mass and cost constraints for space applications, the solar array designer
should ensure that the solar array size is no bigger than it needs to be. Solar array
produces extra power at mission start so that power required at mission end is
available. Two other major design aims are to keep the mass and cost of the array to
a minimum while supplying the desired power to the spacecraft at all times. The
mass and cost requirements are related, as any mass savings will ultimately reduce
the cost of the launch. Also the technology must be available with acceptable and
accurate design database within the necessary time frame.
Solar array design requirements for GEO:

1. The array shall deliver required power as defined by the mission at end of life,
equinox
with one string margin or 5% margin (whichever is possible) at the given bus
voltage
and also deliver the power required at the end of specified number of transfer
orbits.
54
2. The array power is to be regulated at the bus voltage by a sequential switching

shunt
regulator . The sting current shall be limited to the specified value (Number cells
in
parallel shall be decided accordingly. )
3. The array shall survive temperatures between +130 0C and -1600C at 10-6 mm of
Hg
Pressure.
3. The array shall be protected from hotspots, shadowing and electrostatic
charging.
4. The array shall withstand particulate radiation environment.
5. The array shall withstand the mechanical loading due to launch, separation, and
deployment. For design, launch loads shall be considered.
6. The array inter panel harness shall offer minimal resistance to the array
deployment.
7. Single point failures shall be avoided.
8. Battery charging shall be accomplished by charger strings/ charger arrays .
Different charge current rates shall be possible by choosing appropriate parallel
combination.
9. Charger array circuits shall be placed on panel edges for better heat dissipation.
10.The solar array string design shall take care of
Harness voltage drops and
standard loss factors.

11.String layout shall take care of fabrication easiness of the circuits.
12.Size of the array shall meet the stowage requirements imposed by the launch
vehicle.
13.Mass of the array shall meet the mission requirements.
The power of the solar-generator is defined by the following data:
Mission Life
Orbit type and inclination
Bus voltage
No. of transfer orbit
Operating voltage of solar array
Temperature in orbit ( depends on season)
Radiation dosage level for given mission life
Plasma environment
UV radiation
Sun light intensity (depends on season, angle, eclipse period, solar distance)
Cell shadowing
Deployed area
55
Minimum power required by the mission at end of life at equinox condition at the
given bus voltage
The power of the solar generator, determined by the required number of solar cells
and the nominal solar cell power is reduced by series of factors, which consider
technical and mission constraints, space radiation and temperature level.
Taking into account the specified power and weight constraints, the available solar
array structures, the applicable power loss factors and solar cell processing aspects,
the solar cell choice shall be made .
System trade studies will help in understanding some of the relative advantages of
different types of solar cells
Each mission profile typically results in specific design parameters such as cell and
cover size and thickness, radiation degradation, temperature of operation, etc.
7.1.3 Solar array sizing:
Once the mission specification has been fixed, the inputs for the radiation and
thermal
Environment that the spacecraft will encounter is required.
7. 1. 3. 1 On-orbit-radiation environment :
The main sources of energetic particles that are of concern to spacecraft designers
are:
1) protons and electrons trapped in the Van Allen belts
2) Heavy ions trapped in the magnetosphere
3) Cosmic ray protons and heavy ions
4) Protons and heavy ions from solar flares
The levels of all these sources are affected by the activity of the sun. The solar cycle
is divided into two activity phases: the solar minimum and the solar maximum. An
average cycle lasts about 11 years with the length varying from 9 to 13 years.
Generally, the models of the radiation environment reflect the particle level changes
in solar activity.
The radiation environment at synchronous altitude rank as follows for longer
missions during periods of solar activity:
1. Solar flare protons on station
2. Trapped electrons
3. Trapped electrons and protons during transfer orbits.
The total radiation environment causes two radiation components to enter the solar
cell: One through the coverglass (front) and one through the substrate. (back)
56
Radiation Fluence Prediction:

The radiation analysis calculates an absorbed dose that the solar cell junction
receives for a given mission duration. To perform this a conversion is done to change
all the energy spectra for the particles that the cell will encounter for that particular
orbit into 1MeV electron equivalent energy and the result will be a function of the
shielding density. The conversions are based on empirically derived damage
coefficients. ( Ref. H. Y. Tada &
J. R. Carter, Jr. 1977, Solar cell Radiation Handbook)
The energy spectra can be derived from the mathematical models that describe the
Earths charged particle environment which have been developed by NASA (eg. AE8
and AP8 for the Earths trapped proton environments respectively ) and these are
constantly being updated when new emprical data becomes available.
The performance of solar cell type can be measured in the laboratory at different
temperatures after exposure to a series of
1MeV electron environments, yielding
accurate temperature coefficient information at various absorbed doses.

Solar cell Radiation Shielding:
Radiation shielding design is concerned with the protection of solar cells from the
particulate radiation environment found in space. Since complete protection of solar
cells is not feasible, the typical radiation shielding design activities involve making
trade offs and finding optimum compromises between at least the following major
parameters:
Solar cell end of life power output
Solar cell array mass
Solar cell array component and assembly cost
Depending
upon
the
orbit,
the
space
radiation
environment
may
require
implementation of two distinctly different radiation shielding design approaches:

1. Shielding against radiation penetration of the solar cell cover and the solar cell
beyond the cells junction to minimize the reduction in minority carrier lifetime.
2. Shielding against low energy protons that become absorbed at or near the solar
cell junction to prevent electrical shunting of the cell.
Damage Equivalent Fluence in Orbit:
The space radiation of significance in solar cell array design characterized in Table
7-2.
This space radiation may affect the array in transfer and temporary parking orbits as
well as in its final, operational orbits.
57
Table : 7-2 Earth Orbit Radiation:

Approximate Altitude Range ( km )
Radiation Particles
0 to 250
Negligible
259 to 1600
Trapped electrons and protons
1600 to 50, 000 (includes synchronus
Trapped electrons and solar flare protons
altitude of 35, 786)
and alpha particles
Above 50, 000
solar flare protons and alpha particles
Shielding Thickness Determination

To a first order approximation, the shielding effectiveness of a solar cell cover is
proportional to the mass density of the shielding material. Shield thickness is usually
expressed in units of ( mass density ) X ( Shield thickness ) or mass per unit area.
Procedure for 1 MeV fluence Analysis:
The 1 MeV fluence must be determined for specific front and back shielding thickness
because the shielding effectiveness changes with the incident radiation particle type
and particle energy, and the mix between different particles as well as their energy
distributions change with orbit altitude and orbit inclination. The
following Table
provides a convenient format for recording and summing of the computed 1 MeV
fluence values.
Table 7. 1: Tabulation of 1 MeV Fluence Components
Orbit
Particles
1 MeV
Flux e. /sq.
1 MeV Flux e. /sq. cm
cm/yr
Front
Transfer orbit
Trapped
----- orbits
electrons
Back
Front
Back
Trapped protons
Subtotal
On-Orbit
Trapped
electrons
Trapped protons
------ years
Flare protons
Subtotal
Total
Grand total
Front + Back
58
Shield thickness:
Front
Back:
Procedure :
The general procedure for estimating the solar cell damage equivalent 1 MeV fluence
is as follows:
Determine the required inputs
Determine the1 MeV fluence components as defined in Table 7. 1, entering the

solar cell from the front side for infinite back side shielding.
Determine the1 MeV fluence components as defined in Table 7. 1, entering the

solar cell from the front side for infinite front side shielding.
Enter all 1 MeV fluence components as in Table 7. 1 and sum up.
Analysis inputs:
Requirements for all missions :
Launch date
Mission duration
Characteristics of transfer or parking orbits
Number of transfer or parking orbits.
Design data
Additional requirements:
Apogee (farthest point from earth)
Perigee (nearest point to earth)
Inclination (angle between the orbit plane and the earths equatorial plane)
Design data:
An additional required input is the solar cell front and back side shield thickness.
7. 1. 3. 2 Thermal analysis:
Temperature is another major factor in the performance of solar array. Arrays
performance decreases with increase in temperature. Temperature coefficients
depends on the type of the cell, the power output characteristics, the operating
temperature and the radiation environment.
A solar array works at the temperature resulting from the balance of insolation,
thermal emission, reflected energy and dissipated electrical electrical energy.
59
Initial conditions for the thermal analysis come from a knowledge of the nominal
solar array temperature (from measured optical properties of solar cells and the
boundary conditions imposed by spacecraft structure) and temperature coefficients
for various solar cell parameters, including efficiency, measured over a range of
radiation flux values. These variables are then used as feedback in the thermal
analysis to predict the solar cell temperatures at EOL.
The parameters necessary for prediction of solar array temperature in orbit are given
below:
Front side emissivity IR emissivity (hermitically) of coverglass
Front side absorptance solar cell absorptivity
Rear side emissivity solar panel emissivity
Power drawn- the specific power drawn from the solar cell by end of life as a
result of orbit degradation
Table:
7. 1 Temperature observed in GEO orbit for various type of solar cells used
in ISRO Missions: ( like INSAT 2 / 3 Series, GSAT 1/ 2/ 3)

Temperature observed (Maximum) on rear side of solar panels in deg. C
( Telemetry error = +/- 1. 8 deg. C ):
Season
Si large area cells
GaAs cells
(4 x 6 sq. cm)
Transfer orbit-SS
Equinox
On orbit- SS
Multi junction
cells
86
91
99
25
30
29
36. 5
37
WS
30
EQX
35
Temperature gradient in TO from rear to front side of the panel = 2 to 5 deg. C

Temperature gradient in OO from rear to front side of the panel = 14 deg. C
7. 1. 3. 3 Solar cell performance:
60
Once the predicted radiation dosage and temperature of the cells at EOL are known,
the next step is to construct the cell IV Characteristics from the diode equation.
7. 1. 3. 4 Solar array sizing:

Once the particular solar cell performance is known using the predicted thermal and
radiation environment, the solar array size and design can be worked out.
The steps involved are:
a) Minimum array voltage
b) Number of solar cells in series in a string
c) Number of solar cells in parallel required to generate the operating current of the
array
d) Total area of solar array required
e) Sting distribution per Bus
a) Minimum array voltage:
Minimum array voltage Va = Vb + Vd + Vw
Where
Va= Minimum array voltage
Vb = spacecraft load or battery bus voltage
Vd = array blocking diode forward voltage drop
Vw= Total wiring voltage drop between solar cells and spacecraft load or the battery
(in
Both live and return lines) and depends on total wire length and gauge
The value of Vb is project dependent . Value for Vd is around 0. 7 V for Silicon
diodes. Value of Vw is project dependent.
Total Voltage Drop due to Harness and diode is calculated as follows:
Step 1 : To calculate the voltage drop upto Shunt:
Resistance of Spec 55 wire = R1 m ohms per metre.
Total length of the wire used for Live and Return from Bus Bar to Connector = L 1
metre.
Total Resistance of the wire from Bus Bar to Connector = R1 * L1 m Ohms ---( 1 )
Interpanel harness Wire length
Interpanel harness resistance
= L2 metre
= R1 * L2 m Ohms ---(
2)
Yoke to SADA Wire length
Yoke to SADA Wire length resistance
= L3 metre
= R1 * L3 m Ohms ---( 3 )
61
Contact Resistance
= R2
m Ohms ---(
4)
Number of Wires used upto Shunt
=n
------------ (
5)
Total Resistance upto Shunt
= { (1) + (2) + (3) + (4) } / ( 5 )
------------ (
6)
Maximum String Current
= I in Amps
--------------------------------- ( 7
)
Voltage drop upto Shunt = VS = (6) * (7)
--------------------------------------------
(8)
Diode drop (in the case of MJ Cell strings)
= Vd1 Volts -------------------------------
( 9)
Step 2: To calculae the Voltage drop from SADA to Bus:
SADA to Bus Wire length
= L4 metre
-----------------( 10 )
SADA to Bus Wire resistance
= R1 * L4 m Ohms -------
( 11 )
Contact resistance
= R3
m Ohms
---------( 12 )
Number of Wires used from SADA to Bus
=n
------------------( 13 )
Total Resistance from Shunt to Bus Capacitor
= { (11) + (12) } /
( 13 )-------------( 14 )
Maximum Bus Current
= I Amps
--------------------------( 15 )
Voltage drop from SADA to Bus
= VSB
= (14) * (15) --------------------------
( 16 )
Diode drop from SADA to Bus = Vd2----------( 17 )
Total Voltage Drop
= VS + Vd1 + VSB + Vd2
b) Number of solar cells in series in a string:

A sufficient number of solar cells must be electrically connected in series to provide
the bus voltage plus any voltage drops in the blocking diodes and in wiring. The
required number of cells in series Ns is given by the equation:
Ns = (Vb + Vd + Vw) / (Vop at EOL)
---------(2)
62
Where Vop = Solar cell end of mission degraded output voltage at operating point
and under operating temperature and intensity.
Vop of the given cell at EOL is calculated as follows:
1) First step :
Apply loss factors in voltage due to fabrication and radiation for the given mission
life to Vop of the solar cell type used at 28 deg. C
= Vop at 28 deg. C * Fabrication loss factor in voltage * Radiation Degradation in
voltage
2) Second step :
Apply on orbit temperature for the solar cell used :
= Vop calculated in step 1 + tempr. coefficint in voltage ( Top To)
Where
Top = design temperature which is the averge of tempr. @ SS and tempr@ equinox
Temperature at SS and temperature at equinox can be taken from the flight data
observed in orbit for the type of cell used or can be calculated.
To
= Calibration temperature of the solar cell and = 28 deg. C (normally used)
c) Number of cells in parallel :

To calculate the no. of cells in parallel, the power requirement defined by the mission
+5% as a margin shall be taken and current of the cell type used at the operating
voltage at end of mission life under operating temperature in orbit and intensity shall
be calculated.
Np = (current @ operating voltage of the array @ EOL) /( Iop of the cell at EOL) -(4)
Where Iop of the array = (Power required @ EOL + 5% margin) / Operating voltage
of the solar array
Iop of the cell at EOL is calculated as follows:
Step 1:
Iop at 28 deg. C * fabrication loss factor in current * Radiation degradation
In current for the cell type used @ EOL
Step 2:
Iop of the cell type from step 1 + tempr. coefficient of the cell in current( Top To)
d) Total solar array area required:
63
1)Once number of solar cells in series and parallel are calculated, total number of
solar cells required = Ns * Np. Area of the total no. of solar cells shall then be
calculated as =( dimension of the cell including gap in series and parallel * Ns*Np)
2)Area of hinges, hold down points and harness area shall be calculated which is
normally comes around to 10% to 12%. This means the area available for packing
solar cells is 88% to 90% ( i. e the packing factor)
3) Solar array area required to generate the required power at operating voltage
= Area of the total no. of solar cells * Packing facor
e)String distribution per Bus:
Number of wings, Number of buses and Number of cells in parallel per string and
Number of Master strings per bus are Mission specific.
Transfer orbit Panel design:
The temperature in transfer orbit is high compared to on-orbit conditions in GEO.
Hence to meet the transfer orbit power at the given bus voltage after 5 orbits, the
transfer orbit panel shall be designed at TO temperature of a cell used. ( Normally
design temperature will be the average of SS and WS temperatures)
Note: The solar array area calculation method is the same for both GEO and
LEO except that the radiation and temperature data for the cell type should
be applied for LEO mission life and orbit conditions
7. 1. 3. 5 Loss factors
Different loss factors used for computing the solar array size for both LEO and GEO
mission applications fall into three main groups:
Operational orbital loss factors, the fabrication loss factors, and the flight loss
factors.
Table 7. 2 lists the typical loss factors of all three categories that could be used for
solar array sizing.
Table 7. 2 Solar array loss factors for planar arrays:
Loss Factors
GEO / LEO
1. Orbital Loss Factors
Solar intensity factor (Di)
Season dependent
Orbital inclination
Season dependent
Operating temperature factor
Solar cell dependent and season dependent
(Dt)
64
2. BOL Loss Factors
Current
Voltage
Solar cell mismatch & assembly
0. 985
Calibration error
0. 98
Orientation loss
0. 99
Random loss
Radiation loss in Transfer orbit
0. 985
0. 99
Depends on no. of orbits and solar cells

used.
3. EOL Loss Factors
Current
Voltage
In addition to BOL losses, the

following losses are for EOL:
UV
0. 98
Thermal Cycling
0. 98
Radiation loss
Depends on mission life and solar cells

used.
Table 7. 3: Season/ Solar Declination/ Intensity Factor:

The following data shall be used in predicting solar array power generation
for GEO Missions.
Season
Date
Solar Declination
Intensity
In deg.
Factor
Vernal Equinox-30 days
21 February
11. 0
1. 0213
Vernal Equinox
21 March
0. 0
1. 007
Summer Solstice
21 June
+23. 44
0. 968
Autumnal Equinox-30 days
23 August
11. 5
0. 979
Autumnal Equinox
23 September
0. 0
0. 994
Winter Solstice
22 December
-23. 44
1. 033
Note: For LEO Missions, solar array power generation prediction is based on
the orbit conditions and inclination, intensity factor vs season shall be taken
from S. Rauschenbach, page no. 409.
Operational orbital loss factors:
These are the losses experienced because of the orbit of the spacecraft and the time
of year. Depending on the time of the year the solar constant will vary either greater
or lesser than one air mass zero (AMO) (135. 3 mW/sq. cm ) due to the varying
distance of the earth to the sun.
The solar arrays on GEO satellites are subject to a number of factors which can result
in significant fluctuations in the amount of power available to onboard systems. To
65
begin with, the position of the satellite relative to the sun varies throughout the year.
As the earth goes around its orbit, its distance from the sun changes from a
minimum of 0. 983 astronomical units ( Aus-the mean distance from the earth to the
sun is approximately
1AU or 149, 597, 870 km) to a maximum of 1. 067 AU a difference of 12, 518,
000 km. If we consider the energy received from the sun at 1 AU to be 100% then
the energy received varies from 97% to 103%, .
Not only isnt the earths orbit is truly circular, but the plane of the earths equator
does not lie in the plane of the earths orbit (the ecliptic ). Earths seasons are a
direct result of this circumference. From our vantage on earth, it appears that the
sun slowly moves from 230 below the equatorial plane (at the winter solstice) to 23 0
above the equatorial plane (at the summer solstice) and back again over the course
of a year.
The apparent motion of the sun above and below the equatorial plane has two
effects. First it changes the angle of incidence of solar energy received on the solar
arrays since they must rotate about an axis perpendicular to the equatorial plane. As
a result, the amount of solar energy absorbed by the solar arrays drops off as a
factor of cos where
is the suns declination ( angle relative to equatorial plane). If we consider the
amount of energy received when the suns rays are perpendicular to the solar arrays
to be 100%, then the energy received drops to less than 92% at the solstices.
Because of this sun-earth geometry, the geostationary orbit is usually outside the
cone of the earths shadow. That is, until around the times of the vernal and
aytumnal equinoxes. At these times, geostationary satellites enter their eclipse
season, when they can spend as much as 70 minutes of every day in shadow. These
seasons run from end of February through the middle of April and the beginning of
September through the middle of October.
To prepare for eclipse seasons, the satellite operators must ensure that the
spacecraft batteries are properly conditioned to pick up the load during each days
eclipse.
For a LEO spacecraft, the angle between sun vector and the solar array depends on
the orbit inclination and whether the solar array is fixed, canted or sun tracking and
also depends on the axis, the solar array fixed (pitch or roll axis) to the spacecraft.
These losses can be determined and included in the solar array sizing. The orbital
loss factors include solar intensity variation and operating temperature.
BOL Losses: ( Fabrication loss factors )
66
The BOL losses that have to be factored into the solar array size are usually the
worst case losses that can be expected to occur under proper manufacturing and
quality control.
The calibration error is a 2% loss to account for the problems with simulating AMO
conditions when performing solar cell calibration. Cell mismatch loss is due to the
small difference in performance of cells in series in a string eventhough all the cells
will be from the same current class.
The combined fabrication loss factor depends on the electrical design of the array,
whether the losses are multiplied together or roots mean squared.
EOL Losses: ( Flight loss factors )
The EOL losses are the losses least well quantified. They consists of three main time
dependent losses: Charged particle radiation degradation of the active solar cell
performance; ultraviolet darkening of the cover glass adhesive and degradation due
to temperature cycling. The total loss of these three factors combined is dependent
on the mission, orbit conditions, solar cell, solar array design life time and whether
these loss factors are either multiplied or root mean squared.
The ultra-violet (UV)
radiation tends to darken the solar cell coverglass and its
adhesive during the life of the satellite ( maximum degradation occurs in cell current
within for st 1000 equivalent sun hours. ) and this reduces the transmission of the
light through the cell.
This loss is same for all single crystalline solar cell types. Similarly losses due to
thermal cycling and random failures occur in interconnects, solder or weld joints etc.,
and are the same for all single crystalline solar cell types. However, radiation loss
factors are significantly different for different solar cells and also depend on device
configuration and mission life.
The total EOL loss is around 25-35% for a 12 year geostationary mission and 1525% for a 5 year LEO mission. The most important EOL loss factor for both LEO and
GEO is the radiation loss factor.
Charger array /Charger string design:
Requirement of charger arrays or charger strings is project specific.
For power level upto 2 KW at EOL, Equinox, Charger arrays are normally used.
For power level > 2 KW at EOL, Equinox, Charger strings are normally used
During eclipse the required payload power is supplied by batteries which are charged
by charger arrays or charger strings during sunlit phases.
67
charger arrays or charger strings are optimized with respect to its string length and
cell area considering:
Temperature profiles during sun-lit phase for EQX and SS.
Worst case battery charge voltage characteristics
Particle radiation flux
Voltage drop
Standard loss factors in fabrication.
The charger array/charger string should be capable of charging the battery, with full
charge current when the battery is discharged and go to trickle charge mode to
sustain the fully charged battery both in TO and O. O phases.
7.2
Solar array design for LEO Missions:
7. 2. 1 Introduction:
The concepts behind the electrical design of a solar array for LEO depends on orbit
type, inclination, power requirement at end of mission life, and tracking methods.
The solar array design shall include the protection against solar array shadowing,
protection against atomic oxygen environment and albedo conditions.
The 1 to 5 year End of Life (EOL) Autumn Equinox point is usually the design driver
for solar arrays . The structure of the array is assumed to be a rigid.
7. 2. 2 Initial Requirements:
same as described for GEO.
Solar array design requirements for LEO:
1. The array shall deliver required power as defined by the mission (under its orbital
operating conditions) at specified bus voltage during entire mission life including
one
string margin.
2. The array shall survive number of thermal cycles during the entire mission life at
temperature ranging from +1000C to -1000C (exact temperature limit is mission
dependent) at a pressure of 10-5 Torr.
3. The array shall be protected from hotspots, shadowing, electrostatic charging and
Atomic oxygen environment.
4. The array shall withstand particulate radiation environment.
5. The array structure shall be grounded to avoid space plasma effects.
6. The array shall withstand the mechanical loading due to launch, separation, and
deployment. For design, launch loads shall be considered
7. Single point failures shall be avoided.
8.
The solar array harness to the spacecraft shall be designed to withstand launch,
68
Deployment and thermal environments.

9. The solar array string design shall take care of
Harness voltage drops and
standard loss factors.

10. String layout shall take care of fabrication easiness of the circuits.
11. Interpanel gaps shall be minimum of 20 mm which accomodates interpanel
harness cable and respective connectors.
12. Size of the array shall meet the stowage requirements imposed by the launch
vehicle
13. Mass of the array shall meet the mission requirements.
The power of the solar-generator is defined by the following data:
Mission Life
Orbit type ( polar/ equatirial)
Orbit period
Eclipse and sunlit period
Solar array type ( body mounted or deployable)
Altitude
inclination
Bus voltage
Type of solar cells used
Operating voltage of solar array
Temperature in orbit ( depends on season)
radiation dosage level for given mission life

sun light intensity ( depends on season, incident angle, eclipse period, solar
distance)
UV / Atomic oxygen effect on the components used in solar array
Cell shadowing
Albedo effect
Minimum power required by the mission at end of life at equinox condition at the
given bus voltage
The power of the solar generator, determined by the required number of solar cells
and the nominal solar cell power is reduced by series of factors, which consider
technical and mission constraints, space radiation and temperature level.
Taking into account the specified power and weight constraints, the available solar
array structures, the applicable power loss factors and solar cell processing aspects,
the solar cell choice shall be made .
System trade studies will help in understanding some of the relative advantages of
different types of solar cells
69
Each mission profile typically results in specific design parameters such as cell and
cover size and thickness, radiation degradation, temperature of operation, etc.
7.2.3 Solar array sizing:
Once the mission specification has been fixed, the inputs for the radiation and
thermal
Environment that the spacecraft will encounter is required. The calculation method
for solar array area required is the same as described under GEO.
7. 2. 3. 1 On-orbit-radiation environment for LEO:
The main sources of energetic particles that are of concern are:
protons and electrons trapped in the Van Allen belts
Heavy ions trapped in the magnetosphere
Cosmic ray protons and heavy ions
The radiation fluence for various solar cells with defined cover glass are given in the
TablePredicted radiation fluence: (LEO and GEO) based on standard models for trapped
electrons (AE8), trapped protons (AP8) .
Radiation fluence, 1 MeV / sq. cm
Si, 100 micron CG
GaAs, 150
MJ cells, 150
micron CG
micron CG
LEO ( 1 yr)
3X 10
1X 10
LEO ( 2 yrs)
6 X 1013
3X 1013
3X 1013
LEO ( 5 yrs)
2 X 1014
1 X 1014
1 X 1014
GEO ( 7 yrs)
5. 5X 1014
3X 1014
3X 1014
GEO ( 12 yrs)
8 X 1014
5X 1014
5X 1014
13
13
1X 1013
Note : The above fluence values are approximate and in case of GEO, it includes
solar flare event also. (10 flares assumed for 12 yrs life)
7. 2. 3. 2Thermal Analysis:
Solar array temperature in LEO can be calculated as explained under GEO. But the
interconnector material, thickness and design shall be carefully selected to withstand
the LEO thermal cycling effects.
LEO solar arrays are exposed to 5500 thermal cycles per year between +100 0 C and
-1000 C.
This
thermal
environment
induces
maximum
stress
to
solar
cell
interconnectors
and welding joints on cell contacts.
Molybdenum interconnectors are the most suitable on Silicon solar cells for LEO
projects.
70
7. 2. 3 . 3 Ultra-Violet (UV) degradation:

Same as defined for GEO. .
7. 2. 3. 4 Albedo
An additional problem for the solar array designer of LEO missions is the albedo from
the Earth. This gives rise to a variable increase in the solar intensity on the cells
which affects the array current and temperature. The albedo intensity is very much
dependent upon the orbital geometry, the weather conditions
on the Earth and
whether there is ocean or land mass beneath the spacecraft.

7. 2. 3. 5 Atomic oxygen:
In case of LEO, reactive form of oxygen, i. e, atomic oxygen exists in altitudes
between roughly 200 and 600 kilometers. This form of oxygen reacts with organic
films, advanced composites, and metallic surfaces. oxygen atoms encountered by the
ram spacecraft surfaces are extremely detrimental. Most polymeric materials
(including Kapton, composite materials, epoxies )are strongly affected. Various
shuttle flights have shown very serious material erosions which have a major effect
on mechanical strength and integrity. Polymeric films like Kapton are eroded and
become very fragile; both the matrix and fibres of reinforced polymeric composite
materials (like carbon / epoxy) are attacked; in this latter case, electrically
conducting carbon fiber fragments can be liberated and provoke short-circuits.
The extent of this effect on the materials depends on the orbital height (atom
density), solar activity, exposure time, orbital speed and velocity angle to surface
exposed.
Typical results on of reaction on materials which are not resistant against the atomic
oxygen environment are :
Mass loss, change of optical properties, decrease of coating thickness, flaking off of
material at surface, secondary chemical reaction induced by the created material
oxides.
Information known for two typical materials:
-A kapton H film (standard kapton substrate material) exposed during STS 3 flight
showed besides a change of the glossy surface to a flat yellow appearance, a mass
reduction of 35%
-Severe problems have to be faced by silver. During STS 8 flight 35 microns silver
interconnectors were exposed and a reduction of thickness of 4. 5 microns was
observed during one week flight. The generated silver oxide layer does not provide
any protection
since it flakes off and the fresh surface is affected again.
71
Lot of materials are found to be safe against atomic oxygen environment. Silicone
adhesive for cell bonding, cover glass antireflective coating (MgF2). Kapton ITO, etc.
are resistant against atomic. oxygen. Silver Moly interconnectors are resistant
against atomic oxygen.
Silver interconnectors can be protected against atomic oxygen by coating it with
1micron thick gold layer on front and rear side.
7.3 Solar cell size:
The size of a solar cell is chosen so that the array design achieves a maximum
packing factor. The packing factor is defined as the actual area occupied by solar
cells divided by the total area of the array. Generally the larger the solar cell, the
larger is the packing factor. Areas upto 25 sq. cm are used for Si solar cells and up
to 27. 5 sq. m for Multijunction solar cells.
7.4 Solar Panel Dimension:
Size of the solar panels is governed by a number of factors:
a) The physical size of the spacecraft
b) The launch vehicle envelope
c) The need to avoid other extendable mechanisms.
d) The spacecraft power demand
7.5 Choice of solar cell technology:
For each particular solar cell type there is more than one total area of solar cells that
can satisfy the power requirements. This is because it is possible to vary the amount
of radiation that the solar cell receives by altering the radiation shielding density that
protects the solar cell. (basically cover glass maerial type, thickness etc. )
The performance degradation over time for different types of cells shall be studied.
The main performance parameter is the Energy conversion efficiency.
The main factors are the mass and cost of the array, other important factors in the
choice of a particular solar cell type are the reliability and availabilty of the cells.
A suitable solar cell shall be selected by considering the efficiency and degradation.
7.6 Solar Array Layout:
Solar cell layout is a function of several important parameters, including surface
area, solar cell size, required power, and string (bus) voltage.
The solar cell array layout activity consists of arranging the series strings of parallelconnected solar cells on the available substrate area to achieve the highest possible
power output per unit area while providing space for the electrical conductors from
72
the solar cell circuits to solar panel terminals. Also space shall be provided for
blocking (isolation) and shadowing diodes, if required.
The gap between cells in series and parallel depends on
1)cell, coverglass dimension
2)thermal cycling requirements
3)fabricational constraints related to interconnector geometry.
It varies between 0. 5 to 1mm. The gap between the end cell and busbars vary
between 1mm to 2mm . String to string distance shall be between 1mm to
2mm(minimum).
The width of busbar shall be between 4mm to 5mm.
7.7 Solar array Mass :
Spacrcraft solar array mass normally includes the sum of five major components:
Structure, solar cell blanket, Harness, Deployment systems and miscellaneous mass.
MSA = MS + MSB + MH + MD + MMisc
Where MSA is the solar array mass, MS is the solar array structure mass, M SB is the
solar cell blanket mass, MH is the harness mass, MD is the deployment mechanism
mass, MMisc is the miscellaneous mass.
For rigid panels, a rigid yoke is assumed to provide the stiffness for sun tracking and
to reduce losses from shadowing. Spring based hinges are assumed to interconnect
between the solar panels to the yoke in the array. The solar array structure mass for
rigid planar array comprised the sum of the masses of rigid solar panel substrate
with hinges and hold down points, yoke and solar drive assembly (SADA).
MS = MP + MY + MSADA.
Where MP is the solar panel substrate mass, M Y is the yoke assembly mass, MSADA is
the SADA assembly mass.
Solar cell blanket mass consists of the sum of solar cell assemblies (M SCA), solar cell
network laydown adhesive
(MLA), power transfer busbars (MMisc), diodeboards with
diodes (MDB)
MSB = MSCA + MLA + MMisc. + MDB
Solar cell assembly (SCA) mass is the sum of the masses of solar cell (M SC),
coverglass
(MCG ), cover glass to solar cell bonded adhesive (MA), and interconnector mass (MIC ),
MSCA = MSC + MCG + MA+ MIC.
73
Solar array harness mass (MH), is the sum of both intrapanel (MHintra) and intrapanel
(MHinter) harness mass and connector mass (MC).
MH = MHintra + MHinter + MC
The solar panel substrate, solar cell blanket and solar array harness mass varies
linearly with the size of the solar array.
7.8 Harness Design:
Electrical wires used for solar cell circuit termination shall be designed and
manufactured to conduct the electricity optimally, and confine the electric current to
specific circuits. Optimum conduction is assured by proper selection and trade-off of
the following parameters:
Electrical conuctivity (or resistivity), cross sectional area, length, temperature
coefficient of resistance, weight, cost, resistance to fracture due to bending and
flexing in assembly and service, and practicallity of termination.
Confinement of electrical current to specific circuits is assured by proper insulation.
Insulation is provided by one or more layers of appropriate dielectric material
surrounding the conductor.
The dielectric materials are chosen primarily to withstand heat, space radiation, and
voltage breakdown.
Wires are rated according to their conductor material, conductor size, insulation
stand-off voltage capability and insulation service temperature limitations.
For small solar arrays (<1 Kw), the minimum wire gage (AWG 26) is defined by
handleability and reliability criteria and on larger arrays, the power losses must be
traded off against the wiring weight. For arrays in 0. 5 to 5 kW range, power losses
in the wiring is between 1 to 5%.
The wire gage and number of wires used for +ve and ve end terminations of solar
cell strings
depends on string current and normally for a string current of 2 to
4Amps, (24 AWG, Multistranded Silver plated Copper wire with Teflon insulation),
Spec 55 round wires shall be used for INSAT/GSAT/IRS series for intrapanel harness.
The wire bunch shall be prepared as per data card and rear side routing for a given
project. The wire length shall be decided based on panel size and routing length on
rear side.
Connector type, material, insulation, number of wafers/ pins are Mission dependent.
The harness design shall account for current derating and redundancy.
Wire routing:
The wires from the circuits reach the connector on the rear side through the feed
through holes in the substrates. On the front side of the panel the wires shall be
routed as per standard fabrication procedure and busbars of the circuits shall be
74
soldered to the wires using Sn62 solder and solder joints are then coated with
conformal coating.
Interpanel Harness Design:
This consists of ITT crimpable connector and round wires of 22 / 24 AWG round wires
for transferring the generated power and signals from solar array to shunt packages.
7.9 Solar Panel Grounding Scheme:
Kapton insulator is known to develop pin holes during fabrication and in space due
to thermal cycling and also due to static charge build up . The puncturing of kapton,
at any stage after cell lay-up leads to shorting of cells with the substrate core.
Further, if the panel core is shorted to the spacecraft ground, then the solar cell
string is effectively shorted to the spacecraft ground. This results in power loss from
the shorted solar cell string. If the panel structure is not shorted to spacecraft
ground, it leads to differential charging between the spacecraft and solar array and
this in turn leads to kapton puncturing and burning of wire harness etc.
A grounding scheme developed and employed in INSAT missions is as follows:
The array ground reference is biased above the spacecraft ground by connecting an
11 k bleeder resistor between SGRP and the array ground. In case of a short circuit
in the array, this bleeder resistor restricts the bus current flowing to the SGRP to less
than
2 mA, thereby nullifying the effect of the short circuit.
On the solar panels, provision shall be made to connect a
ground wire to the
substrate core through a ground bolt.

Table 7.
: Solar Array Design Summary:
GEO / LEO
Array Type
Array power required ( in TO, OO, EOL)
Mission life
Bus Voltage
Array temperature
Radiation fluence level for the cell type
and given mission life
Total Solar array area
Cutouts and hinge area
Charger array area (if charger arrays are
used)
Shadow area
Total number of panels
75
Total number of wings

Dimension of the panels
Solar cell type used
Solar array weight
Total Number of Strings
Number of Strings per Bus
Total Number of cells in series
Total Number of cells in Parallel
Number of temperature sensors
Number of sun sensors
Intra panel harness and connector details
Inter panel harness details
Substrate used
The second column in the table depends on the project.
76
8. Blocking Diodes / Shunt Diodes

8. 1 Blocking diodes:
Blocking diodes, also called isolation diodes, are permanently inserted between
electrical strings of solar cells and a power bus such that they will conduct electrical
current from illuminated solar cells to the bus, but will block current flow from the
bus through the solar cell strings, whenever the string output voltage is less than the
bus voltage.
A non-illuminated array, or a portion, behaves as a string of series connected rectifier
diodes that is connected in the forward conduction mode across the power bus. . The
amount of current that could be drained by a non-illuminated array or string of cells
without isolation diodes depends upon the bus voltage and the
steepness
of the
solar cell or string I-V curve between the maximum power point and open circuit
voltage.
Blocking diodes conserve energy not only when solar cells become non-illuminated,
but whenever the solar cell string output capability falls below the bus voltage (more
precisely, when the strings Voc falls below the sum of the voltage and diode forward
drop)
The blocking diodes, however, cause a voltage drop, that subtracts from the solsr cell
output voltage and thereby causes an energy loss when solar cells produce energy.
When properly placed, blocking diodes may prevent serious or even catastrophic
power subsystem failures when primary power bus short circuit faults occur. Such
faults can occur in cables, in connectors, at terminals, between adjacent strings of
solar cells. And between solar cell circuits and metallic structural elements such as a
metallic substrate.
Location for blocking diodes near a solar cell array / space craft interface depends on
the mission.
Blocking diodes are selected according to the criteria given below:
Lowest possible forward voltage drop at the nominal current level and at the
actual diode operating temperature.
Sufficient peak-inverse voltage rating, based on post-irradiation worst diode

temperature, highest bus voltage with superimposed transient voltage spikes.
Reliability and preferred failure mode
(the preferred failure mode should be
open circuit so that a high array reliability can be obtained by the use of
parallel-redundantdiodes)
77
Capability to withstand temperature cycling throughout mission life without

mechanical or electrical failure.
Highest possible permissible steady state operating temperature.
Usage of Blocking diodes in Multijunction Solar Panels:

Solar cell strings are connected in parallel to other strings to form a switchable
master string. ATJ/ DJ /ITJ solar cells vendor has recommended that, individual
strings should be diode isolated. Each series strings for power generation in INSAT
4A/4B /GSAT3 are isolated by connecting diodes ( 1N5811), to protect the strings
from failure. Diodes are mounted on PCBs, which in turn mounted on the rear side of
solar panels using RTVS691 adhesive.
IN5811 Diode Specs:
1. Maximum rating IF = 6. 0 A over 250C to 750C
2. Electrical characteristics @ 250C
Diode description
VF
IF
Isolation diode
< 0. 875V
450mA
(discrete 1N5811)
< 0. 875V
1A to 4.
IR
trr
< 5A @ 150V
30 ns
0A
< 0. 875V
6. 0A
3. operating temperature
: +2000C to -550C
4. storage temperatur
: +2000C to -550C
5. Junction temperature
: +2000C (Max. )
6. peak inverse voltage
: 150V (Min)
7. Break down voltage
:160V (Min)
8. Forward capacitance
: 60PF @ 10V
9. body of the diode
: 6mm in height & 4mm dia
10. Weight
11. Length of the diode lead
8. 2
: 0. 013 ounce (1gm approximately)

: 18mm
Shunt diodes:
Shunt diodes, also known as bypass diodes, are used to minimize output losses and
for protecting solar cells.
On partially shadowed solar cell arrays, the array power output may decrease by a
greater fraction than what may be deduced from the amount of array area that is
shadowed.
78
The power output capability of a fully illuminated array may also be limited by
fractured (broken) solar cells. This can occur when parts of the fractured cells
become electrically disconnected from their remainders. The effects of fractured cells
in an array are similar to those of a partial shadow on the array.
Shunt diodes are connected across single cells, rows of parallel-connected solar cells
(sub modules), or across modules (several submodules
connected in series). The
connection is such that the shunt diodes are reverse biased when all solar cells are
fully illuminated. When the current flow through any solar cell submodule becomes
limited, it may be due to shadowing or cell fracture. This affected submodule
automatically becomes reverse biased; hence, the reverse biased shunt diode
becomes forward biased and conducts, and the full current can flow in this shunt
diode-equipped submodule.
However, the voltage output capability of a string of
solar cells containing such an affected submodule is reduced by the voltage drop that
appears across the shunt diode.
Undefined shadowing can lead to unacceptable high spot temperatures due to
electrical power consumption in the shaded cells.
Hot spots arise when a solar cell has to absorb energy instead to produce. This
occurs during short circuiting of electrical sections by shunt regulator as well as
under normal operation mode of solar array, when there is a critical shadow on the
array. The shunt diodes now limit the power consumption in the shaded cells by
reducing the maximum possible cell reverse operation voltage.
The allowable voltage in such a shunt interval must be carefully studied with respect
to thefollowing criteria:
The shadow configurations and their possible movements must be clearly defined.
It is important to know if there are critical shadows on the complete solar array
or if shadows are limited to specific areas.
I t must be ensured that the maximum possible voltage within a shunt interval
will not cause an electrical breakdown destroying the affected solar cell.
The maximum power consumption in the affected solar cell shall not lead to hot
spot temperatures which are unacceptable for the structural integrity.
Shunt diode characteristics:

The type of shunt diodes normally used in our solar arrays are Silicon solar cell type
diodes, used in IRS, Silicon cells Panels and shunt diodes that are integral with the
Multijunction solar cells (integral shunt diodes) are used in INSAT 4A/4B and GSAT 3
solar panels.
79
The major criteria in selecting shunt diodes is their physical size and eventual
location on the solar cell array. The practical way to install shunt diodes is in the
immediate vicinity of the solar cells or submodules they are to protect or on the rear
side of panels to obtain higest possible cell packing factor.
CIC- Solar cell type diode characteristics (used in IRS missions, procured
from M/S. ASTRIUM, GERMANY)
Base material
Crucible grown silicon.
Base resistivity
10 Ohm-cm
Size & thickness
2 cm X 1 cm, 200 microns
Polarity
n-on-p
Contacts
Ti/Pd/Ag, weldable
IC type & thickness
25 micron, Silver-Moly on front and rear.
Temperature range
-1800C to + 1500C
Operational forward current
IF 1. 5 Amp, VF < 0. 75 V @ 250C
Reverse leakage current @ 250C
< 10 micro amps
Reverse recovery time
< 10 micro secs.
Coverglass
150 micron CMX
Emissivity
0. 83
Absorptivity
0. 15
Junction thickness
10 microns
Temperature coefficient
< -1. 0 mV /0C
80
81
9. Solar array performance metrics:

Solar array performance metrics, specific power (W/kg), areal power density (W/sq.
m), specific mass (kg/sq. m) of three different solar cells can be worked out for the
power level required by the mission (GEO or LEO)in tabular form and cell choice can
be made based on the availability and flight heritage.
Table 9. 1: Specific mass (kg/sq. m)comparison for different cells:
Si
GaAs/Ge
Multijunction (tripple
junction cells)
Substrate
1. 5
1. 5
1. 5
Blanket
0. 9
1. 27
1. 32
Array
2. 4
2. 77
2. 82
Table 9. 2 Specific power (W/kg), (GEO, 12 yrs life, equinox)

Si
GaAs/Ge
junction cells)
BOL
45
59. 6
81. 6
EOL
38. 3
50. 5
74. 5
Table 9. 3 Areal power density (W/sq. m), (For 12 years, equinox)

Si
GaAs/Ge
junction cells)
BOL
108
165
230
EOL
92
140
210
Table 8. 4 Solar cell technology comparison:

Solar
Size in mm *
cells
Thickness
Mass
BOL
P/P0 (@ 5
P/P0 (@
In
in gms
efficiency
X 10 )
1X 1015)
22. 3%
microns
Si
37. 95X 62.
1)
15
14
@ 280C
200
13 %
18%
200
2. 2
13. 6%
18%
40. 15X 65.
82
2)
15
GaAs/Ge
20. 25 X 40.
140
1. 1
18. 4%
19%
25%
140
3. 8
27%
12%
16%
175
4. 17
26. 5%
12%
15. 7%
25
ATJ
37. 34X 76.

28
ITJ
39. 47X 69.
11
83
10. Reliability Requirements of Solar Array:

The reliability of the solar array is expressed as a FIT rate (Failures in time of 10 9
hours) from which both the number and type of failures can be derived. The type of
failures can include cell fractures, cell interconnect failures, diode failures (open
circuit) and wire breaks. With this information the number of solar cell strings that
can be expected to still be working at the EOL point can be calculated. This need not
be an integral number of strings as a cell breakage may only lead to a partial failure
of a string if the preferred fracture direction does not cause a full open circuit in the
cell.
The present trends of solar array design emphasize, among other things, low cost,
higher reliability, and longer life times during which severe thermal changes may be
expected. These trends have a direct bearing on design procedures and factors to be
considered in seeking satisfactory designs. For example it is well known that high
numbers of thermal cycles and extreme temperatures induce severe stresses that
can cause serious failures in the components of solar cell arrays. The designer must
therefore be able to reliably predict potential failures in a given design and correct
them prior to proceeding further. The final selected design needs to be qualified by
environmental tests on a sample solar cell array (coupon ) to ensure its ability to
survive the required number of thermal cycles .
Redundancy and Reliability Aspects in designing Solar array:
1. Individual cells have redundant interconnect tabs to carry the full current, in case
of
Failure of one tab.
2. In all panels, the circuit wiring shall have two fold redundancy wherever possible.
3. The array power shall be divide into two buses and number of strings from all
panels shall be equally distributed in each bus.
4. Each string shall be isolated by the use of isolation diodes . ( In the case of
multijunction solar cells strings, each single cell string shall be routed through
isolation diode as recommended by the vendor. )
5. To improve the reliability of the circuit harness, they shall be connected to
connector without any break.
Possible Failure modes and their impact:
1. Continuity loss in circuit harness
2. Insulation failure below the cell blanket
3. Failure in isolation diodes
84
4. Predominant failure is open circuit failure of soldered or welded joints. (one solar
Cell fails in opencircuit for every 1X 109 solar cell operating hours)
In all the above modes of failure, the result would be partial or complete loss of
power from the affected string.
85
11.Solar Array Power Generation Prediction and comparison with Power

observed
In orbit:
Solar array power generation can be calculated by the set of following equations:
P = Vb * Iop
-------------------------------------------eqn ( 1 )
Where Vb = main bus voltage

Iop = Solar array current at actual operating voltage.
The expected I-V Characteristics of the solar array can be calculated by equations (2)
and (3)
I
= { Io + Ci ( T To)} * Np * Fi * Cos * If * DI * Duv * Dt

--------eqn ( 2 )
V = { Vo + Cv* (T To) } * Ns * Fv * Dv
-----------------------eqn ( 3 )
Where
Io = solar cell current at operating point @ 280 C
Ci = Temperature coefficient of current
T0 = Standard temperature ( 280 C )
T
= Solar array operating temperature
Np = Number of cells in Parallel
= Sun angle
Fi
= Fabrication loss factors in current
If
= Solar intensity factor (depending on season, it varies)
DI
= Current degradation for radiation
Duv = UV degradation
Dt = Degradation due to temperature cycling.
V0 = Solar cell Voltage at operating point at 280 C
Cv = Temperature coefficient of voltage
Ns = Number of cells in series
Dv
= Voltage degradation for radiation
Fv
= Fabrication loss factors in voltage
The above method or a computer program can be used to estimate the power from
BOL to EOL (for every year from the time of launch till end of mission life), by
86
considering the appropriate data for radiation degradation in current and voltage
every year for a type of solar cell used, ( This data can be used as given by the Solar
cell Vendor or from On-orbit data if available ) sun intensity, angle and temperature
variation at different seasons, UV degradation, loss factor due to temperature cycling
and standard loss factors in fabrication .
The temperature and power generation predicted data at the given Bus voltage can
be tabulated as follows:
Seasons
Temperature
Power
TO power
BOL power
EOL power
in deg. C
required in
predicted in
predictedin
predictedin
Watts
Watts
Watts
Watts
SS
Autumnal
Equinox
WS
Vernal
Equinox
On-Orbit Performance:
The generation power, the radiation degradation and the temperature performance
can be checked and evaluated as On-orbit performance of solar array using
telemetry data.
From the telemetry data, the power observed in orbit for a given time/season can be
calculated as follows:
1) Note the maximum solar array current ( a steady current value observed at least
for few minutes) versus the number of stings switched ON at the given bus
voltage
2) Note the temperature on rear side of the solar panels ( Temperature on front side
= tempr. on rear side + 140C )
3) Note the SPSS Sun angle.
4) Solar panel temperatures during eclipse.
The above parameters can be constantly monitored from time of launch till end of
mission life at different seasons
The observed power for number of strings ON from telemetry data
87
= solar array current observed * the Bus voltage .

This power can then be extrapolated for total number of strings used for the given
project, which gives the total power generation observed at the given bus voltage.
This observed data can be compared with the predicted data for power generation at
different seasons during entire mission life .
88

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SPACE SOLAR ARRAY DESIGN

2. SOLAR ARRAY CONCEPTS

for the use of

a smaller, more economical launch vehicle or a more

profitable mission orbit.

as rigid, flexible and concentrator systems. An array platform can be configured as a

The bandwidth of allowable photon

confirmed the high reliability and good performance of these

cells. The advanced

Si cells with 17% BOL efficiency, provides many commercial

and Spectrolab demonstrated

deposition( MOCVD ) reactor.

GaInP, GaAs, and Ge layers) are grown in tunnel-junction connected

total launch weights and to reduce the solar cell area.

2. SOLAR ARRAY CONCEPTS:

Solar cell array is an arrangement of solar cells, electrically connected into

solar cell covers, wiring, solar cell

They are best candidates for high power requirements.

3. SOLAR ARRAY REQUIREMENTS:

Size of the solar array must be minimised to accommodate stowage requirements

Mass must be minimised to accommodate the mission goal of maximum payload

Cost must be minimised to assure affordability.

Finally the technology must be available with an acceptably complete and

affected by atmospheric drag which causes the orbit to

in an inclined geosynchronous orbit will appear to follow a regular

geostationary. Geostationary satellites, do not see the poles at all as geosynchronous

The orbit is direct or prograde( eastward motion or counter clockwise as viewed

The orbit is circular with zero eccentricity. Therefore, there is no perigee or

Satellite linear velocity is 3 km/sec (constant for circular orbit)

Satellite angular velocity is 72. 9X 10-6 rad/sec.

Period is one sidereal day or 23 h, 56 m, 4 s (0. 9973 of a solar day)

The earth subtends an angle of 17. 3 from geostationary altitude.

Circumference of orbit is 264, 925 km.

5. SPACE SOLAR CELLS TECHNOLOGY CHOICE:

The following properties are required for a cover glass:

negligible transmission in the UV.

Maximum transmission in the visible.

Low solar absorptance

electron irradiation stability

proton irradiation stability

4. A thermal expansion coefficient match to silicon over the appropriate temperature

Temperature cycling endurance

Manufacturrability and repairability

For certain array design, consists of non-magnetic or low-atomic number metals.

For certain roll-up or fold-up arrays, possess rollability or foldability

Vibration (transportation or launch into space) endurance.

For certain array designs, fulfill other functions such as :

Interconnector Material Selection:

Copper, annealed, oxygen free, unplated or silver plated

Kovar, annealed, nickel/ copper/ solder or silver plated

Invar, annealed, silver plated

Molybdenum, annealed, silver plated.

Beryllium-copper, annealed, silver or solder plated.

Interconnector Electrical Design:

= Pout / (Pin * Ac)

Concentration ratio of solar concentrators (mirrors, lenses, or other devices)

Light transmission losses in coverglasses, cover adhesive and other optical

Additional sunlight intensity modulations are caused by solar eclipses. Furthermore

of clear materials and generally a deterioration of the

mechanical properties of the material. Coverglass materials darken similarly.

Damage-Equivalent of 1 MeV Fluence.

p-on-n type. The first letter indicates the