Negations are statements that deny another statement. (The light is on.

Negation:
The light is off or the light isnt on.)
A disjunction is a statement that can be put into the following form: S1 or S2. S1
and S2 are the disjuncts. A disjunction is true when at least one of its disjuncts is
true.
Inclusive disjunctions: S1 or S2 (or both).
Exclusive disjunctions: S1 or S2
(but not both).
Conjunction has the following form : S1 and S2. A conjunction is true when all of its
conjuncts are true
Conditional has the following form: If S1 then S2. A conditional asserts that if one
statement is true, then the other statement in the compound is true. ( (a1)if it rains
today, (a2) then shell take the bus)
The if statement in a conditional (a1) is the antecedent and (a2) is the
consequent.
Denying a disjuncts:
1. (1) S1 or S2 (or both). (2) Not S1. TF, (3) S2.
2. (1) S1 or S2 (or both). (2) Not
S2. TF, (3) S1.
3. (1) S1 or S2 (but not both). (2) Not S1. TF, (3) S2. 4.(1) S1 or S2 (but not both) (2)
Not S2, TF (3) S1.
valid argument = a deductive argument that passes the proper form test
Invalid argument = a deductive argument that fails the proper form test
Fallacy: Affirming an Inclusive disjuncts:
1. (1) S1 or S2 (or both). (2) S1. TF, (3) Not S2.
2. (1) S1 or S2 (or both). (2) S2.
TF, (3) Not S1
Affirming an Exclusive Disjunct:
1. (1) S1 or S2 (but not both). (2) S1. TF, (3) Not S2.
2. (1) S1 or S2 (but not both).
(2) S2. TF, (3) Not S1.
Fallacy: False Dichotomy:
occurs when a premise of an argument with a disjunction is false because there are
other alternatives besides the two presented in the premise.
(1) A is either a biology major or a finance major (or both). (2) A isnt a biology
major. TF, (3) A is a finance major. Denying a disjuncts, but it fails the true premises
test.
Affirming the antecedent:
Denying the consequent:
(1) If S1, then S2. (2) S1. TF, (3) S2.
(1) If S1, then S2. (2) Not S2. TF,
(3) Not S1.
Fallacy: Denying the Antecedent:
Fallacy: Affirming the
consequent:
(1) If S1, then S2. (2) Not S1. TF, (3) Not S2.
(1) If S1, then S2. (2) S2. TF, (3)
S1.
Tri-Conditional:
(1) If S1, then S2. (2) If S2, then S3. TF, (3) If S1, then S3.
Fallacy: Begging the question: occurs when a premise of an argument asserts the

conclusion of the argument. (1) Everything said in the Bible is true. (2) The Bible
asserts that God exists. TF, (3) God exists.
Standard form of Analogical arguments:
(1) X1s have features F1, F2, F3 and feature Fc. (2)X2s also have features F1, F2,
F3, TF, (3) X2s probably have Fc.
The analogues, X1s, are the things to which the entities in the conclusion are being
compared.
The primary subjects, X2s, are the things about which a conclusion is being
drawn.
The similarities (F1, F2, F3, ) are the feature that the premises claim are shared
by the analogue and the primary subject.
The conclusory feature, Fc, is the feature in the arguments conclusion thats
claimed to be a feature of the primary subject
Standard form of Statistical Argument:
(1) P% of the S observed things in G have F. TF, (2) P% of all the things in G have F.
1. The observed things in G are the sample.
2. The S is the number of things in the sample.
3. The features that these things have, the F, is the relevant property.
4. All the things in G are the target
5. P is the percentage of the observed things that have F.
Example: (1) During spring semester of 2013, 89% of 1,000 college students
surveyed said that statistical arguments were their favorite type of argument.
Therefore, (2) 89% of all college students would say that statistical arguments are
their favorite type of argument.
Sample = the college students surveyed, S = 1,000, F = saying statistical argument
were their favorite type of argument, Target = all college students, P = 89
Guidelines: 1. Size (larger the sample, the more likely that is representative) 2.
Variety (more varied the sample, more likely that it is representative)
Fallacy: Hasty Generalization occurs when a statistical argument uses a sample
thats too small.
Fallacy: Biased Sample occurs when a sample has a serious lack of variety.
Fallacy: Biased Questions occurs when a survey asks for information with questions
worded in a way to encourage response
Standard form of a Causal argument:
(1) E1 is correlated with E2. (2) E2 is not the cause of E1. (3) There is no E3 that is
cause of E1 and E2. (4) E1 and E2 are not coincidentally correlated. TF, (5) E1 is a
cause of E2
Example: (1) The switch being in the up position is correlated with the light being
on. (2) The light being on is not the cause of the switch being in the up position. (3)
There is no third event that is the cause of both the switch being in the up position

and the light being on. (4) The switch being in the up position and the light being on
are not coincidentally correlated. TF, (5) the switch being in the up position is a
cause of the light being on.
Fallacy: Hasty cause occurs when someone offers an argument with the following
form: (1) E1 is correlated with E2. TF, (5) E1 is a cause of E2.
Fallacy: Causal Slippery Slope, if a person makes a series of causal claims, one or
more of which commit the fallacy of Hasty Cause.
A causal necessary condition is an event thats required for the production of
another event. (If hurricane Katrina hadnt hit New Orleans, the flooding wouldnt
have occurred)
A causal sufficient condition is an event that, all by itself, will produce another
event.
A causal necessary and sufficient condition is an event thats required for the
production of another event and will produce that event all by itself.
One event is a contributory cause of other another event when the first event has
an effect on the second but is neither a necessary cause nor a sufficient cause.