The Rise and fall of the Inca Empire

Word Count: 3315

The South American continent has been home to some of the greatest
empires known to mankind, one of this civilizations was the Incas. Based in South
America, this civilization settled in the western side of the continent, with the centre

of power being located in Cuzco, specifically in the famous city of Machu Picchu in
the country of Peru. The powerful Inca Empire ancient origins are based on myths
and legends, it is believed that they originated from the roots of small cultures that
were located along the Andean region of South America, mostly in actual Peru.
These ancient civilizations helped set the stage for the rise of the Incas, whom
inherited many technological and agricultural advances and political ideas from
these ancient peoples. The environmental setting left by these small groups, was
favourable for the Inca expansion, as well as the development of agricultural
practices gained over the years preceding the Inca civilization. The conquests made
by different rulers throughout the life of the empire, played a huge part in the
expansion of the empire. Under the Rule of Pachakuti, the ninth ruler, and his son
Tupac Yupanqui, the Empire saw its greatest accomplishments. It was not until the
invasion of the Spaniards, and the internal political problems related mostly to
succession crisis that appeared in the Incan Royalty, that the once powerful
Tawantinsuyu started to fall.
The early origins of the Incas set the South American mountains, the Andes,
as the central point for Inca expansion. At first glance, the rugged territory seemed
like an improbable place to give birth to one of the greatest civilizations on earth 1. A
closer look at the territory demonstrates a lot of micro-environments that are full of
valuable natural resources2. Early inhabitants of the land, managed to exploit these
resources by adapting and innovating the technologies that they had found
throughout the years.3 The climate of a region plays an important role when it
1 DAltroy, Terence. The Incas. The Peoples of America. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2002, 24
2 DAltroy, 24
3 DAltroy, 25
1

comes to the development of a society. Major climatic shifts during the reign of the
Inca Empire would have meant that certain settlements would experience altered
costs and benefits from different locations, a different climate would have affected
the crops being cultivated, it could have also affect any planned harvests that the
empire would have.4
The Inca civilization ancient history consists in mostly mythological accounts, their
origins are related to many ancient Andean peoples history, in which is believed
that the ancestors were conceived by a feature of the landscape. 5 There is many
different accounts of the origins of the Inca, one of them, the most famous one,
states that the Creator God conceived four brothers and four sisters, they were
paired in couples and they set off to find the perfect land to settle the empire, It is
then when Manqo Qhapaq, the first ancestor Inca, set his staff in the ground in
Cuzco, specifically in the Waynapata mountain that they knew that they had found
the right place.6 There were occasional setbacks and battles that did not allow the
ancestor Incas to consolidate the territory that they had found in Cuzco, but
eventually they were able to expel the local people and set themselves up as lords
of the Valley.7 Despite it being many mythological accounts of ancient Inca creation,
they all serve a common purpose to establish a sacred lineage of ruling dynasty,
providing a high social status and many god-like privileges to the Inca royalty. 8
4 Covey, R. Alan. How the Incas Built their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of
Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru. History, Languages, and Cultures of the
Spanish and Portuguese Worlds. Michigan: The University of Michigan Press, 2006.
5 DAltroy, 49
6 DAltroy, 50-51
7 DAltroy, 51
8 Saunders, Nicholas J. The Incas. Sutton Pocket Histories. United Kingdom: Sutton
Publishing Limited, 2000, 10
2

In their early days, the Incas, were comparable to many small Andean groups living
close to the later called Sacred Valley of Cuzco, they all fought small battles and
fought for local supremacy.9 The early reign began with the first Inca, or ancestor
Inca Manqo Qhapaq, supposedly founder of the early empire and founder of Cuzco,
he was succeeded by his son Sinchi Roca, who was a man of wisdom. He was
venerated for his ability to gain noble relationships with nearby groups, which
helped in the peaceful expansion and consolidation of the empire. 10 His successor,
his eldest son Lloqe Yupanki, the third Inca, was also known to practice the ability
of gaining territory through intelligence, not by war. 11 The fourth Inca, Mayta
Qhapaq, son of Lloqe Yupanki, was known for not being like his father, according to
legends he was an aggressive leader that found himself repeatedly in fights. 12 He
was succeeded by his son, Qhapaq Yupanki, the ascension to the throne of the fifth
Inca might have been indirect, and witnesses describe another eldest son of Mayta
Qhapaq that was considered not fit for the throne. 13 The sixth Inca, Inka Roqa,
became the reputed founder of upper Cuzco, expanding the territory around the
capital, by using the previous alliances formed by past rulers and sending troops to
capture places around Cuzco. 14 Inka Roqa had four or five sons, the eldest of whom
was to become ruler of the empire, however in his youth, the prince was kidnapped
by a nearby group, in revenge for his father marrying a maid their lord had desired,
miraculously the prince was saved when he started to shed tears of blood, he got
9 Saunders, 51
10 DAltroy, 53
11 Ibid.
12 Ibid.
13 Ibid.
14 DAltroy, 54
3

the name of Yawar Waqaq which means tears of blood. 15 By the time his father
died, Yawar Waqaq sought revenge after the kidnappers of his youth, gaining land
for the empire, his third son succeeded him in power, named Viracocha Inka. 16
Sometime before the year 1438, another powerful small Andean group known as
the Chancas, started to gain territory, in efforts to expand their empire, they
attacked the Incas to try to gain access to the valley of Cuzco, and this resulted in a
defeat of the Chancas by the hand of the sons of the Inca ruler Viracocha. 17
Yupanqui, the eldest son of the Inca, crowned himself ruler and changed his name to
Pachakuti, becoming the Ninth Inca. Pachakuti was a man of many talents, he was a
brilliant general and a great administrator of power to the Inca Empire. 18 Under the
reign of Pachakuti, the Inca Empire began to expand greatly towards the boundaries
into modern Ecuador and, south into Argentina and Chile. 19 He had a son, named
Tupac Yupanqui, his eldest and his eventual heir, with him, he went on to numerous
campaigns throughout South America, gaining a lot of territory. Pachakuti eventually
handed over military matters to his son, and focused mostly in turning Cuzco into
an imperial capital.20 Many of the architectural and engineering accomplishments
during the reign of the ninth Inca are still seen today, as he started to rebuild Cuzco,
he made the fortress of Sacsayhuaman, a massive monument that took years to
complete.21 Many historians agree that this time was the consolidation of the empire
as a unified state. During this time, the meaning of Tawantinsuyu came to life, the
15 Ibid.
16 Ibid.
17 Saunders, 52
18 Saunders, 53
19 Saunders, 53
20 Saunders, 54
4

empire was expanding rapidly, and it was divided into four parts, each of one reign
by an Apu, a great lord, who advised the emperor in Cuzco. 22 Around the year 1471,
and elderly Pachakuti finally handed over the Tawantinsuyu into the hands of the
tenth Inca, his son, Tupac Yupanqui, a brilliant general, known for a lot of military
victories under the reign of his father. 23 He was able to gain territory in the
highlands of modern Bolivia, the Altiplano region of Lake Titicaca, and northwest
Argentina, after his reign of twenty-two years that ended in 1493, the empire was at
its peak of expansion, in just over fifty years, Pachakuti, and his son Tupac Yupanqui
developed the Tawantinsuyu into the largest empire ever seen in the Americas. 24
Tupac Yupanqui, was succeeded by Wayna Qhapaq, the Tawantinsuyu was at its
maximum peak of expansion when the succession to the eleventh Inca occurred,
Wayna Qhapaq and his army of soldiers protect the previously conquered territory
and made little advances into the north of modern Ecuador. 25 Wayna Qhapaq died
unexpectedly after a short reign in 1527, due to unknown reasons, without naming
a heir to the throne, it was expected to be his eldest son, Ninan Cuyuchi, who was
to take on the rule of the Tawantinsuyu, however, he also fell ill and died before
reaching throne.26 For the next five years, the Tawantinsuyu would endure a civil war
between two brothers, sons of Wayna Qhapaq, the crisis of Washkar and Atawallpa.

21 Berner, Robert L. Pachacuti. Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia. January, 2015.

https://library.macewan.ca/library-search/detailed-view/ers/88367575.
22 DAltroy, 87
23 Saunders, 55
24 Saunders, 55 - 56
25 DAltroy, 74-75
26 DAltroy, 77
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After the dead of Wayna Qhapaq, a dynastic war emerged when Atawallpa
disprove of Washkar being the new ruler. Washkar was described as a deplorable
ruler, his behaviour was disgraceful and abusive towards other members of the
royalty and aristocracy.27 Atawallpa had set foot in the north of the empire, where he
proclaimed himself ruler of Quito, he had a powerful army under his command and
his ambition for power soon began to show as he started to head towards Cuzco to
fight Washkar for the throne. 28 This set of events unchained a massive civil war
between Washkar and Atawallpa that divided the empire in half, people that was on
the side of Washkar and the other people that were with Atawallpa. 29 Even though
Washkar and Atawallpa were brothers, they were from a different mother, and they
also distinguish themselves as having different ancestor, Atawallpa believed that he
was a direct descendant of Pachakuti, and Washkar believed that his ancestor was
Thupa Inka Yupanqui.30 The campaigns of Atawallpa against his brother were
successful in gaining territory and followers to consolidate his reign, his army was
powerful and ruthless as they fought Washkars army and proclaimed a victory for
him, it is said that Atawallpa then proceeded to eliminate all of Washkars
descendants and supporters in an effort to reaffirm his power. 31Washkar was to set
on foot towards the north of the boundaries of the empire, to demonstrate the
peoples of the empire his defeat and show supremacy to Atawallpa. 32
27 DAltroy, 107
28 Saunders, 59
29 DAltroy, 107
30 Ibid.
31 Saunders, 59
32 MacQuarrie, Kim. The Last Days of the Incas. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, 2007

Approximately in the year 1532, Atawallpa was crowned Inca, after long five
years of civil war, his personal messengers began to inform him of a strange breed
of foreigners that had settled in the northern part of the empire, they described
them as strange people that rode giant animals they had never seen before; they
had hair on their faces and magical sticks that called upon thunder and clouds of
smoke to their aid.33 The arrival of the Spaniards in the Tawantinsuyu did not seem
to bother Atawallpa, who was known for being ruthless and fearsome in his
conquests, instead he allowed them to penetrate further in the empire as the
amount of the army was only 168 to thousands of men that Atawallpa had under his
command.34 The first encounter between Atawallpa and the Spaniards occurred in
the northern part of the empire, in what is now northern Peru, the Spaniards were
the first foreigners to climb the Andean cordillera to be able to reach the city of
Cajamarca where Atawallpa had settled. 35 As the Spaniards made their way into the
city of Cajamarca, they stumbled across the valley where Atawallpa and his army
had settled, the sight was mostly a vast armada of tents spread out along a hillside,
but gave the Spaniards an idea to what the Inca army was capable of. 36 Reaching
finally the main square of the city, the Spaniards awaited for any response from the
Inca Lord Atawallpa, Impatient by not getting any responses, Captain Hernando De
Soto gathered a few men and set on towards the Inca, they rode through crowds of
motionless men, staring them down, astonished by seeing such strange bearded
men wearing glinting metal armours and riding in what they thought was a giant

33 MacQuarrie, 54
34 Ibid,54
35 Ibid, 54-58
36 Ibid, 58
7

llama.37 When the Spaniards finally reached Atawallpa, he showed no interest in

speaking to them or acknowledging their presence, it is told that he did show a lot
of interest in the Spaniards horses. 38 Hernando De Soto, began speaking to
Atawallpa through an interpreter named Felipillo, his words were meant address the
possibility of an alliance between both worlds in the name of god and the King of
Spain, Atawallpa seemed to disregard the comments being made by the general,
and it was not until Hernando Pizarro, the brother of captain Francisco Pizarro,
informed Atawallpa who he was and invited him to come visit his brother Francisco
that Atawallpa looked up and exchanged words with them. 39 He began to blame the
Spaniards for the deaths of northern chiefs and people of the empire, in which case
Hernando informed him that Atawallpa was misinformed and he reassured the
emperor, that the Spanish army would treat someone who treats them good with
the respect they deserve, and those who want war will be attacked until they are no
more.40 Atawallpa believed the claims being made by the foreigners and invited
them to stay at Cajamarca and promised to pay a visit to Francisco Pizarro the next
day.41
It was a Saturday, November 16 during the year 1532, shortly after the
infamous civil war that left the Incan political system in a deplorable shape, that
Francisco Pizarro and his men met Atawallpa for the second time. Atawallpa walked
into the city of Cajamarca, wearing brightly colored clothing and many royal
37 Ibid, 60.
38 Saunders, 76
39 MacQuarrie, 63-64
40 MacQuarrie,66
41 Saunders, 76
8

accessories made out of gold and silver, surrounded by thousands of people, he

settled in the town square and awaited for them to make a move, there was not a
single Spaniard in sight.42 It was Vicente de Valverde, the priest, who approached
Atawallpa, he showed and read to him an excerpt of a breviary, a book containing
the doctrine of holy law. 43 Atawallpa showed interest in the book at first, he took it
from the hands of the priest and started examining him, he quickly lost interest on
the book and as he was not able to open it he threw it away. 44 As Vicente de
Valverde saw this act, he was quick to call out Atawallpa in refusing and insulting
the word of god, he cried out to Pizarro and his troops that were well-hidden through
the city to start the rebellion, for the Inca Empire was condemned by their rejection
of Christianity.45 As Atawallpa started to prepare himself for the inevitable battle, the
Spaniards came out of their hiding spots, fully armoured and loading their cannons.
The cannons started to fire towards the crowd of Inca soldiers rushing towards the
Spaniards, stunning the crowd with the amount of bodies falling into the ground and
the amount of blood being spurted out by their people. 46 It was estimated that
approximately seven thousand Andeans were killed in this battle, at the loss of not
one single Spaniard.47 Atawallpa was captured and imprisoned by Francisco Pizarro
himself, as the rest of the town was being massacred, Pizarro was quick to judge

42 Ibid, 76
43 MacQuarrie, 80
44 Ibid.,79-81
45 Saunders, 76
46 MacQuarrie, 80-81
47 DAltroy,313
9

that their safety depended on keeping Atawallpa alive, and even saved Atawallpa
from one of his own men, injuring himself in the process. 48
The aftermath of the invasion left the empire in a very vulnerable state. With
the ruler incarcerated, Francisco Pizarro knew that it was only a matter of time until
word of what had happened in Cajamarca would spread around the empire and
reinforcements would come to aid Atawallpa escape. 49 However in a dramatic turn
of events, Atawallpa offered his captors to fill his prison once with gold, and twice
with silver, and all within two months. 50 As expected the Spaniards accepted this
offer, and the ransom collection started to take place. It took longer than thought by
Atawallpa, the collection lasted six months and by the end the wealth was shared
between the Spaniards.51 Once they got their bounty, the Spaniards were fearful
that releasing Atahualpa was going to cost them all that they had got, and rumours
of an army of Andean soldiers advancing towards them made them break the
ransom, and execute Atawallpa.52
The death of the Inca brought power to Francisco Pizarro, who took
advantage of the earlier civil war split that the empire had gone through by forming
alliance with Washkar supporters that did not support the beliefs of the late Inca
Atawallpa.53 The Spaniards named a new leader, one of Washkars younger brothers,
through whom to rule, his name was Thupa Wallpa and they marched towards
48 DAltroy,313
49 DAltroy, 315-316
50 Saunders, 78-79
51 Saunders, 80
52 Saunders, 81
53 DAltroy, 316
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Cuzco to seize the whole kingdom. 54 Thupa Wallpa had a short life and did not serve
the purpose that the Spaniards thought he was going to do, they were left again
without a ruler, until they found Manco Inka, one of the few survivors of the royal
family of Washkar.55 Pizarro tried to install Manco Inca as the new emperor, however
he knew he would have to capture the city of Cuzco first, to the Spaniards disbelief,
the city of Cuzco was being burnt to the ground by local generals, who thought it
was better to make it disappear rather than handing it over to foreigners, he took
this advantage and rushed his troops into the burning city of Cuzco in an effort to
save it and conquer it. 56 Once the Spaniards took power of Cuzco, they proclaimed
Manco Inca as new ruler, and proceed to sack the imperial city, taking all the gold
and silver that they could find, melting it and accumulating wealth. 57 During the
reign of the puppet king, Manco Inca, the Spaniards committed atrocities in their
thirst for wealth, they went around torturing and burning alive people that knew any
whereabouts of hidden treasures, it was not until several years of being controlled
by the Spaniards, that Manco Inca realized his mistake and fled the capital to the
Andean mountains, where he joined an army of men to overthrow the Spaniards. 58
Manco Inca and his army were successful, when in May of 1536 they attacked Cuzco
and in only a few days they had the city in almost total control. 59 Miraculously the
Spaniards once again were able to overthrow the Inca Empire from Cuzco, making
Manco Inca flee towards the jungle and build a new state called Vilcabamba, he was
54 Ibid.
55 MacQuarrie,140
56 MacQuarrie, 143
57 Saunders, 84-85
58 Saunders, 86-87
59 Saunders, 87
11

left to live peacefully for the next six years as the Spanish conquistadors were
fighting amongst themselves, Vilcabamba was eventually found and Manco Inca
murdered by the Spaniards.60 The years after the death of Manco Inca were quiet
ones, with occasional acts of rebellion towards the Spaniards that were mostly
subdued, they were in their last days, being governed mostly by the Spanish crown,
after the death of Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro. 61
Tupac Amaru, was the last Inca ruler, he was crowned in the city of
Vilcabamba, when the Spaniards heard the rumors of a new Inca being crowned
they decided to set pace towards Vilcabamba in an effort to conquer it once and for
all.62 When the Spaniards arrived in the city, they found out that the Inca had left, it
was rumored that he was fleeing through the jungle in an effort to save his pregnant
wife and keep his legacy.63
On September 24, 1572, thirty six years after the biggest rebellion against
the Spaniards caused by Manco Inca, Tupac Amaru, the last Inca was no more. 64
Putting an end to the once powerful empire that shaped the Andean region of South
America, the once great Inca civilization was put to an end. Throughout the years,
Andean people gained the knowledge that the Incas left them. Even to this modern
day,

the

violence

brought

by

the

Spaniards,

the

disease

and

cultural

transformations That the Incas were put through, could not made the Andean

60 Saunders, 89
61 Saunders, 88-90
62 Ibid.
63 MacQuarrie, 370
64 MacQuarrie, 378
12

people forget the roots that they have. 65 The relationship that the Incas had with
nature is one that will be preserved in Andean history for years and years to come,
the bravery and ruthlessness of the leaders, the architectural designs that prevail
throughout history are just part of the story that was shaped by the once powerful
Inca Empire.

Bibliography
Berner, Robert L. Pachacuti. Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia. January,
2015. https://library.macewan.ca/library-search/detailed-view/ers/88367575.
Covey, R. Alan. How the Incas Built their Heartland: State Formation and the
Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru. History,
Languages, and Cultures of the Spanish and Portuguese Worlds. Michigan:
The University of Michigan Press, 2006.
DAltroy, Terence. The Incas. The Peoples of America. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2002
MacQuarrie, Kim. The Last Days of the Incas. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, 2007
Saunders, Nicholas J. The Incas. Sutton Pocket Histories. United Kingdom: Sutton
Publishing Limited, 2000.

65 DAltroy, 322
13