ECE 132

Semiconductors are the class of materials that exhibit conductivity between the high
values for metals and the very low values for insulators. The properties of crystalline
materials are a function of the nature of the bonding between the atoms that constitute the
lattice.

Bonding Forces in Solids

1. IONIC BONDING
Ionic bonding between two atoms occurs when metallic elements (example: Na )
donate an electron to the more electronegative element (example Cl ) thus creating an
Na + and Cl − ion pair. The electrostatic attractive force creates the ionic bond between
the elements. The electrons are in full orbits and tightly bound to both the
Na and the Cl atoms and hence there are no atoms available for current flow.
NaCl is thus a good insulator.

2. METALLIC BONDING
In the case of metals, the outer shell is only partially filled. These electrons are
very loosely bound to the atoms and hence are free to move through the metal when
→
subjected to an E field.
Thus metals are excellent conductors

3.COVALENT BONDING
Elemental semiconductors such as Si and Ge exhibit this type of bonding.
Compound semiconductors such as GaAs have an ionic component to a dominantly
covalent bond because of the differing electronegativity of the two elements.

S/C % ionic
Si 0
Ge 0 (Physical Properties of Semiconductors)
SiC 18 Wolfe, Holonyak, & Stillman
GaAs 32
InP 44

The important semiconductors today are bonded into a diamond lattice, which minimizes
the energy of the lattice. The bonding is tetrahedral in nature. This can be understood by
considering say Si. The four outer electrons in Si exist in sp3 hybrid orbitals. These
bonds overlap and the electrons are shared between two atoms fulfilling the required
condition of two electrons per orbital.

1
 Ionic Bonding

Na + Cl = Na Cl

Metallic Bonding

+
_ _
Na Na Na ⇒
_ _

+ +

Covalent Bonding

sp3 Si Si

Si Si Si

Si Si Si

sp3 sp3
2
 Another Pictorial Representation

The energy levels of a hydrogen atom is obtained as

mr e4 z 2 13.6eV
En = − =−
2h n
2 2
n2
+Z
z is the atomic number

This is obtained by solving the Schrödinger

equation for a coulombic potential.

Energy levels, En

−Ze 2
V (r ) =
r

Single atom

Solid Next band is empty

(conduction band)

Last-filled band
(valence band)

Full of
electrons

3
 Note that the energy gaps between the quantized energy levels in a single atom are the
origin of the band gap for solids. Typical numbers for band gap for various solids:

Semiconductor Eg
Si 1 ⋅1 eV
GaAs 1 ⋅ 4 eV
Ge 0 ⋅ 7 eV
SiO2 9 ⋅ 0 eV
GaN 3 ⋅ 4 eV
This is the MINIMUM energy
required to allow an electron to leave the (mostly) full valence band and occupy a state in
the conduction band. An analogy is say a football stadium.

Step height : Band gap

SEATS
Field

The step height is analogous to the band gap in that an energy difference less than the
step height will not get you to the next step. The energy required to move an electron
from the valence band (VB) to the conduction band (CB) is related to the bond strength
and can be provided by one of several means; thermal, light (photons), high energy
particles, etc. Thermal energy exists in each solid at temperatures T>OK. A measure of
thermal energy is k BT where k B is the Boltzmann’s constant and k BT : 25 ⋅ 9 meV at
room temperature (300K by convention). 1 eV = Energy required to move one electron
up a potential energy of 1V = 1⋅ 6 x 10−19 coulombs 1V = 1⋅ 6 x 10−19 Joules.

Ec
Ec
Ec
Ec
1⋅ 1 eV 1⋅ 4 eV 3 ⋅ 4 eV 9 ⋅ 0 eV
Ev
Si Ev
GaAs Ev
GaN Ev
SiO2

4
At room temperature pure Si has an intrinsic carrier concentration of 1⋅ 5 x 1010 cm −3 or
1 electron/1012 Si atoms.
To increase the conductivity of the semiconductors add impurities to make the s/c
extrinsic.

Extrinsic Semiconductors

Creation of free electrons or holes by the addition of impurities is called doping.

N-Type Case (Electrons are majority carriers)

If a group V atom is introduced into the crystal so that it replaces a Si atom.
(i.e. SUBSTITUTIONAL IMPURITY) then the Si lattice looks like such

Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si P Si

Si Si Si

The P atom incorporates into the lattice through tetrahedral covalent bonding but has an
excess electron that is unpaired and weakly bonded. P in a Si lattice now looks
hydrogenic.
The electron at finite temperatures is stripped from the P atom or DONATED to the
crystal and is free. Hence the name DONOR atom to group V elements like P in
semiconductors like Si. When the electron is no longer bound to the P atom the P atom
has a net positive charge.

The binding energy of the electron can be calculated as

q 4 z 2 m∗
∆Edn =( Ec − Ed ) = 2
2 n ( 4π ∈ h )
2

the energy required to make the electron free

i.e. to place it in the conduction band.
2
13.6  z   m∗e 
∆ E d = 2   g  eV
n  ∈r   m 

5
 13.6
Recall: En = 2
for a hydrogen atom
n

Ec
Ed

∆Ea
Ea

Ev

Intrinsic Semiconductor

As stated previously an intrinsic semiconductor has no free carriers at 0K and hence is

then an insulator. At any finite temperature, however, the covalent bonds break
producing electron- hole pairs.

∴ At steady state

n ≡ p ≡ n i ← Intrinsic carrier concentration

Since the electrons can be recaptured by the orbital lacking an electron, this is referred to
as to RECOMBINE WITH A HOLE.

At steady state At all temperatures

At all temperatures
−3
ri ≡ gi EHPcm s −1
Z ^

Recombination rate Generation rate

As T ↑: gi ↑⇒ ri ↑

6
 As Eg ↑ ni ↓

(1.1eV ) Si 1.45 x 1010 cm −3

Eg (1.4eV ) G aAs 1.79 x 10 6 cm −3

Study the nature of f (E )

−5 eV
At T = 0 K k B = 8g62 x 10 k

−23 J
1 for E < EF g x 10
= 138 k

f ( E )(T = 0) =
0 for E > EF
k BT @ T = 300K = 26meV

It is impossible for electrons to occupy energy above EF at T = 0 K

At finite T
T =0 1
N d + = Nd
1  E − EF 
T1 > 0 1+ e d
2  kT 
1
Na − = Na
E − EF
1 + 2e a
T2 > T1 kT

EF

f ( E ) is the probability of occupancy of an AVAILABLE STATE. ∴ if no state exists

and even is f ( E ) = 1 there will be no electron at that energy.
In a semiconductor

7
 Ec Ec

Ei = EF
for an intrinsic
semiconductor
Ev Ev

f (E )
1 1 0
2

At finite T there is a creation of a hole population (or a lack of an electron population) in

the valence band. ∴ f ( E ) < 1
NOTE:
§ f ( E ) has a finite value in the forbidden gap but no electron exists because there
are no states.
§ f ( E ) is symmetrical about EF .
§ f ( E ) is the probability of occupancy of a state by an electron
1 − f ( E ) is the probability of lack of occupancy of a state or the
probability of occupancy by a hole.

Rewriting

1
f n ( E) = f ( E ) = ( E − E F ) / kT
1+ e

1 e( E − EF )/ kT
f p ( E ) = 1 − f ( E ) = 1− =
1 + e( E− EF ) / kT 1 + e ( E− EF )/ kT

1
or f p ( E) = ( EF −E )/ kT
1+e

NOTE THE SYMMETRY OF ELECTRON AND HOLE PROBABILTY ABOUT EF .

8
 In Intrinsic Si
no = po Since the concentration is equal, the Fermi level should lie close to the center of
the gap

Ec

Ec Ec
EF

EF

EF
Ev Ev Ev
1 0 1 1 0 1 0
2 2
1
2

Intrinsic n − type p − type

∴ EF is closer to Ec in n-type material and closer to

Equilibrium Electron and Hole Densities (for this class the

derivation is not required)
To calculate the number of electrons in the CB we must know
1) How many states are available
2) What is the probability of occupancy

We thus introduce
N (E )dE @ DENSITY OF STATES ( cm −3 ) available for occupancy in the energy
range dE
∴ Total number of electrons in the CB can be written as
Top of CB
n = ∫ f (E )g N ( E )dE (electrons cm −3 )
Bottom of CB

9
 max We know that
Ec 1
f (E ) = ( E − EF ) / RT
1+ e
(Fermi-Diriac Statistics)
If E − EF > 4kT
1 −( E − E F ) / kT
( E − EF ) =e
1+ e

min Since
Ec
 e5 = 148 
 E − EF  4  
e  = e = 55  e6 = 406
 kT   etc. 
 

At room temperature kT = 0.026eV

We saw that if EC − EF = 4kT then the probability of occupancy of states at EC

min

f ( EC ) = e −( EC − EF ) / kT = e −4 = 0.0183
For higher energies the f ( E ) drops sharply
Example: e −( E − EF ) / kT = e−10 = 0.000045 = 45 x 10−6

∴ the contribution to the integral at higher E is reduced to the point that

Top of CB
∞
n = ∫ N ( E) f (E )d (E ) = ∫ N ( E ) f (E )d (E )
B of cB B of cB

Using quantum mechanics and including

Pauli’s Principle
3
1  2m∗e  2
( E − Ec )
1
N (E ) = 2  2  2
2π  h 

f (E ) N ( E)
h h = 6 ⋅ 63 x 10 −34 J − s
h=
2π = 4.14 x 10 −15 eV-s

10
E − Ec
 Here m ∗e is the density of state effective mass

3
∞
1  2m ∗ e  2
∫ g g( E − Ec ) 2 ge ( F ) dE
1 − E −E / kT
n= 2  2 
Ec
2π  h 

Multiplying and dividing by

( kT )
3
= 2
we get

−( E −E F ) / kT ( E − Ec )
3 1
1  2m∗e  2 2
dE
n= g
2  2 
2π  h 
g ∫ e g
kT
g
kT

E − Ec
Define @u
kT
3  E − Ec  1
1  2 m∗e kT  2 ( EF − Ec ) / kT − kT   E − Ec  2  E − Ec 
∴n = ge ∫e g  d g kT 
2π 2  h2   kT   
∞ 3
1  2 m∗e kT  2 ( EF − Ec ) / kT −u 12 du
∴n =
2π 2  h2 
ge ∫0 e gu
∞
π
∫e
1
−u
g u 2
du = (From definite integral tables)
0
2

3
 2π me ∗kT  2 ( EF − Ec ) / kT
n = 2g  ge or n = Nc e −( Ec − EF ) / kT
 h
2


3
 2π me ∗kT  2
N c @ 2  = Effective density of states in the CB
 h2 

min
i.e. Instead of considering the occupancy by electrons of all the states from Ec to
max
Ec , Nc gives us the number of electrons in the CB by considering all the states
in the band to be effectively at the band edge populated with a probability
function e ( c F ) .
− E − E / kT

Likewise, proceeding in a similar manner for the holes in the VB we obtain

11
 −( EF − EV ) / RT
p = Nv e
3
 2π m∗ p kT  2
where Nv = 2  2 
 h 
Nv = Effective density of states in the VB

It is clear now that in n type material EF is close to Ec and as ( Ec − EF ) ↓ n ↑ .

Similarly as ( EF − Ev ) ↓ P ↑ OR Ec
Moves towards Ec for n − type
EF
Moves towards Ev for p − type
Ev

As EF ↑ n ↑ and p ↓
and EF ↓ n ↓ and p ↑

Examine the product n g p

− ( Ec − EF ) / kT −( E F − E v ) / kT
n⋅ p⋅ = Nc N v e g e
= N c N v ⋅e(
− E c + EF − EF + Ev ) / kT

np = N cN ve (
− E c − Ev ) / kT

−( E c − Ev ) / kT
or np = Nc N ve
Ec − Ev = E g
Eg
−
np = Nc Nv e kT

The expressions for n and p are applicable for all types of semiconductors: n , p or i

In an intrinsic material the Fermi Level is identified as EFi

n(intrinsic) = ni = Nce( EFi −Ec ) / kT
and p (intrinsic) = pi = Nve −( EFi −Ev ) / kT

∴ ni pi = ni = Nc Nv e-( Ec - Ev ) / kT
2

− E g / kT
ni = Nc N v e
np = ni N c N v e −( Ec − Ev ) / kT
2
Note that

12
 Ec

Now that we can relate EF to the

nature of the CB and VB through
∗ ∗
EF mn and mp we can recalculate, EFi ,
more accurately. Any
asymmetry in n & p distribution
has to be introduced through
differences in N c & N v .
Ev

1 0
2

−( E c − E Fi ) / kT − Eg
ni = N c e = Nc Nv e 2 kT

− ( Ec − EF i ) / kT N v −Eg 2kT
⇒ e = e
Nc

− Ec + EFi Eg Nv
∴ exp • exp =
kT 2kT Nc
 Eg  Nv
⇒ exp  − Ec + EFi +  / kT =
 2  Nc

Taking ln of both sides

Eg Nv
− Ec + EFi + = kT ln
2 Nc
Since Eg = E c − E v
Ec Ev Nv
EFi = Ec − − + kT ln
2 2 Nc
E + Ev 1 N
∴ EFi = c + kT ln v
2 2 Nc

The second turn is the derivation

of EFi from the middle of the gap.

13
So what is the dependence of n vs T ?

Intrinsic
1017 n ≅ Nd + < Nd

1015
Extrinsic Freeze-out
region
1013

High 1000/T Low temp

temp

Space Charge Neutrality

We can dope a semiconductor with both donors and acceptors

Donate electrons ↵ ] Accept electrons
i.e. remove electrons

neffective ≅ Nd − N A for n-type material

peffective ≅ N a − Nd for p-type

These materials are called compensated semiconductors.

− ( Ec − EF ) / kT
n = Nc e
− ( EF − Ev ) / kT
and p = Nv e
are still valid relations.

In a bulk semiconductor there must be charge neutrality everywhere because any excess
charge will immediately set up an electric field.

14
 +Q
+ +
E
+
+ +
+
+ F = −qE

→
Q
E= F = −q E
e

The electrons will flow towards the positive charge until the value Q is reduced to 0.
Then E → 0. ⇒ The attractive force, F → 0.

−
+
po + N D = n o + N Bulk semiconductor at equilibrium
A
 + −

no =  N D − N A  + p o
 
or neglecting po no ; N D+ − N A−

Ed
EF
Ei
Ea

Conductivity and Mobility

15
At any temperature the individual electrons show randomized motion. Scattering with
the lattice is the dominant randomizing process. If we apply a field, Ex then
F /per electron = −qEx

∴ Net change of momentum of the electron ensemble=

dp
= − nqEx
dt
where n = # of electrons/cm 3

We want to use this equation to determine the response of an electron to an applied

electric field.
i.e. The relationship between its velocity and the applied field.

Assume:
1) The probability of collision is constant
2) N o = # of electons in the group at t = 0
3) N (t ) = # of electrons which have not undergone collisions by time t

Let the scattering rate or number of collisions/sec be K .

∴ The rate of decrease of N ( t ) , the scattered population is given by

dN (t )
= −KN (t) (assumption #1)
dt
dN (t )
∴ = − Kdt ⇒ ln N (t ) = − Kt + c
N ( t)

Since N ( t = 0) = N o , c = ln No
∴ N (t ) = Noe − Kt

−
t

16
 −
Let t be the mean time between collisions

− ∫o ∞ t N( t) dt N o ∫o∞ te − Kt dt − −t
t@ ∞ = ∞ − Kt so t = 1 K and N (t ) = No e t

∫ o N (t )dt N o ∫o e dt

dt
The probability that an electron will experience a collision in an interval dt is −
. This
t
is equivalently the fraction of electrons that undergo a collision. Let p x be the
momentum in the x − direction.

dt
∴ dp x = − px −
t
↑ because momemtum decreases

dpx − px
or = − rate of decrease of p x due to collisions
dt t
dpx
= − qnEx rate of increase of px due to Ex
dt

At steady state rate of momentum increase due to Ex = rate of momentum decrease due to
collision.

−
Px
∴ −
= −qnEx ⇒ Px = −n q t Ex
t
Px −
∴< Px >@ = −q t Ex , the average momentum/electron
n
−
< Px > − q t Ex
∴ < Vx >= =
m∗n m∗n

Introduce the concept of mobility

−
q tn
< Vx >n = −µ n Ex ⇒ µ = ∗ cm2V −1s −1
mn
−
qt p
Vx p
= µ p Ex ⇒ µ = ∗
mp

17
< Vx > n is the net drift of the electron distribution under the influence of Ex .

The current density resulting from the drift velocity is

J nx = −qn < Vx > n

J px = +qp < Vx > p

 − q −t  −
+ q 2
n t
∴ J nx = − qn  ∗  E = Ex .
m n  m∗n
 
Rewriting as conventional Ohm’s Law

−
nq 2 t
J nx = σ n Ex σn @ ∗ 3
2
−3
2
mn T T
Note σ n = qnµ n : σ p = qpµ p
Lattice
scattering
If both electrons and holes are present
J x = Jpx + Jnx = q ( nµ n + pµ p ) Ex Impurity
scattering

Since the probabilities of scattering add K = K1 + K2

1 1 1 1 1
Since Ki = −
α = + Matthiesen’s Rule
µi µ µ1 µ2
ti

Measurement of Semiconductor Parameters

1) Effective mass m ∗ can be determined by electron resonance. Under a magnetic field
the electron motion is circular. 2
mv
= qvB
RF energy B v r
Centripetal force Z ↑ magnetic flux density

18
 qBr qB
∴v = ∗
or ωc = ∗
= Cyclotron resonance
m m frequency

If RF energy is incident on the sample it will be transmitted for all frequencies except
ω c when resonance absorption of energy occurs. (Reduced transmission)

By measuring ω c we can calculate m ∗ n or m ∗ p .

2) Mobility (Hall Effect) and Carrier Concentration

Bz
Vc
z

y
VA VB
x + Ey L
w
t
VD Ex

Ix

Consider a p-type bar, which is subject to an electric field Ex and a magnetic field Bz .
The force on a single hole

F = q  E + V x B 
→ → →

 
∴ Fy = q ( E y − vx Bz )

Ey is the electric field that is set up by the holes that were deflected under the influence
of the force v x Bz . Since no current can flow in the y-direction.

Fy = 0 ⇒ Ey = v x Bz
The vx can be obtained from J x as
Jx
vx = where po = hole concentration
qpo

19
 Jx
∴ Ey = g Bz = RH J x Bz
qpo

1
Where RH = = Hall Coefficient
qpo
Ix 1 J B
Jx = ∴ po = = x z
wt qRH qE y
VA − V B VAB I x Bz
Ey = = po =
w w qtVAB

1
σ Rwt VCD / Ix
µ= = where = =
qpo qpo L L / wt

Excess Carriers in Semiconductors :

Recombination
hv > Eg
emission of light
(direct semiconductor)

generation

The beam is absorbed absorption coefficient

dI ( x )
− = α I (x)
dx
⇒ I ( x ) = I o e −α x

hc 1⋅ 24( eV )
hv = E = =
α (cm −1) λ
14444244443 λ (µ m)
Eg is the energy of the photon in eV .

20
 Carrier Lifetime & Photoconductivity

Let us calculate the rate of change in the electron population when I switch the light off.
We first assume that the rate of recombination, R , is proportional to the product of the
electron and hole population. For example: R = α r g p ( t )g n ( t ) . In the absence of light the
thermal generation rate should be equal to the thermal recombination rate.
or Gth = Rth = α r ni ⋅ pi⋅ = α r ni
2

dn ( t )
Now = G − R = Gth − R (In the absence of light)
dt

dn(t )
= α r ni − α r n(t ) p(t )
2

dt

Thermal generation rate

Recognizing that on shining light equal numbers of e and hole pairs are created
( δ n ( t ) = δ p (t ) ) , and since α r ni2 = α r n o⋅ p o ,
d
δ n ( t ) = α ni − α r [ no + δ n(t ) ][ po + δ p( t ) ]
2

dt

= −α r [ (n o + p o)δ n(t ) + δ n2 (t )]

∴ Low level injection

⇒ no = po and δ n 2 ( t ) < δ n ( t )g po
P-type material
d
⇒ δ n ( t ) = −α r poδ n(t )
dt
− tτ
δ n (t ) = ∆n e −α r po = ∆n e
t
⇒ n

( α r po ) −1 = τ n = Recombination time
Also the minority carrier lifetime

THIS ANALYSIS IS VALID ONLY FOR DIRECT RECOMBINATION

21
Not valid for recombination via traps

In general traps reduce the

Eg
minority carrier lifetime even
further

Ev

Quasi-Fermi level [ IMREF]

g ( t ) = α r n o po ; in steady state since generation rate = recombination rate

We know with light g (T ) + goP = α r np = α r ( no + δ n )( po + δ p )

In steady state with no trapping δ n = δ p
g (T ) + goP = α r no po + αr  ( no + po )(δ n ) + δ n 2 

gop = α r [ po ] δ n [Low level injection in a p − type material

δn ⇒ δ n < po and no < po ]
=
τn
⇒ δ n = g opτ n In general δ n = τ n gop
δ p = τ p gop
If τ n ≠ τ p

no + δ n = n = ni e(
E Fn − Ei )

( Ei − EFp ) RT
po + δ p = p = ni e

EFn = Electron IMREF

EFp = Hole IMREF

Diffusion of Carriers

n ( x)

φ n (diffusion)

22
 dn( x )
φn ( x ) = − Dn
dx
↑
The negative sign represents diffusion from higher to lower concentration

dp( x)
φ p ( x) = − D p
dx

 dn 
The diffusion current J n = (− q) g  −Dn 
 dx 
dn
J n = qDn
dx
dp
J p = −qDp
dx

In the presence of an electric field

J n ( x ) = J ndrift + J n diffusion
dn( x)
J n ( x ) = qµ n n( x ) E ( x ) + qDn
dx
dp( x)
J p ( x) = q µ p p ( x) E ( x) − qDp
dx

J ( x ) = J n ( x) + J p ( x ) or the total current is the sum

of all electron and hole currents

Continuity Equation

∆x

Jp ( x ) A Jp ( x + ∆x)

x x + ∆x

A= Area in cm 2 and ∆x is the length of the box in

centimeters.
23
Conservation of mass

∂p
= Increase of hole _ Decrease of hole
∂t
concentration concentration

↑ ↑
Rate of Through input Through output
hole current current & net recombination
build-up

Input current = J p ( x ) ⇒ (charge) x (input # of carriers/unit area/second)

Input # carriers/second
Input hole flux = = φp (x)
unit volume
J ( x)
⇒ p = φ p ( x)
q∆x

Jp
φ p ( x + ∆x) = ( x + ∆x )
q∆x

∂p 1 J p ( x) − J p ( x + ∆x ) δ p
= −
∂t q ∆x τp

∂p( x, t ) ∂δ p 1 ∂J p δ p
∴ = =− −
∂t ∂t q ∂x τ p

∂δ n 1 Jn δ n
=+ −
∂t q ∂x τ n

Continuity equation for electrons and holes.

For purely diffusive currents.

24
 ∂δ n d 2δ n δ n
= Dn −
∂t ∂x τn
2

∂δ p ∂ 2δ p δ p
= Dp −
∂t ∂x 2 τp

Diffusion Length

∂
Consider steady state or =0
∂t
∂2 δ n δn δn
⇒ = ≡ 2
∂x 2
Dnτ n Ln

∂ 2δ p δp δp
and = ≡ 2
∂x 2
D pτ p Lp

∆p Decay is given by the solution to the

above diffusion equation
Po

−x
∴δ p( x) = c1e x / Lp + c2e Lp

As x → ∞ we know δ p → 0 or c1 = 0
−x
∴δ p ( x ) = c2e Lp

1
Lp = the distance where the distribution drops to x initial value
e
AND

Lp = average distance a hole travels before recombining.

The hole diffusion current can be calculated at any x as

qD p dp ( x ) d
J p ( x) = − = −qD p (δ p )
dx dx

25
 qDp
= δ p( x)
Lp

Currents in relation to EFn & EFp

dn ( x )
J n ( x) = qµ n n( x ) E ( x ) + qDn
dx

dn( x) d   E − EFi   n( x)  dEFn dEFi 

Since =  ni e  Fn  = −
dx dx   RT   RT  dx dx 

AND since Dn = µ n RT , we get

 dE dE 
J n ( x) = qµ n n( x ) E ( x ) + µn n( x )  Fn − Fi 
 dx dx 

dEi
But = qE ( x )
dE x

dEFn
∴ J n (x ) = µn n (x ) total electron current
dx

E (x )
No field Ei
Ec
Ec

Ev
Ev

dV ( x)
E (x ) = −
dx

 E (x )  d  EFi  1 dEi
But V ( x ) =   ⇒ E (x ) −   =
 −q  dx  −q  q dx

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 What is the relationship between D & µ ?

At equilibrium no current flows in the semiconductor. So, assuming a p − type

semiconductor

dp ( x )
J p ( x) = q µ p p E( x )− qDp =0
dx

Dp 1 dp( x)
E (x ) =
µ p p ( x ) dx

p ( x ) = nie( Ei − EF ) / RT 0

Dp 1  dEi dE 
⇒ E (x ) =  − F
µ p RT  dx dx 

qE

Einstein’s relation

D kT
⇒ =
µ q

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