I2.

HEAT TRANSFER
Practically all the unit operations of chemical engineering involve heat effects. Thus, the
principles governing the transfer of heat are important to chemical engineers in the design and
analysis of chemical processes.

I2.1. MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER

Heat is energy that is transferred from one body to another when there is a temperature
difference between them, as when a hot body is brought into physical contact with a cold
body. In accordance with the second law of thermodynamics, the transfer of heat is from the
hot body to the cold body. As required by the first law of thermodynamics, the heat given up
by the hot body equals the heat gained by the cold body. The transfer of heat stops when the
two bodies reach the same temperature. Even when the bodies are not in physical contact,
heat transfer is still possible through the exchange of thermal radiation. The three
fundamental heat transfer mechanisms are (1) conduction, (2) convection, and (3) radiation.
Heat transfer by conduction takes place when a temperature gradient exists within a solid or
quiescent fluid medium. The internal energy is transferred from the more energetic particles
of the medium to adjacent, less energetic particles without appreciable displacement of the
particles. In solids, heat conduction occurs by two mechanisms: (1) transmission of
vibrational energy in the lattice structure and (2) transport by free electrons.
Heat transfer by convection takes place between a solid surface and an adjacent moving fluid
that are at different temperatures. The fluid motion brings hot and cold fluid parcels into
contact causing energy transport at a greater number of sites than in the absence of fluid
motion.
Heat transfer by radiation occurs when a cold body absorbs the radiant energy emitted by a
hot body that is not in physical contact with it. Energy transfer by radiation does not require
the presence of an intervening material medium and is fastest at the speed of light in a
vacuum.

I2.2. STEADY-STATE CONDUCTIVE HEAT TRANSFER

I2.2.1. Fouriers Law of Heat Conduction (One-Dimensional)
Under steady-state condition, the conductive heat flux (the rate of heat transfer per unit time
per unit surface area) q/A in the positive x direction and across an isothermal surface of area A
in a homogeneous conducting medium is proportional to the temperature gradient ( dT dx )
at that surface:

I2 - 1

q
dT
k
A
dx

(I.2 1)

In the absence of convection and radiation, Fouriers law is also valid for liquids and gases.

I2.2.2. Thermal Conductivity

The proportionality constant k in the Fourier equation is a physical property called thermal
conductivity that indicates how well a medium conducts thermal energy.
In general, k varies with temperature. However, for engineering applications k may be
considered constant when the temperature drop in the conducting medium is not more than
200oC (Hagen, 1999). For larger temperature ranges, k may be evaluated either by using the
average of the individual values of k for the two surface temperatures, or by calculating the
arithmetic average of the surface temperatures and using the value of k at the average
temperature and treating it as a constant in the Fourier equation.
The temperature dependence of k may be taken into account using the linear relationship
(McCabe, 2001):

k a bT

(I.2 2)

where a and b are empirical constants and T is the temperature of the conducting medium.

I2.2.3. Conduction Through a Solid

During steady-state heat conduction, the temperature distribution within the conducting
medium does not change with time, there is neither accumulation nor depletion of heat within
the material, and the rate of heat transfer is constant.
A. Conduction Through a Plane Wall
Consider the steady-state conduction of heat from point 1 to point 2 within a large plane wall
of constant cross sectional area A. After separation of variables in the Fourier equation and
integration,

q kA

(T T ) T
T
kA 2 1
x
( x2 x1 )
R

where x ( x2 x1 ) , thickness of plane wall

R x (kA) , conductive thermal resistance of wall
T (T1 T2 ) , temperature drop across wall
I2 - 2

(I.2 3)

Although mathematically improper, it is common practice to use the expression T instead of

(T ) to represent the thermal driving force.
B. Conduction Through a Hollow Cylinder
Consider the radial conduction of heat in a long hollow cylinder from its inside surface at
temperature Tw,i to its outside surface at temperature Tw ,o . The area across which heat flows
is not constant but is proportional to the radius ( A 2rL ). Thus, for a long hollow cylinder
with inside radius ri, outside radius ro and length L (after separation of variables in the Fourier
equation and integration):

k (2L)(Ti To )
(T To ) T
kAL i

ln(ro / ri )
(ro ri )
R

(I.2 4)

where:

(ro ri )
kAL

(I.2 5)

AL (2rL ) L

rL

( ro ri )
ln( ro / ri )

(logarithmic mean surface area)

(I.2 6)

(logarithmic mean radius)

(I.2 7)

C. Conduction Through a Hollow Sphere

Consider the outward flow of heat through a hollow sphere with inside surface temperature Ti,
inside radius ri, outside temperature To, and outside radius ro. The surface area perpendicular
to the heat flow path is proportional to the square of the radius ( A 4r 2 ). The heat transfer
rate through a hollow sphere is (after separation of variables in the Fourier equation and
integration):

q k( 4 ri ro )

( Ti To )
( T To ) T
k AG i

( r0 ri )
( ro ri )
R

(I.2 8)

where:
R

(ro ri )

k AG
A G 4 ri ro

(I.2 9)
Ai Ao

(geometric mean surface area)

(I.2 10)

I2.2.4. Conduction Through a Multilayer Wall

A. Conductive Resistances in Series
Consider the steady-state transfer of heat through a wall consisting of a series of layers of
different conducting media A, B, and C that are in excellent thermal contact. This is
I2 - 3

analogous to current flow through several resistances in series where thermal resistance
corresponds to electrical resistance; temperature drop to voltage drop; and heat transfer rate to
electric current.
1. Total Temperature Drop:
The total temperature drop across the multilayer wall is equal to the sum of the temperature
drops across each layer,
T TA TB TC

(I.2 11)

2. Heat Flow Rate:

The rate of heat flow in each layer is the same,
q A qB qC q

(I.2 12)

3. Total Wall Resistance:

The total resistance of the multilayer wall is equal to the sum of the individual resistances,
R T / q R A RB RC

(I.2 13)

where: (a) for a multilayer plane wall:

RA TA q A x A (k A A)
RB TB qB xB (k B A)
RC TC qC xC (k C A)

(I.2 14)
(I.2 15)
(I.2 16)

(b) for a multilayer cylindrical wall:

R A T A q A (ro , A ri , A ) /(k A A L , A )

(I.2 17)

RB TB q B (ro , B ri , B ) /(k B A L , B )

(I.2 18)

RC TC qC (ro ,C ri ,C ) /(k C A L ,C )

(I.2 19)

where:
A L , A (2rL , A ) L ,

rL, A

(ro, A ri , A )
ln(ro, A / ri , A )

A L , B (2rL , B ) L ,

, rL, B

(ro, B ri , B )
ln(ro, B / ri , B )

ro, A ri , B , ro, B ri ,C

A L ,C (2rL ,C ) L

, rL,C

(ro,C ri ,C )
ln(ro,C / ri ,C )

(I.2 20)
(I.2 21)
(I.2 22)

I2 - 4

These results can be generalized to include N layers in the multilayer wall.

B. Conductive Resistances in Parallel
Consider the steady state heat conduction through a wall consisting of plane slabs of different
materials A, B, and C arranged side by side in parallel. This situation is analogous to current
flow through several resistances in parallel.
1. Total Heat Flow Rate:
The total heat flow rate is equal to the sum of the heat flow rates through each slab,
q q A qB qC

(I.2 23)

2. Overall Temperature Drop:

The temperature drop is assumed equal across each material,
TA TB TC T

(I.2 24)

3. Overall Resistance:
The reciprocal of the overall wall resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the
resistance of each layer,
1 / R q / T 1 / R A 1 / RB 1 / RC

(I.2 25)

This result can be generalized to include N number of materials in the composite wall.

I2.2.5. Thermal Contact Resistance

If two materials are fitted perfectly together (with no intervening air spaces) to form a
composite wall, there will be no thermal resistance at the interface and the adjacent surfaces
will be at the same temperature. However, when adjacent layers do not fit tightly together,
thermal contact resistance (or interface resistance) will arise due to: (1) the presence of
fewer contact points through which heat can be transferred by conduction, and (2) the
presence of an insulating stagnant fluid layer trapped between the two surfaces. The heat
transfer rate through an interface is given by
q hc AT

T
Rc

where: T = temperature drop across a solid-solid interface

Rc = thermal contact resistance across interface
I2 - 5

(I.2 26)

hc = thermal contact resistance coefficient at interface

A = interfacial area

I2.2.6. Thermal Insulators

Thermal insulators are materials that, because of their low thermal conductivities, retard the
transfer of heat in pipes, vessels, buildings, etc.
A. R-value
The parameter used to classify the thermal performance of a thermal insulation is its R-value,
which is defined as follows:
1. For a flat insulation:

2. For a cylindrical insulation:

R value

T
x

q/ A k

(I.2 27)

R value

r
r
T
o ln o
q / Ao k ri

(I.2 28)

B. Critical Radius of Insulation

At steady state, the heat transfer rate q across a layer of insulation that surrounds the outer
surface of a cylinder equals the rate of convection from the outer surface of the insulation
(characterized by the outside convective heat transfer coefficient ho). As more insulating
material is added, the outside surface area of the insulation increases while its outside surface
temperature decreases. The heat transfer rate through the insulation is a maximum when the
outer radius of the insulation reaches a critical radius rcr .
1. For a cylindrical insulation:

rcr

k
ho

(I.2 29)

2. For a spherical insulation:

rcr

2k
ho

(I.2 30)

When the outer radius of the insulation is less than the critical radius, adding more insulation
will increase the heat transfer rate. However, when the outer radius of insulation is greater
than the critical radius, adding more insulation will decrease the heat transfer rate.

I2.3. TRANSIENT HEAT TRANSFER ACROSS A SOLID BOUNDARY

Consider a solid material initially at a uniform temperature Ta being suddenly immersed in a
heating or cooling fluid medium, which is assumed to be at a uniform temperature T .
I2 - 6

Before an equilibrium temperature can be reached in the solid, some time must elapse during
which the temperature within the solid changes both with position and with time an
unsteady-state or transient period.

I2.3.1. Dimensionless Parameters

The definition of the following dimensionless quantities reduces the number of parameters
involved in the formulation and the solution of transient heat conduction problems.
A. Fourier Number
The Fourier number gives the ratio of the rate at which heat is conducted through a body to
the rate at which heat is stored in the body. A large value of the Fourier number indicates fast
propagation of heat through a body (Cengel, 2003).
1. For a flat solid slab:

N Fo

kt
t
2
2
c p s
s

(I.2 31)

2. For a solid cylinder or a solid sphere:

N Fo

kt
t
2
2
c p r
r

(I.2 32)

where s = half-thickness of slab

r = radius of sphere or cylinder
t = time of heating or cooling
= thermal diffusivity of conducting medium

k / c p

(I.2 33)

B. Biot Number
The Biot number is the ratio of the conductive resistance within a solid to the convective
resistance at its surface. It is a measure of the importance of the internal resistance relative to
the external resistance.

N Bi

Lc / k hLc

1/ h
k

(I.2 34)

where Lc is the surface area to volume ratio (characteristic dimension) of the solid of
arbitrary shape:
Lc V / As
(I.2 35)

I2 - 7

I2.3.2. Transient Heat Conduction in Slabs, Cylinders, and Spheres

The time-temperature history of a solid during unsteady-state heating or cooling is given
below for the two cases of very small and very large number Biot Number corresponding to
variable surface temperature and constant surface temperature of the solid, respectively.
A. Variable Surface Temperature ( N Bi 0 )
A very small NBi indicates that the conductive resistance within the solid is much smaller than
the external convective resistance at the solid-fluid boundary. Thus, the temperature gradient
within the solid is so small that its temperature is essentially uniform spatially but varies with
time as the solid exchanges heat by convection with the surrounding fluid medium. This
idealized system with spatially uniform but time-dependent temperature is known as a
lumped-heat-capacity system. The smaller the size of the system, the more realistic this
assumption will be. Lumped-system analysis is generally applicable for N Bi 0.1 (Cengel,
2003).
1. Large Flat Solid Slab (McCabe, 2001):

Ut
T T b

ln 1
c s
T Ta
p

(I.2 36)

1 1 s

U h 2k

(I.2 37)

2. Long Circular Solid Cylinder (McCabe, 2001):

2Ut
T T b

ln 1
c r
T Ta
p

(I.2 38)

1 1 r

U h 3k

(I.2 39)

3. Solid Sphere (McCabe, 2001):

3Ut
T T b

ln 1
c r
T Ta
p

I2 - 8

(I.2 40)

1 1 r

U h 5k

(I.2 41)

where: T b = average temperature of solid at time t

T = temperature of heating or cooling fluid medium, which is assumed to be uniform
Ta = initial temperature of solid
U = overall heat-transfer coefficient
B. Constant Surface Temperature ( N Bi , N Fo 0.1)
A very large NBi means that the convection resistance at the solid-fluid interface is negligible
relative to the conduction resistance within the solid. Thus, the surface of the solid is quickly
brought to, and maintained at, the ambient fluid temperature T . Furthermore, since most of
the resistance is internal to the solid, the temperature within the solid changes both with time
and with position from its initial temperature Ta to the temperature of the surrounding fluid
medium T at the end of the transient period.
1. Large Flat Solid Slab (Middleman, 1998):

T T b
0.81exp ( 2.47 N Fo )
T Ta

(I.2 42)

This equation is also applicable to a slab heated from one side only, provided that no heat is
transferred at the other side and dT dx 0 at that surface.
2. Long Solid Cylinder (Middleman, 1998):

T T b
0.692 exp ( 5.78 N Fo )
T Ta

(I.2 43)

3. Solid Sphere (Middleman, 1998):

T T b
0.608 exp ( 9.87 N Fo )
T Ta

(I.2 44)

I2.3.3. Transient Heat Conduction in Semi-Infinite Solids

Consider solid of infinite thickness that is at a uniform temperature Ta at time t = 0. The
surface temperature is brought quickly to, and held at, the temperature of the surrounding
I2 - 9

fluid medium so that at time t > 0, Ts = T . The temperature within the solid will change with
time but these temperature changes will be confined to the region near one surface only. The
thermal penetration distance x p at time t > 0 is that distance from the surface of the solid
beyond which not enough heat has penetrated to affect the temperature significantly. It is
arbitrarily defined as that distance from the surface at which the temperature change at time t
> 0 is 1 % of the initial change in surface temperature (McCabe, 2001):
x p 3.64 t

(I.2 45)

I2.3.4. Amount of Heat Transferred

The total amount of heat transferred QT through a unit surface area A during heating or
cooling of a solid in time t is:
A. For a flat solid slab:

QT
sc p (T b Ta )
A

(I.2 46)

B. For a solid cylinder:

QT rc p (T b Ta )

A
2

(I.2 47)

C. For a solid sphere:

D. For a semi-infinite solid:

QT rc p (T b Ta )

A
3
QT
t
2k ( Ts Ta )
A

(I.2 48)
(I.2 49)

I2.4. CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER

When a fluid flows over a solid surface, most of the thermal resistance is present in a thin
layer of fluid adjacent to the solid surface. Heat is transferred mainly by conduction across
this film. Thermal convection is thermal conduction with the added complexity of thermal
energy transfer by moving fluid parcels.

I2.4.1. Newtons Law for Convective Heat Transfer

Consider the transfer of heat from a solid material to an adjacent flowing fluid. At a given
location in the solid-fluid interface, the convective heat flux is proportional to the difference
between the surface temperature of the solid Ts and the temperature of the fluid T along the
heat flow path that is sufficiently far from the surface:

I2 - 10

q
h(Ts T )
A

(I.2 50)

where: h = convective heat transfer coefficient (film coefficient)

A = area of the solid surface adjacent to the fluid
The convective heat transfer coefficient, in general, varies along the heat flow direction. The
heat transfer rate over the entire heat transfer area is obtained by using an average convective
heat transfer coefficient in the convective heat transfer equation. This average coefficient is
determined by averaging the local convection heat transfer coefficients over the entire heat
transfer surface.
Unlike thermal conductivity, the convective heat transfer coefficient is not a thermal property
of the heat transfer medium. It is dependent not only on the thermal properties of the fluid
medium but also on the system geometry, temperature difference, and fluid flow pattern.

I2.4.2. Heat Exchange Equipment

Typically, the function of a heat exchanger is to increase the temperature of a cold fluid and
decrease the temperature of a hot fluid.
A double-pipe heat exchanger consists of two concentric pipes with one fluid flowing
through the center pipe while the other fluid flowing through the annular space.
A shell-and-tube heat exchanger consists of tube bundles enclosed in a cylindrical casing
(the shell) with one fluid flowing through the tubes and the other fluid through the space
between the tube bundles and the casing.
A cross-flow heat exchanger has rows of tubes enclosed within an unbaffled rectangular
shell. The number of tubes in each row is the same and flow in the shell is directly across the
tubes.
A plate heat exchanger consists of many corrugated stainless-steel sheets separated by
polymer gaskets and clamped in a steel frame. Inlet portals and slots in the gaskets direct the
hot and cold fluids to alternate spaces between the plates.
A finned heat exchanger is one in which the outside area of the tubes in contact with the
fluid stream having the lower heat transfer coefficient is made much larger than the inside
area to enhance the transfer of heat with the use of fins, pegs, disks, and other appendages.
A scraped-surface heat exchanger is a double-pipe heat exchanger with a central tube, the
inside surface of which is wiped by longitudinal blades mounted on a rotating shaft. This type
of heat exchanger is used for heat transfer to or from viscous liquids, especially food products
and other heat sensitive liquids.
I2 - 11

I2.4.3. Basic Heat Exchanger Design Equations

A. Average Temperature of a Fluid Stream
During heating or cooling of a fluid stream in a tube, a temperature gradient exists across any
given stream cross section (from tube wall surface to the center of the fluid stream). The
energy-average (or bulk, also mixing cup) fluid stream temperature, T is the uniform
temperature that the fluid stream at a particular section in the tube would attain if all the fluid
elements across the stream cross section were mixed adiabatically and allowed to come to
equilibrium.
B. Energy Balance for a Fluid Stream
The general energy balance for a system in steady state flow is
(h eP eK ) q wS
m

(I.2 51)

where: m = mass flow rate of system

eK = kinetic energy change per unit mass of system
h = specific enthalpy of system
e P = potential energy change per unit mass of system
wS = rate of shaft work
q = heat transfer rate into or out of the system
For a fluid in steady-state internal flow, wS 0 and eP , eK q, h . The energy balance
reduces to
m h q

(I.2 52)

C. Overall Heat Balance

1. Heat Exchanger
When the outer surface of the heat exchanger is well insulated, sensible heat transfer is
confined between the hot fluid stream and the cold fluid stream only. Thus,
qc qh 0
c (hcb hca ) m
h (hha hhb )
m

When the fluids have constant specific heat capacities,

I2 - 12

(I.2 53)
(I.2 54)

 cc pc (Tcb Tca ) m
hc ph (Tha Thb )
m

(I.2 55)

where: Tcb = bulk temperature of cold fluid stream leaving the heat exchanger
Tca = bulk temperature of cold fluid stream entering the heat exchanger
Tha = bulk temperature of hot fluid stream entering the heat exchanger
Thb = bulk temperature of hot fluid stream leaving the heat exchanger
2. Condenser
In a condenser, the cold fluid stream absorbs the latent heat released by the hot fluid stream
as it condenses:
m c c pc (Tcb Tca ) m h

(I.2 56)

If the vapor at the inlet is superheated and/or if the condensate leaving the condenser is
subcooled, appropriate sensible heat terms must be added in the right-hand side of the overall
heat balance equation.

D. Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

In heat exchanger analysis, it is convenient to express heat transfer in terms of an overall heattransfer coefficient U, which is defined in an analogous manner to Newtons law for
convective heat transfer as
q UAT

(I.2 57)

A comparison of U and R shows that

q

T
UAT
R

1
UA
R

(I.2 58)
(I.2 59)

For a tubular heat exchanger, the heat transfer areas on both sides of the tube wall, Ai and Ao,
are not equal, giving rise to two overall heat transfer coefficients, Ui and Uo :
q U o Ao T U i Ai T

(I.2 60)

A plate heat exchanger, on the other hand, has only one U because the areas on both sides of
the plate are the same.
1. Plate Heat Exchanger

I2 - 13

Consider a plate being exposed to a hot fluid on one side and a cold fluid on the other. Heat
transfer from the hot fluid to the cold fluid through this plate is analogous to current flow
through several resistances in series with two convective thermal resistances and one
conductive thermal resistance. At a particular section of the exchanger where the temperature
of the hot fluid is Ti and the temperature of the cold fluid is To :
Local heat flow rate:

qi q w q o q

(I.2 61)

Local overall temperature drop:

T Ti Tw To

(I.2 62)

where:

T Ti To
Ti Ti Tw ,i
Tw Tw ,i Tw ,o
To Tw ,o To

Ri Rw Ro R
Local overall thermal resistance:
where:
Ri Ti qi 1 ( hi A )
Rw Tw q w x w (k w A)
Ro To qo 1 ( ho A )

Local overall heat-transfer coefficient:

1 1 x w 1

U hi
kw
ho

(I.2 63)
(I.2 64)
(I.2 65)
(I.2 66)
(I.2 67)
(I.2 68)
(I.2 69)
(I.2 70)
(I.2 71)

2. Tubular Heat Exchanger

Consider the steady-state transfer of heat from a hot fluid stream inside a tube to a cold fluid
stream outside the tube. The process consists of three steps: (1) convection from the hot fluid
to a tube wall surface, (2) conduction through the tube wall, and (3) convection from the
surface on the other side of the tube wall to the cold fluid.
At a section in the heat exchanger where the temperature of the hot fluid is Ti and the
temperature of the cold fluid is To:
Local heat flow rate:

qi q w q o q

(I.2 72)

Local overall temperature difference:

T Ti Tw To

(I.2 73)

where:

Ti Ti Tw,i

(I.2 74)

T w Tw , i Tw , o

(I.2 75)

I2 - 14

Local overall thermal resistance:

To Tw,o To

(I.2 76)

T Ti To

(I.2 77)

R Ri Rw Ro

(I.2 78)

where:
Ri Ti qi 1 (hi Ai )

(I.2 79)

Rw Tw qw xw (k w AL )
Ro To qo 1 (ho Ao )

(I.2 80)
(I.2 81)

Local overall heat-transfer coefficient:

R

where:

1
1
1
x w
1

U o Ao U i Ai hi Ai k w AL ho Ao

(I.2 82)

D
x D
1
1
o w o
U o Di hi k w DL ho

(I.2 83)

Di
1
1 x D
w i
U i hi k w DL Do ho

(I.2 84)

Special Cases:
(a) For large-diameter thin-walled tube, the inner and outer surfaces are almost
identical, Di Do and
1
U Ui Uo
(I.2 85)
1 / hi x w / k w 1 / ho
(b) When the thin heat exchanger tube is made of a highly conductive material, its
thermal resistance is negligible and the overall heat transfer coefficient further
simplifies to
1
1 1

U hi ho

(I.2 86)

(c) When the fluid outside the tube has a much higher thermal resistance than the tube
wall and the fluid inside the tube, it will control the rate of heat transfer, i.e.,
outside resistance controlling, thus
U o ho

(I.2 87)

Values of the overall heat transfer coefficient range from about 10 W/m 2-oC for gas-to-gas
heat transfer to about 10,000 W/m2-oC for heat transfer that involves phase changes (Cengel
2003).
I2 - 15

E. Tube Wall Surface Temperatures

The thermal resistance concept can be used to determine Ti or To , which when added to,
or subtracted from, Ti or To will give the inside and outside tube wall surface temperatures
Twi and Two , respectively:
q qi qw qo

T
1 / Uo

Ti
Do / Di hi

(I.2 88)

Tw
( x w / k w )( Do / DL )

To
1 / ho

(I.2 89)

F. Fouling
In actual practice, heat transfer surfaces do not remain clean. The accumulation of solid
deposits on one or both sides of the heat exchanger tubes causes a reduction in the rate of heat
transfer and a deteriorating performance of the heat exchanger with time. It can be minimized
by avoiding large temperature differences and low fluid velocities and by adding chemical
inhibitors.
The fouling factor accounts for the additional resistance of scale deposits on the surface of a
heat exchanger tube. It is defined as the thermal resistance due to fouling for a unit area of a
heat exchange surface:

R f ,i

1
h f ,i

and R f ,o

1
h f ,o

(I.2 90)

where hf,i and hf,o are the fouling coefficients for the inside and outside surfaces of the tube,
respectively.
The total thermal resistance in the heat exchanger becomes:
R

x w
1
1
1
1
1
1

U o Ao U i Ai hi Ai h f ,i Ai k w AL ho Ao h f ,o Ao

(I.2 91)

The fouling factor can be determined from experimental overall heat-transfer coefficients for
both clean and dirty heat exchanger tubes:
1
1
Rf

UA dirty tube UA clean tube

I2.4.4. Heat Exchanger Analysis

I2 - 16

(I.2 92)

A. LMTD Method
1. Parallel-Flow and Counter-Flow Heat Exchangers
The rate of heat transfer in a differential section of a simple heat exchanger is
dq U (Th Tc )dA

(I.2 93)

where dA is the element of surface area required to transfer heat at the rate dq at a point in the
exchanger where the local overall heat transfer coefficient is U and the local overall
temperature difference between the two fluid streams is (Th - Tc).
However, fluids become heated or cooled as they pass through a heat exchanger. Thus, in
general, the local temperature difference between the two fluid streams will vary with position
in the heat exchanger and some mean temperature driving force must be used when
calculating for the heat transfer rate over the entire heat exchanger. When the overall heattransfer coefficient, the mass flow rates and specific heat capacities of the fluids are constant,
the heat-transfer rate qT over the entire heat exchanger is given by
qT UAT T L

(I.2 94)

where: AT = total heat-transfer area in the heat exchanger

T1 , T2 = temperature difference between hot and cold fluids at two heat exchanger
terminals
TL = logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD)

T L

T2 T1
ln( T2 / T1 )

(I.2 95)

2. Multipass and Cross-Flow Heat Exchangers

Many commercial heat exchangers are not simple double-pipe systems and involve a
combination of mixed fluid flows: counter flow, parallel flow, and cross flow. The correction
factor FG , defined with TL based on the equivalent counter flow, is used to account for this
as well as for the geometry of the exchanger as follows:

q UAFG TL

(I.2 96)

where TL = logarithmic mean temperature difference for counter-flow double-pipe heat

exchanger with same inlet and exit temperatures as the heat exchanger being considered.
FG is correlated in terms of two dimensionless temperature ratios, Z and .
Parameter Z gives the ratio of the fall in temperature of the hot fluid to the rise in temperature
of the cold fluid (McCabe, 2001):
I2 - 17

Tha Thb
Tcb Tca

(I.2 97)

Parameter is the heating effectiveness of the heat exchanger, which is the ratio of the
actual temperature rise of the cold fluid to the maximum possible temperature rise (obtainable
if the warm end approach were zero based on counter flow) (McCabe, 2001):

Tcb Tca
Tha Tca

(I.2 98)

B. Effectiveness-NTU Method
1. Number of Heat Transfer Units
In a heat exchanger operating at steady-state, the rate at which heat is transferred across the
heat-conducting wall is equal to both the rate at which heat is absorbed by the cold fluid
stream and the rate at which heat is lost from the hot fluid stream:
q q c q h

c c pc ( Tcb Tca ) m
h c ph ( Tha Thb )
qm

UATL Cc Tcb Tca Ch Tha Thb

UA Tcb Tca

Cc
TL
UA Tha Thb

Ch
TL

(I.2 99)
(I.2 100)
(I.2 101)
(I.2 102)
(I.2 103)

where C c m c c pc and C h m h c ph are the heat capacity rates of the cold and hot fluid
streams, respectively.
The number of heat transfer units, N H , gives the ratio of the temperature change of the
fluid stream with the smaller heat capacity rate, Cmin , (hence, with the greater temperature
change) to the average temperature driving force in the heat exchanger. Thus,
NH

UA
C min

(I.2 104)

2. Heat Transfer Effectiveness

The maximum possible heat transfer rate in a heat exchanger occurs when the fluid having the
smaller heat capacity rate undergoes the maximum possible temperature change in a heat
exchanger. This maximum temperature change is equal to the difference between the inlet
temperature of the hot and cold fluids:
I2 - 18

q max C min (Tha Tca ) C min Tmax

(I.2 105)

This occurs in either of the following two cases in a counter-flow heat exchanger with an
infinite heat transfer area:
(a) the cold fluid, having the smaller heat capacity rate, is heated to the inlet
temperature of the hot fluid, or
(b) the hot fluid, having the smaller heat capacity rate, is cooled to the inlet
temperature of the cold fluid.
The heat transfer effectiveness, , gives the ratio of the actual heat transfer rate in a given
heat exchanger to the maximum possible heat transfer rate:

q
q max

(I.2 106)

where is the heat transfer effectiveness. When the cold fluid has the smaller heat capacity
rate, Cc C min and Tcb Tha . Thus,

C h (Tha Thb )
C min (Tha Tca )

(I.2 107)

Correspondingly, when the hot fluid has the smaller heat capacity rate, C h C min and
Thb Tca . Thus,

Cc (Tcb Tca )
C min (Tha Tca )

(I.2 108)

The heat transfer effectiveness is useful in determining the heat transfer rate in a heat
exchanger without knowing the outlet temperatures of the fluids as well as in predicting outlet
temperatures when inlet temperatures are known.
The heat transfer effectiveness can be expressed in terms of the number of heat transfer units
and heat capacity ratio as follows:
Counter-flow double pipe heat exchanger:

1 exp[ N H (1 c)]
1 c exp[ N H (1 c)]

(I.2 109)

Parallel-flow double pipe heat exchanger:

1 exp[ N H (1 c)]
1 c

I2 - 19

(I.2 110)

where: c C min / C max , heat capacity ratio

C min ,C max = smaller and larger heat capacity rates, respectively

I2.4.5. Finned Heat Exchangers

A heat transfer fluid whose heat transfer coefficient is much smaller than the other fluid
creates a bottleneck on the path of heat flow. Fins made of highly conductive material are
used to extend the heat transfer area out into this fluid to compensate for its high thermal
resistance, thus enhancing the heat transfer.
A. Fin with Constant Cross Section
1. Fin with Insulated Tip
The heat transfer from an insulated fin tip will be negligible. The heat transfer rate from the
fin q F is given by (Cengel, 2003):
q F ho pkAc ( T fb T ) tanh aL

(I.2 111)

where: ho = convective heat transfer coefficient at fin surface

Ac = uniform cross sectional area of fin
p = perimeter of the fin cross section
k = thermal conductivity of fin
T = temperature of surrounding fluid medium
T fb = temperature of fin base
a

ho p
kAc

(I.2 112)

Since heat transfer from a fin is proportional to its surface area, this equation is applicable
when the surface area of the fin tip is a negligible fraction of the total fin area.
2. Infinitely Long Fin
When the fin is very long, the temperature of the fin tip will approach the temperature of the
surrounding fluid medium. Since tanh aL 1 as L thus, for an infinitely long fin
(Cengel, 2003):
q F ho pkAc (Tw,o T )

I2 - 20

(I.2 113)

3. Fin with Convection at Tip

In this case, in addition to the lateral fin area, the fin tip area is also subjected to convection.
Thus, the total surface area of fin subjected to convection is:

AF Alateral sides A fin tip

(I.2 114)

Dividing each term in the preceding equation by the perimeter p gives the equivalent fin
length, L e :
A
Le L c
(I.2 115)
p
where:
D
Le L
for cylindrical fin of diameter D
(I.2 116)
4
tw
Le L
for rectangular fin of thickness t and width w
(I.2 117)
2(t w)
t
Le L
for thin rectangular fin
(I.2 118)
2
Thus, this case can be treated as fin with insulated tip by replacing the actual fin length with
the equivalent length, which takes into account heat loss from the edges as well as from the
tip of the fin:
q F ho pkAc (Tw,o T ) tanh aLe

(I.2 119)

B. Fin Efficiency
The temperature drops along the length of a fin and because of the decreasing temperature
driving force toward the fin tip, the heat transfer rate from the fin will also drop. The fin
efficiency, F , gives the ratio of the actual heat transfer rate to the maximum heat transfer rate
from the fin:
q
F F
(I.2 120)
q F ,max
The maximum heat transfer rate occurs when the entire fin is at fin base temperature Tfb:
q F ,max ho AF ( T fb T )

(I.2 121)

For an infinitely long fin (Cengel, 2003):

ho pkAc ( T fb T )
ho AF ( T fb T )
I2 - 21

1 kAc
1

L ho p aL

(I.2 122)

For a fin with an insulated tip (Cengel, 2003):

tanh aL
aL

(I.2 123)

A short fin with high thermal conductivity would be nearly isothermal, thus F 1 .
C. Fin Effectiveness
The performance of fins can be expressed in terms of the fin effectiveness, which gives the
ratio of the heat transfer rate from the fin of base area Afb to the heat transfer rate from the
same area of bare surface:

F 1
F 1
F 1

qF
qF

q B ho A fb ( T fb T )

(I.2 124)

fin does not affect heat transfer from surface

fin retards heat transfer from surface
fin enhances heat transfer from surface

The following equation relates fin effectiveness to fin efficiency:

AF
F
AB

(I.2 125)

D. Total Heat Transfer Area of Finned Surface

The total surface area on the finned side of a heat exchanger tube consists of two parts: (1) the
area of the fins and (b) the area of the bare surface not covered by the base of each fin:
A F AF AU

(I.2 126)

where: A = total area of finned surface

AF = surface area of fins
F = fin efficiency
AU = area of the unfinned portion of tube surface, AU = AO AB , where AO is the
original surface area without fins and AB is the portion of the original area
covered by the base of the fins
E. Rate of Heat Transfer from Finned Surface
The total heat transfer rate for a finned surface q is the sum of the heat transfer rate at the fins,
q F , and the heat transfer rate at the bare (unfinned) portion of the surface, qU :

I2 - 22

q qU q F ho ( AU F AF )( Tw ,o T )

(I.2 127)

The convective resistance outside a finned tube or wall is

Ro

1
ho ( AU F AF )

(I.2 128)

The overall effectiveness for a finned surface is defined as the ratio of the total heat transfer
rate from the finned surface to the heat transfer rate from the same surface if there were no
fins:

FS

q FS ho ( AU ,T F AF ,T )( Tw ,o T )

q BS
ho ABS ( Tw ,o T )

(I.2 129)

where ABS is the area of the bare surface when there are no fins, AF ,T is the total surface area
of all the fins on the surface, and AU ,T is the total area of the unfinned portion of the surface.
F. Heat Sinks
Heat sinks are specially designed finned surfaces that are used in the cooling of electronic
equipment. They lower the thermal resistance by increasing the heat transfer area. Their heat
transfer performance is expressed in terms of their thermal resistance (Cengel, 2003):
qF

T fb T
R

ho F AF ( T fb T )

(I.2 130)

I2.5. HEAT TRANSFER CORRELATIONS

The individual heat transfer coefficients are estimated from appropriate correlations of
experimental heat transfer data.

I2.5.1. Dimensionless Numbers

Parameters used in heat transfer correlations are conveniently combined into dimensionless
numbers for which all dimensions cancel and the numerical value is independent of the units
used, provided they are consistent.
A. Reynolds Number
The Reynolds number gives the ratio of the inertial forces to the viscous forces in a fluid. It
governs the flow regime in forced convection:
N Re

VLc VLc

I2 - 23

(I.2 131)

where Lc is a characteristic dimension. Fluid flow is laminar at low Reynolds numbers and
turbulent at high Reynolds numbers.
B. Nusselt Number
The Nusselt number gives the ratio of the convective heat flux to the conductive heat flux
through a fluid layer. It represents the enhancement of heat transfer as a result of convection
relative to conduction across the same fluid layer (Cengel, 2003):

N Nu

qconvection
hT
hL

qconduction kT / L
k

(I.2 132)

C. Prandtl Number
The Prandtl number is the ratio of the momentum diffusivity to the thermal diffusivity of a
fluid. It also gives the ratio of the thickness of the hydrodynamic boundary layer to the
thickness of the thermal boundary layer:

N Pr

cp

( / )

(k / c p )
k

(I.2 133)

For most liquids, NPr > 1, i.e., the hydrodynamic boundary layer is thicker than the thermal
boundary layer.
D. Grashof Number
The Grashof number gives the ratio of the buoyant forces to the viscous forces acting on a
fluid. It represents the natural convection effects and governs the flow regime in natural
convection.
N Gr

g ( Ts T )L3c

where: g = gravitational acceleration

= coefficient of volume expansion
Ts = temperature of heat transfer surface
T = temperature of fluid sufficiently far from heat transfer surface
= kinematic viscosity of fluid
E. Graetz Number
The Graetz number is defined as

I2 - 24

(I.2 134)

N Gz

m c p

(I.2 135)

kL

I2.5.2. Equivalent Diameter for Fluid Flow

For non-circular conduits, the diameter D in both Reynolds number and Nusselt number are
replaced by an equivalent diameter (or hydraulic diameter), De , which is defined as

De 4rH

4 Ac
pw

(I.2 136)

where De = equivalent or hydraulic diameter

Ac = cross sectional area of the fluid stream
pw = wetted perimeter

I2.5.3. Temperature Dependence of Fluid Properties

Generally, the temperature, and hence the properties of a fluid stream vary from point to point
along the heat exchange surface. Thus, the local value of the film coefficient also varies. To
obtain an average value of the heat transfer coefficient, the fluid properties such as cp, , and k
must be evaluated at some average temperature. The average film coefficient thus obtained is
used in calculating the overall heat transfer coefficient.
A. Sensible Heat Transfer
1. External Flow
For heating or cooling of a fluid in immersed flow, the temperature, and hence the properties
of the fluid in the thermal boundary layer vary from the wall to the outer edge of the boundary
layer. To account for the variation of the properties with position across the boundary layer,
the fluid properties are evaluated at the film temperature, which is the arithmetic average of
the wall surface temperature and the free-stream fluid temperature:
T f 12 (Tw T )

(I.2 137)

2. Internal Flow
For heating or cooling of a fluid flowing inside a tube, the average value of the heat transfer
coefficient is computed by evaluating the fluid properties at the mean bulk fluid temperature,
which is the arithmetic average of the bulk temperatures at the tube inlet and exit:
T 12 (Ta Tb )

B. Latent Heat Transfer

I2 - 25

(I.2 138)

1. Condensation
The properties of the condensate are evaluated at the condensate film temperature given by:

3( Th Tw )
3
T f Th T Th
4
4
where:

(I.2 139)

Th = temperature of the condensing vapor

T w = temperature of the tube wall surface

2. Boiling
The vapor properties are evaluated at the average temperature of the vapor film:

T f 12 (Tw Tsat )

(I.2 140)

The liquid properties, on the other hand, are evaluated at the saturation temperature, Tsat .

I2.5.4. Sieder-Tate Correction for Tubular Flow

When a viscous liquid stream is heated inside a tube, its velocity gradient increases near the
tube wall, giving a higher rate of heat transfer. This is caused by the lower viscosity near the
wall. Conversely, the velocity gradient at the wall decreases when it is cooled, giving a lower
rate of heat transfer.
The Sieder-Tate correction (Middleman, 1998) accounts for the effect of the temperaturedependent viscosity on the velocity profile, particularly when a large temperature drop is
involved:

(I.2 141)

I2.5.5. Forced Convection Heat Transfer

A. Laminar Flow Forced Convection
1. Immersed Flow along a Heated Flat Plate ( N Re 3x105 , N Pr 0.7) (Geankoplis, 1995):
N Nu 0.664 3 N Pr N Re

(I.2 142)

where: h = average heat transfer coefficient over the entire length of the plate
L = entire length of the plate
uo= free-stream velocity or velocity of fluid approaching the plate and beyond the
edge of the hydrodynamic boundary layer
I2 - 26

N Nu

c p, f f
hL
, N Pr
kf
kf

, N Re

u o L f

For gases, the equation can be used down to NPr 0.7 .

2. Tubular Flow
1 / 3 0.14
N Nu 2N Gz
v

(I.2 143)

where: = viscosity at the mean bulk temperature of the fluid

w =viscosity of the fluid evaluated at the tube wall temperature Tw
m c p
hD

N Nu i
, N Gz
, v
k
kL
w
B. Turbulent Flow Forced Convection
1. Immersed Flow Parallel to Flat Plate ( N Re 3x105 , N Pr 0.7) (Geankoplis, 1995):
0 .8
1/ 3
N Nu 0.0366 N Re
N Pr

where:

N Nu

c p, f f
hL
, N Pr
kf
kf

(I.2 144)

, N Re

u o L f

2.Immersed Flow Outside a Tube

For heat transfer to a liquid flowing normal to a tube (McCabe, 2001):

N Nu N Pr
where:

N Nu

0.3

ho Do
kf

0.35 0.56N Re

, N Pr

0.52

c p, f f
kf

(I.2 145)

, N Re

Do G

The equation can also be used for gases from 1 N Re 10 4

3.Immersed Flow Past a Sphere of diameter DP (1 N Re 7 x104 , 0.6 N Pr 400)
(Geankoplis, 1995):
1/ 2
N Nu 2.0 0.60N Re
N Pr

where:

N Nu

ho D p
kf

, N Re

1/ 3

DpG

I2 - 27

(I.2 146)

, N Pr

c p, f f
kf

4. Tubular Flow
The average heat transfer coefficient for fluid flowing in turbulent flow inside a tube is
obtained from the Sieder-Tate equation:
For long tubes (L/D) >50:
0.8 1 / 3
N Nu 0.023NRe
NPr v

where:

N Nu

hi D
DV
, N Re
k

(I.2 147)

, N Pr

cp
k

For a short tube (L/D < 50) with uniform fluid velocity at the sharp-edged entrance (McCabe,
2001):
hi
D
1
h
L

0.7

(I.2 148)

where: hi = average heat transfer coefficient over the short tube length
h = heat transfer coefficient for fully developed turbulent flow (long tube)

I2.5.6. Natural Convection Heat Transfer

When a hot surface transfers heat to an adjacent cold fluid, the density of the fluid parcel near
the surface decreases due to this heating process. Buoyancy forces cause it to rise in natural
convection.
A. Simple Heating or Cooling
The general equation for natural convection from an isothermal surface (L<1m) (Geankoplis,
2001) is:

N Nu a(N Gr N Pr )m
where: N Nu

L3 2f gT
hL

, N Gr
kf
2f

, N Pr

(I.2 149)

c p, f f
kf

The values of the parameters a and m for specific geometries are given in the following table:
Table I2 1. Values of the parameters a and m for use in the general equation for natural
convection from an isothermal surface: N Nu a(N Gr N Pr )m (Geankoplis, 1995).
Physical Geometry
NGrNPr
a
m
I2 - 28

<104
104-109
>109
<10-5
10-5-10-3
10-3-1
1-104
104-109
>109

1.36
0.59
0.13
0.49
0.71
1.09
1.09
0.53
0.13

1/5
1/4
1/3
0
1/25
1/10
1/5
1/4
1/3

105-2 x 107
2 x 107-3 x 1010
105-1011

0.54
0.14
0.58

1/4
1/3
1/5

Vertical planes and cylinders,

vertical height L < 1 m
Horizontal cylinders, replace L
by diameter D, D < 0.20 m

Horizontal plates
Upper surface of heated
plate or
lower surface of cooled
plate
Lower surface of heated
plate or
upper surface of cooled
plate

B. Condensation
In film-type condensation, the liquid condensate forms a film of liquid that flows over the
surface of the condenser tube under the action of gravity.

1. Condensation on Outside of Vertical Tube

h

qT
m T

b
Ao To Do LT To LT To

(I.2 150)

where: qT = total rate of heat transfer

m T = total rate of condensation
LT = total tube length
b = condensate loading at the bottom of tube, b m T / Do

For NRe < 1200 (McCabe, 2001):

4 k f 2f g

h
3 3 b f

1/ 3

k 3f 2f g

0.943
To L f

I2 - 29

1/ 4

(I.2 151)

where:

N Re

4b

(I.2 152)

2. Condensation on Outside of Horizontal Tube

The flow of condensate over the outside surface of a horizontal tube is usually laminar. The
average coefficient is given by (McCabe, 2001):
k 3f 2f g
h 0.729
T D
o 0 f

1/ 4

(I.2 153)

For NRe > 40, h is multiplied by 1.2 to account for the effect of rippling (McCabe, 2001).
3. Condensation on Vertical Stack of Horizontal Tubes
The condensate falls cumulatively from tube to tube and the total condensate from the entire
stack finally drops from the bottom tube. The average coefficient for condensation on the
outside of N horizontal tubes arranged in a vertical stack is given by (McCabe, 2001):
k 3f 2f g
hN 0.729
NT D
o o f

1/ 4

(I.2 154)

C. Film Boiling on Submerged Horizontal Cylinder or Sphere

In film boiling, the hot surface is covered with a quiescent film of hot vapor, which offers
virtually all the resistance to heat transfer. There is slow and orderly formation of bubbles at
the interface between the liquid and the film of hot vapor. The bubbles detach themselves
from the interface and rise through the liquid. For film boiling on the outside of a horizontal
cylinder or a sphere of diameter D (Cengel, 2003):
gkv3 v ( l v )[ 0.4c pv (Ts Tsat )]
q
C

A
v D(Ts Tsat )

1/ 4

(Ts Tsat )

where: A = area of surface of cylinder or sphere in contact with fluid

C = 0.62 for horizontal cylinder; C = 0.67 for sphere
= heat of vaporization
g = gravitational acceleration
V , L = density of liquid and vapor, respectively

V , kV = viscosity and thermal conductivity of vapor, respectively

Ts = surface temperature of hot cylinder or sphere
Tsat = boiling temperature at the specified pressure
I2 - 30

(I.2 155)

cpv = specific heat capacity of vapor

I2.5.7. Multipass and Cross-Flow Heat Exchangers

A. Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger
The Donohue Equation can be used to predict the shell-side heat transfer coefficient in a
shell-and-tube heat exchanger:
0.6
0.33 0.14
N Nu 0.2 N Re
N Pr
v

where:

N Nu

ho Do
k

, N Re

Do Ge

Ge = weighted average mass velocity of fluid

G e Gb G c
Gc = cross-flow mass velocity
m
Gc
Sc

(I.2 156)

, N Pr

cp
k

(I.2 157)
(I.2 158)

Gb = mass velocity parallel to tubes

m
(I.2 159)
Sb
Sc = transverse flow area between tubes in row at or closest to exchanger centerline
D

S c PDs 1 o
(I.2 160)
p

Sb = free area for flow in baffle window

Ds2
Do2
Sb f b
Nb
(I.2 161)
4
4
Gb

Ds = inside diameter of shell

Do = outside diameter of tubes
Nb = number of tubes in baffle window
p = center-to-center distance between tubes
P = baffle pitch
fb = fraction of shell cross section occupied by baffle window, commonly 0.1955
(McCabe, 2001)
B. Cross-Flow Heat Exchanger

I2 - 31

In a cross-flow heat exchanger, the shell-side heat-transfer coefficient can be estimated from
(McCabe, 2001):
0.61
0.33
N Nu 0.287 N Re
N Pr
Fa

where:

(I.2 162)

cp
ho Do
DG
, N Re o
, N Pr
k

k
Fa = arrangement factor that depends on Reynolds number and tube spacing
p = tube spacing in heat exchanger
G = mass velocity outside the tubes, based on minimum area for flow in any tube row
N Nu

Typical values of Fa are given in the following table.

Table I2 2. Arrangement Factor for Cross-flow Heat Exchanger with Square Pitch
(McCabe, 2001)
p/Do
Fa
NRe = 2000
NRe = 8000
NRe = 20000
NRe = 40000
1.25
0.85
0.92
1.03
1.02
1.5
0.94
0.90
1.06
1.04
2.0
0.95
0.85
1.05
1.02
C. Plate Heat Exchanger
For the plate heat exchanger (McCabe, 2001):
0.67
N Nu 0.37N Re
N Pr0.33

(I.2 163)

I2.5.8. Scraped-Surface Heat Exchanger

Liquid-solid suspensions, viscous solutions, and juice concentrates are often cooled or heated
in a scraped-surface heat exchanger (Geankoplis, 1995). The viscous liquid passes at low
velocity through a central tube. During the short time interval between passages of successive
scraper blades, heat is transferred to the liquid but penetrates only a small distance into the
stagnant liquid. The process is analogous to unsteady-state heat transfer to a semi-infinite
solid.
Time interval between passages of successive blades:
t

1
nB

where: n = agitator speed, r/s

B = number of blades carried by shaft

I2 - 32

(I.2 164)

Total amount of heat transferred during time interval t (McCabe, 2001):

QT
t
2k( Tw Tb )
A

(I.2 165)

Heat-transfer coefficient averaged over time interval t (McCabe, 2001):

hi

kc p
kc p nB
QT
2
2
tA( Tw Tb )
t

(I.2 166)

I2.5.9. Heat Transfer in Agitated Tanks

Many chemical and biological processes are often carried out in a cylindrical vessel agitated
by an impeller mounted on a shaft and driven by an electric motor. Often it is necessary to
cool or heat the contents of the vessel during the agitation. This is usually done by heat
transfer surfaces, which may be in the form of cooling or heating jackets in the wall of the
vessel or coils of pipe immersed in the liquid (Geankoplis, 1995).
A. Agitated Baffled Tank with Heating or Cooling Coils
For heating or cooling liquids in an agitated baffled cylindrical tank equipped with a helical
coil, the heat transfer coefficient hc between the coil surface and the liquid can be found from
(McCabe, 2001):

N Nu KN
hD
N Nu c c ,
where:
k
n = impeller speed, r/s
Da = impeller diameter
Dt = tank diameter

0.67
Re

N Re

0.37 0.24
Pr
v

Da

Dt

Da2 n

0.1

Dc

Dt

, N Pr

0.5

cp
k

(I.2 167)

, v

Table I2-3. Values of K for Baffled Tank Heated or Cooled by Helical Coil
and With Various Agitation Devices (McCabe, 2001):
Agitation device
K
turbine impeller
0.17
pitched turbine
0.1445
propeller
0.119

B. Jacketed Agitated Baffled Tank

I2 - 33

The heat-transfer coefficient hj between the liquid and jacketed inner surface of an agitated
and baffled tank can be found from McCabe, 2001):

N Nu K N Re N Pr vb
a

where:

N Nu

h j Dt
k

, N Re

Da2 n

1/ 3

, N Pr

(I.2 168)

cp
k

, v

Table I2-4. Values of K, a, and b for Heating or Cooling Jacketed Baffled Tank With Various
Method of Agitation (McCabe, 2001).
Agitation device
K
a
b
standard turbine
0.76
2/3
0.24
pitched turbine
0.684
2/3
0.24
propeller
0.456
2/3
0.24
anchor agitator, 10 < NRe < 300
1.0
1/2
0.18
anchor agitator, 300 < NRe < 40000
0.36
2/3
0.18
C. Transient Heat Transfer in Agitated Tank
Consider the heating of a liquid of mass m and specific heat capacity cp in a well-agitated
vessel where at time t = 0, its temperature is Ta. The temperature of the liquid, Tb , at any time
t > 0 can be found for the following two cases:
1. Heating by an isothermal medium at temperature Ts (McCabe, 2001):
ln

Ts Ta UAt

Ts Tb mc p

(I.2 169)

2. Heating by a flowing heat transfer medium (McCabe, 2001):

ln

Ta Tha m h c ph t K 1

Tb Tha
mc p
K

(I.2 170)

where: Tha = temperature of the entering heat transfer medium

cp, cph = specific heat capacities of liquid being heated and heating medium,
respectively

UA
K exp
m c
h ph

I2.5.10. Heat Transfer in Packed Beds

I2 - 34

(I.2 171)

In a tubular reactor, the reactant gases pass through a bed of solid catalyst particles. In the
packed bed, the total resistance to heat transfer is the sum of the resistance in the region very
near the wall and the resistance in the rest of the packed bed. Thus, the heat transfer
coefficient is given by
1
1
1

hi hbed hw

where:

(I.2 172)

k g = thermal conductivity of the gas

hbed

4ke
r

(for bed with parabolic temperature profile)

(I.2
173)

ke
5 0.1N Re, P N Pr
kg
hw D p
kg

(I.2 174)

0.5
0.33
1.94N Re,
P N Pr

(I.2 175)

I2.6. RADIATIVE HEAT TRANSFER

I2.6.1. Thermal Radiation
All objects with a temperature above absolute zero continuously emit electromagnetic
radiation. Such radiation, referred to as thermal radiation, is distributed over the 10-7 to 10-4
m wavelength range and results from changes in the electronic, vibrational, rotational and
translational states of electrons, atoms, and molecules.
Thermal radiation is a major energy-transfer mechanism in equipment where large
temperature differences are involved such as steam boilers, rotary kilns, and, blast furnaces.

I2.6.2. Absorption, Reflection and Transmission of Radiation

When matter appears in its path, electromagnetic radiation will be transmitted, reflected, or
absorbed. Radiation that is incident on opaque objects is usually absorbed within a few
microns from the surface (a surface phenomenon). The absorbed radiation is eventually
transformed into heat. Radiation may be reflected diffusely or specularly from a surface.
Dust and other finely divided solid particles present in a gas medium deflect incident
radiation.
Irradiation is the rate at which thermal radiation from all directions is incident on a surface
per unit area of the surface. The absorptivity of a surface is the fraction of irradiation
absorbed by the surface; its reflectivity is the fraction of irradiation that it reflects; its
I2 - 35

transmissivity is the fraction of irradiation that is transmits. The sum of these fractions
must be unity:

(I.2 176)

A black body is a hypothetical object that absorbs all incident thermal radiation at all
temperatures regardless of wavelength and direction. Thus, for a blackbody,

1 , 0 , 0

I2.6.3. Absorption of Radiation by Opaque Solids

A black body, being an ideal absorber of all incident radiation of any wavelength ( 1 ) is
used as a standard with which real surfaces are compared. Another idealized body, the gray
body does not absorb all incident radiation ( 1 ) but reflects some fraction of it. However,
its absorptivity is independent of the wavelength of radiation. For a real opaque body, 0
thus 1 .
A real opaque body is anything other than gray or black. Its absorptivity is practically
independent of its temperature but is strongly dependent on the temperature of the radiation
source and can vary considerably with the wavelengthof the incident radiation.
A. Gray Body:

B. Blackbody:

C. Real Body:

f ( )
1
f ( )

1
f ( )
1

I2.6.4. Emission of Thermal Radiation

A. Plancks Equation
When a black body is heated, photons having a distribution of energy are emitted from its
surface. The amount of radiation energy emitted by a blackbody at an absolute temperature T

I2 - 36

per unit time, per unit surface area, and per unit wavelength about the wavelength is given
by:

Eb

C1
n (e C2 / T 1)
2

(I.2 177)

where: Eb spectral blackbody emissive power, W/m2-m

C1 = 3.742 x 108 W-m4/m2
C2 = 1.439 x 104 m-K
n = index of refraction of radiation medium
B. Wiens Displacement Law
For a given absolute temperature T, the wavelength at which the emissive power of a
blackbody is a maximum is given by:

maxT 2.8978 x 103 m K

(I.2 178)

C. Stefan-Boltzmann Law
The total blackbody emissive power at an absolute temperature T is obtained by integrating
Plancks law over the entire wavelength spectrum:

q
Eb d T 4
0
A

(I.2 179)

where:
q/A = blackbody emissive power or total thermal energy (sum of radiation over all
wavelengths) emitted by a blackbody per unit time and per unit surface area
q = total rate of energy emission from the blackbody
A = area of radiating blackbody surface
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.676 x 10-8 W/m2-K4
T = absolute temperature of blackbody
The black body is a diffuse emitter, i.e., it emits thermal radiation uniformly in all directions
per unit area normal to the direction of emission.
Real bodies such as glossy surfaces or polished metal plates emit less radiation than a black
body. The emissivity of a real surface relates its radiation to that of the black body at a
given temperature:

(q of real body)
q

(q of blackbody) AT 4

(I.2 180)

Thus, the radiation emitted by a real body is:

q AT 4

I2 - 37

(I.2 181)

D. Kirchoffs Law
An object that is in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings is absorbing and emitting
thermal radiation at equal rates (no net heat flux) and its temperature remains constant. Thus,
the emissivity and absorptivity of any solid surface in thermal equilibrium with its
surroundings are equal:

(I.2 182)

I2.6.5. Radiation Exchange Between Surfaces

The net radiant energy gained or lost by an opaque body is the difference between the energy
that it emits and the incident radiation that it absorbs. The exchange of radiation between two
emitting surfaces depends on the emissivity, absorptivity, size, shape, and relative orientation
of these two surfaces.
A. Radiation Shape Factor
In general, not all the radiation leaving one surface will reach another surface; some will be
lost to the surroundings (i.e., to other surfaces). The radiation shape factor, F12, also known
as configuration factor, direct view factor, or angle factor, represents the fraction of
diffuse radiation leaving surface 1 that is directly intercepted by surface 2 (or the fraction
of surface 1 directly seen by surface 2).
If surface A1 sees a number of other surfaces and if its entire hemispherical angle of vision is
filled by these surfaces, then
F11+F12 + F13 + = 1

(I.2 183)

(summation rule)

For a small body of surface area A2, having no concavities, and surrounded by a large body of
surface area A1:
(a) none of the radiation leaving 2 is intercepted by itself:
(b) all radiation leaving 2 is intercepted by 1:

F22 = 0

F21 = 1

(c) some radiation from 1 is intercepted by itself; some by 2:

F11 + F12 = 1

B. Direct Radiation Between Parallel Black Bodies of Finite Size

Consider the exchange of thermal radiation between two black bodies of finite size that are in
full view of each other and with no absorbing medium between them. Some of the radiation
from surface 1 does not strike surface 2, and vice versa. Thus, some of the radiation is
lost to the surroundings. The net rate of energy transfer from body 1 to body 2 is given
by the equation
q12 A1F12 (T14 T24 ) A2 F21 (T14 T24 )

I2 - 38

(I.2 184)

where:

A1F12 = A2F21 (reciprocity relation)

(I.2 185)

C. Radiation Between Parallel Black Bodies Connected by Adiabatic Walls

An adiabatic wall is one that is in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings. A reradiating
wall is an adiabatic wall whose backside is well insulated; the net heat transfer though it is
zero. In the absence of convection effects and at steady state conditions, its heat transfer side
radiates back all the radiation that it receives.
For direct radiation between two black body surfaces 1 and 2 that are connected by
adiabatic walls formed from line elements perpendicular to these two surfaces, the fraction of
the radiation from A1 that is intercepted by A2 would be larger than in the absence of the
adiabatic walls. In this case, the net rate of energy transfer from blackbody 1 to blackbody
2 is given by the equation

q12 A1 F12 (T14 T24 ) A2 F 21(T14 T24 )

(I.2 186)

where F 12 , F 21 are referred to as interchange factors.

When there are no adiabatic walls:
(I.2 187)

F 12 F12

D. Radiation Exchange Between Two Real Surfaces

To simplify the analysis for direct radiation between two real surfaces 1 and 2, the
radiating surfaces are assumed to be opaque, diffuse emitters and reflectors (radiation
properties are independent of direction) and gray (radiation properties are independent of
wavelength). The net rate of energy transfer from real surface 1 to real surface 2 is given
by:
q12 A112 (T14 T24 ) A2 21 (T14 T24 )

(I.2 188)

where 12 is the overall interchange factor between any two opaque, diffuse, gray surfaces,
which in general can be determined approximately from:
12

1
A 1

1 1
1 1 1
F 12 1 A2 2

(I.2 189)

where 1 and 2 are the emissivities of radiation source 1 and radiation sink 2,
respectively.

I2 - 39

These equations are exact for radiation exchange between two opaque surfaces that are
parallel infinite planes, concentric infinite cylinders, or concentric spheres, and no other
surfaces are in view. The equations also become exact as the emissivities of all surfaces in
the system approach unity.

1. For Parallel Infinite Planes (A1 = A2 , F12 = 1.0):

(T14 T24 )
q

A 1 / 1 1 / 2 1

(I.2 190)

2. For Concentric Infinite Cylinders (F12 = 1.0):

A1 (T14 T24 )
q
1 / 1 ( A1 A2 )(1 / 2 1)

(I.2 191)

3. For Convex Surface 1 in Large Enclosure 2( F12 = 1.0, A1/A2 = 0):

q A1 1 (T14 T24 )

(I.2 192)

I2.6.6. Radiation Effect on Temperature Measurement

Consider a temperature sensor being dipped into a fluid flowing through a large channel
whose walls are at a different temperature than the fluid. The signal output from the sensor
will stabilize when its heat gain by convection equals its heat loss by radiation (or vice versa).
The actual fluid temperature is given by
T Tt

t (Tt 4 Tw4 )
h

(I.2 193)

where: T = actual fluid temperature

Tt = temperature measured by the thermometer
Tw = temperature of the surrounding surface
To reduce the radiation effect, the sensor is coated with a highly reflective material and for
outdoor measurements, protected from direct sunlight. Another way to reduce the radiation
effect is to insert a thin, highly reflective sheet between them a radiation shield.

I2.6.7. Radiation Shield

A radiation shield introduces additional resistance in the heat flow path between two
radiating surfaces, thus reducing the overall radiation heat transfer rate without adding or
removing any heat from the overall system. Multilayer radiation shields are used in cryogenic
and space applications.
I2 - 40

For radiation heat transfer between two large parallel plates separated by N radiation shields:

q AB, N

A (TA4 TB4 )
1

1
1

1
1
1

1 ...

1
A B
A1 B1

AN BN

(I.2 194)

where: AN = emissivity of surface of shield N facing plate A

BN = emissivity of surface of shield N facing plate B

I2.6.8. Radiation Exchange with Absorbing-Emitting Medium

In thin layers, most liquids and some solids absorb only a fraction of the incident radiation
and transmit the rest. Layers of water more than a few milllimeters thick are transparent to
visible light but absorb virtually all radiant energy with wavelengths greater than 1.5 m
(McCabe, 2001).
Monatomic and symmetrical diatomic gases such as argon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen
are almost completely transparent to thermal radiation because their nuclei and electrons
cannot be energized by photons of the available energy levels. At moderate temperatures,
polyatomic gases with asymmetric molecules (such as H2O, CO2, CO, SO2, and CnHn) may
participate in the radiation process by absorption, and at high temperatures, such as in a
furnace or combustion chamber, by both absorption and emission.
Gases emit and absorb radiation at a number of narrow wavelength bands (in contrast, solids
emit and absorb thermal radiation over the entire radiation spectrum). The emission and
absorption characteristics of a gas mixture also depend on its temperature, pressure, and
composition. Scattering caused by the gas molecules themselves (Rayleigh scattering) has
negligible effect on radiation heat transfer but it can be affected by the presence of aerosols
(dust, ice particles, liquid droplets, soot) that scatter radiation.
A. The Greenhouse Effect
Ordinary glass is transparent to radiation of short wavelengths but opaque to radiation of
longer wavelengths. Thus, the glass walls of a greenhouse will readily transmit thermal
radiation from the sun, which is chiefly of short wavelengths, but will trap thermal radiation
of longer wavelengths emitted by objects inside the greenhouse. Thus, there will be a net
radiation exchange into the greenhouse. The temperature inside the greenhouse will rise until
convective heat loss from the enclosure equals the input of radiant energy.
On a larger scale, the combustion gases in the earths atmosphere transmit the bulk of the
solar radiation but absorb the infrared radiation emitted from the surface of the earth,
producing a greenhouse effect. Environmentalists are concerned that the energy trapped on

I2 - 41

earth will cause global warming that can lead to drastic changes in the global weather
patterns.
B. Beers Law
The decrease in the intensity of radiation dI as it passes through a medium of thickness dx is
proportional to the intensity itself and the thickness:
dI I dx

(I.2 195)

where is the spectral absorption coefficient of the medium which is a function of the
wavelength of the incident radiation as well as the temperature, pressure, and composition
of absorbing medium.
The spectral transmissivity, , of the medium of thickness L is the ratio of the intensity of
radiation leaving the medium to that entering the medium. It is obtained by separation of
variables and integration of Beers law from distance x = 0 to x = L in the medium and
assuming a constant absorption coefficient

I ,L
I ,0

e L

(I.2 196)

The ability of a medium to absorb radiation of wavelength is given by its absorption length
(or optical path length), L, which is defined as the distance of penetration into the medium
at which the incident radiation has been attenuated an amount equal to 1/e where e is the base
of natural logarithms (McCabe, 2001). Thus,
L

(I.2 197)

A material whose thickness L is many times larger than L is considered to be opaque to

radiation of that wavelength. If L is less than a few multiples of L, the material is considered
to be transparent.
The spectral absorptivity of a nonscattering (and thus nonreflecting) medium of thickness L
is

1 1 e L

(I.2 198)

From Kirchoffs law, the spectral emissivity of a participating medium is

1 e L

(I.2 199)

A participating medium with a large value of L is considered to be optically thick and will
emit like a black body at the given wavelength.
I2 - 42

C. Emission of Radiation by CO2 and H2O in a Gas Mixture

For CO2 and H2O gases existing together in a mixture with nonparticipating gases, the
effective emissivity is given by

g c w

(I.2 200)

where the emissivity correction factor accounts for the fact that each gas is somewhat
opaque to radiation from the other (McCabe, 2001).
D. Absorption of Radiation by CO2 and H2O in a Gas Mixture
The absorptivity of a gas mixture containing CO2 and H2O for radiation emitted by a source at
temperature Ts is

g c w

(I.2 201)

where and is determined at the temperature of the radiation source Ts.

The net rate of radiation heat transfer between the emitting-absorbing gas and a black
body surface surrounding it is

q As ( g Tg4 g Ts4 )

(I.2 202)

When the enclosure is not a black body but with s > 0.7 (such as wall surface of furnace and
combustion chamber):

s 1
2

As ( g Tg4 g Ts4 )

(I.2 203)

E. Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms

In many engineering applications, heat transfer occurs by a combination of the three
fundamental heat transfer mechanisms. However, not all three mechanisms can exist
simultaneously in a heat transfer medium.

Table I2-5. Heat transfer mechanisms in various media.

System
Opaque solid

Heat transfer mechanism

Conduction
I2 - 43

Semitransparent solid
Still fluid
Flowing fluid
Vacuum

Conduction
Conduction
Convection

Radiation
Radiation
Radiation
Radiation

Convection and radiation can occur in parallel when a surface exchanges heat with its
surroundings. The total heat transfer rate between a small surface and its black body
surroundings is:

q qc qr hAs ( Ts T ) s As ( Ts4 T 4 )

(I.2 204)

For simplicity and convenience, a combined heat transfer coefficient, hcombined , that includes
the effects of both convection and radiation may be used:
q ( hc hr ) As ( Ts T ) hcombined As ( Ts T )

(I.2 205)

where hc is the convective heat transfer coefficient and hr is the radiative heat transfer
coefficient defined as:

hr

qr
As ( Ts T )

(I.2 206)

When the temperature difference is small,

hr 4 s Ts3

(I.2 207)

When the temperature difference is more than a few degrees but less than 20 % of Ts , the
arithmetic average of Ts and T can be used to improve the accuracy of the preceding equation
(McCabe, 2001).
In film boiling at a very hot surface (>300 oC), thermal radiation from the hot surface passing
across the vapor film to the liquid becomes significant and must be added to heat transfer by
convection. The convective heat-transfer coefficient can be predicted by iteration from
(McCabe, 2001):

h
hc hc ,o c ,o
hc hr

1/ 3

(I.2 208)

where hc,o is the convective heat-transfer coefficient in the absence of radiation.

The total heat transfer rate during film boiling, for the case when the radiative heat transfer
rate is less than the convective heat transfer rate, is (Cengel, 2003):
q qc 43 q r

I2 - 44

(I.2 209)

I2 - 45

NOMENCLATURE
Symbol
A
B
k
h
C
c
cp
fb
Fa
FG
L
Lc

m
QT
q
q/A
U
R
Rf
r
S
D
g
s
FG
P
p
p
t
T
T
dT dx

Definition
heat transfer surface area perpendicular to the positive x
direction for heat transfer; also area of radiating surface
number of blades carried by agitator shaft
thermal conductivity
convective heat transfer coefficient or film coefficient
heat capacity rate
heat capacity ratio
specific constant-pressure heat capacity of heat transfer
medium
fraction of shell cross section occupied by baffle window
arrangement factor for cross-flow heat exchanger
correction factor for LMTD in multipass heat exchanger
length
characteristic length of the geometry
mass flow rate, rate of condensation
total amount of heat absorbed or rejected by heat transfer
medium
rate of heat transfer; also rate of energy emission from
radiating surface
heat flux through a heat transfer medium; also emissive
power of radiating surface
overall heat transfer coefficient
thermal resistance
fouling factor
radius of cylinder or sphere
area for fluid flow
diameter of cylinder or sphere
gravitational acceleration
half-thickness of flat wall
correction factor that accounts for complex flow and
geometry of heat exchanger
baffle pitch
center-to-center distance between tubes
perimeter
time of heating or cooling
absolute temperature
bulk temperature of heat transfer medium
temperature gradient along the positive x direction
temperature drop along heat transfer path
thickness of plane wall

I2 - 46

SI Units
m2
[-]
W-m-1-K-1
W-m-2-K-1
W-K-1
[-]
J-kg-1-K-1
[-]
[-]
[-]
m
m
kg-s-1
J
W
W-m-2
W-m-2-K-1
K-W-1
K-W-1-m2
m
m2
m
m-s-2
m
[-]
m
m
m
s
K
K
K-m-1
K
m

xp
V

NH
N

n
I

v
Z

F 12
12

thermal penetration distance

volume
emissivity of radiating surface
heat transfer effectiveness
fin effectiveness
mass velocity
coefficient of volume expansion
number of heat transfer units
dimensionless number
number of layers in a composite wall; number of heat
shields; number of tubes in a vertical stack
rotational speed
intensity of radiation
thermal diffusivity (in convective heat transfer)
absorptivity (in radiative heat transfer)
absorption coefficient of medium
transmissivity of a body
reflectivity of a body
density of heat transfer medium
kinematic viscosity of fluid
dynamic viscosity of fluid
correction factor for effect of heating or cooling on
velocity gradient of fluid in internal flow
ratio of fall in temperature of hot fluid to rise in
temperature of cold fluid
heating effectiveness of heat exchanger (ratio of actual
temperature rise of cold fluid to maximum possible
temperature rise obtainable if the warm end approach were
zero based on countercurrent flow)
fin efficiency
condensate loading or mass rate per unit length of tube
periphery
Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.67 x 10-8
latent heat of vaporization
wavelength of electromagnetic radiation
radiation shape factor, also known as configuration factor,
direct view factor, or angle factor
interchange factor for radiation between two opaque,
diffuse, and gray surfaces
overall interchange factor

Subscripts

I2 - 47

m
m3
[-]
[-]
[-]
kg-s-1-m-2
K-1
[-]
[-]
[-]
r-s-1
m2-s
[-]
m-1
[-]
[-]
kg-m-3
m2-s-1
kg-m-1-s-1
[-]
[-]
[-]

[-]
kg-s-1-m-1
W-m-2-K-4
J-kg-1
m
[-]
[-]
[-]

i
o
a
a
b
b
b
e
f
f
fb

j
c
c
c
r
l
v
t
p
sat
s
w
w,i
w,o
B
F
U
T
L
G
h
c
cr
min
max

H
Re
Nu
Bi
Fo
Pr
Gr
Gz

inside of heat transfer tube

outside of heat transfer tube
entrance terminal in the heat exchanger
impeller
exit terminal in the heat exchanger
black body
baffle window
equivalent
heat transfer fluid medium
fluid film
fin base
spectral or monochromatic
heating or cooling jacket
heating or cooling coil
interfacial contact
convective
radiative
liquid
vapor
tank
particle
vapor-liquid equilibrium (saturated) condition
heat transfer surface
tube wall
inside surface of heat exchanger tube or wall
outside surface of heat exchanger tube or wall
bare heat transfer surface
fin
unfinned portion of heat exchange surface
total
logarithmic
geometric
hot fluid
cold fluid
critical
minimum
maximum
free stream fluid
hydraulic
Reynolds
Nusselt
Biot
Fourier
Prandtl
Grashof
Graetz
I2 - 48

REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Bird, Stewart and Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, John Wiley, 1960.

Brown, Unit Operations, John Wiley, 1950.
Cengel, Heat Transfer, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, 2003.
Foust, Principles of Unit Operations, 2nd ed., John Wiley, 1980.
Geankoplis, Transport Processes and Unit Operations, 3rd ed., Prentice Hall, 1995.
Hagen, Heat Transfer with Applications, Prentice-Hall, 1999.
Holman, Heat Transfer, 9th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2002.
McAdams, Heat Transmission, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, 1954.
McCabe, Smith and Harriott, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, 6th ed.,
McGraw-Hill, 2001.
10. Middleman, An Introduction to Mass and Heat Transfer: Principles of Analysis and
Design, John Wiley, 1998.
11. Perry and Green, Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 7th ed., McGraw-Hill,
1997.

Heat Transfer, I2 - 1
convective heat transfer, I2 - 12
heat exchangers, design equations, I2 - 13
heat exchangers, extended surface, I2 - 21
heat exchanger, analysis, I2 - 18
heat exchanger, equipment, I2 - 12
Newton's law for convective heat transfer, I2 - 12
correlations of film coefficients, I2 - 24
correction for heating and cooling effect, I2 - 28
dimensionless numbers in heat transfer correlations, I2 - 25
forced convection heat transfer, I2 - 28

I2 - 49

heat transfer, agitated vessels, I2 - 35

heat transfer, packed beds, I2 - 37
hydraulic diameter, I2 - 26
heat transfer , natural convection, I2 - 30
heat exchangers, scraped-surface, I2 - 34
shell side transfer coefficients, I2 - 33
heat exchangers, shell-and-tube, I2 - 33
heat transfer mechanisms, I2 - 1
radiative heat transfer, I2 - 37
absorption of radiation by opaque solids, I2 - 39
absorption, reflection, transmission, I2 - 38
thermal radiation emission, I2 - 39
radiation effect on temperature measurement, I2 - 43
radiation exchange between surfaces, I2 - 40
radiation shield, I2 - 43
thermal radiation, I2 - 37
heat transfer, steady-state conductive , I2 - 1
conduction through a multilayer wall, I2 - 4
conduction through a solid, I2 - 2
Fourier's law of heat conduction, I2 - 1
thermal conductivity, I2 - 2
thermal contact resistance, I2 - 6
thermal insulators, I2 - 6

unsteady-state thermal conduction, I2 - 7

dimensionless parameters, I2 - 7
transient heat conduction in semi-infinite solids, I2 - 10
transient heat conduction in slabs, cylinders, and spheres, I2 - 9

I2 - 50