Term Assignment Report on:

FLY ASH, LIME AND POZZOLANA

For the course of SS-631

SUSTAINABLE BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

Prepared by:
Deep Shah (13BCL098)
Pareejat Shah (13BCL101)
Shreyans Talawat (13BCL107)
Rahul Upadhyay (13BCL118)

Civil Engineering Department

Institute of Technology, Nirma University
Ahmedabad 382481 (India)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The phenomenon remains same that no project ever can be executed proficiently and
efficiently without sharing the meticulous ideas, technical expertise and innovative
thoughts put forwarded by the technical and non-technical veterans.
In this regard first of all we would like to express our deep gratitude towards PROF.
KEYUR SHAH & PROF. DIPAN SHAH for sharing his precious knowledge, time
and innovative ideas for the successful execution of the assigned project. They have
inspired and guided us for the right track to be followed for all the system analysis
section of this project.
Many people, especially our classmates and team members itself, have made
valuable comment suggestions on this proposal which gave us an inspiration to
improve our assignment. We thank all the people for their help directly and indirectly
to complete our assignment. The whole project really brought us together to
appreciate true value of friendship and respect of each other.

THANK YOU.

CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ... 2
Contents ........ 3
1

LIME

05

1.1

A HISTORY OF LIME AND ITS USES

1.2

LIME

1.3

MANUFACTURING OF LIME

1.4

LIME CONCRETE DEFINITION AND MANUFACTURING

1.5

PREPARATION OF LIME CONCRETE

1.6

LYING OF LIME CONCRETE

1.7

PROPERTIES OF LIME CONCRETE

1.8

DRAWBACKS OF LIME CONCRETE

1.9

USES AND PRECAUTIONS

1.10

WHY USE LIME

1.11

HOW TO USE LIME

1.12 Costing
2

POZZOLONA:
2.1

ORIGIN OF POZZOLANA:

2.2

INTRODUCTION:

2.3

POZZOLANIC MATERIALS:

13

2.4 USES OF POZZOLANS

2.5

BENEFITS OF POZZOLANS
3

FLY ASH

16

3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 VARIOUS USAGE OF ASH
3.3 CEMENT CONCRETE
3.4 THE NEED FOR FLYASH
3.5 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
3.6 REACTION OF FLYASH WITH CEMENT IN CONCRETE
3.7 ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF FLY ASH USE IN CONCRETE
3.8 Costing
3.9 Example
4

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

23

1) LIME:
1.1

A HISTORY OF LIME AND ITS USES

Lime has been used as a building material for thousands of years; the Egyptian Pyramids, the
Coliseum in Rome, and the Great Wall of China all boost lime mortar cement. Yet, since the
invention and widespread use of Portland cement from the mid-1800s, lime has faded into
obscurity and few people know how to correctly use lime.
This guide is a short introduction to this forgotten building material: how it is made, how to
use it, and why lime is an attractive alternative to cement, modern plasters, and paints for both
historic and contemporary buildings.

1.2 LIME

Lime refers to quicklime and is made by heating limestone (Calcium Carbonate) at high
temperatures in a kiln. The lime (Calcium Oxide) produced can then by rehydrated to form
Hydrated Lime (a powdery substance) or slaked and matured for at least 2-3 months in an
excess of water to create lime putty (which has a similar texture to toothpaste). These products
form the basis of lime plasters, mortars, and washes.

1.3 MANUFACTURING OF LIME

1. Extraction
In the quarry, explosives are used to break up limestone or chalk rock. This can dislodge
up to 30,000 tonnes of rock in one explosion.
The broken rock is then picked up at the quarry face by huge, mechanised excavators.
2. Crushing and Screening
Trucks then tip the rock into crushers, which break down the rock into smaller pieces.
Screeners sort and separate the rock pieces into different sizes.
3. Emissions Control
A number of filters and scrubbers control the dust and gases generated from burning the
rock.
4. Fuels
Different types of fuel are added to power the kiln.
5. The Kiln
The rock is heated to 800C in the preheater and then from 1200C to 2000C to make lime.
The burn temperature and time in the kiln depends on the type of rock that is used as the raw
material.
The kiln can either be horizontal or vertical.
6. Cooling
The lime that leaves the kiln is cooled with air.
7. Hydration
Sometimes after cooling, water is added to lime to make hydrated lime.
The type of lime that is made depends on what the customer is using it for.
8. Storage and Dispatch
Finished lime products are safely wrapped, packaged and stored on site.
They are then sent to the customer by road, rail and even boats overseas.

1.4 LIME CONCRETE DEFINITION AND MANUFACTURING

DEFINITION

A concrete made from a mixture of lime, sand, and gravel is said to be as lime concrete. It
was widely used before the lime was replaced by Portland cement.

Lime as the first cement:

Since long, Lime has been used to make things like plaster and mortar. Lime is usually made
by burning of limestone. Chemically; lime itself is calcium oxide (CaO) and is made by
roasting calcite (CaCO3) to remove carbon dioxide (CO2). Lime is also called calx or
quicklime. Quick Lime is very caustic and can even dissolve human bodies.
When lime is mixed with water, lime slowly turns into the mineral portlandite(dense) in the
reaction CaO + H2O = Ca (OH)2.
Lime is mixed with an excess of water so it stays fluid, this is called slaking and the lime
resulting is called slaked lime. Slaked lime continues to harden over a period of weeks.
Lime has to be mixed with sand and other ingredients to take form of slaked lime cement,
that can be used as mortar between stones or bricks in a wall or spread over the surface of a
wall There, over the next several weeks or longer, it reacts with CO 2 in the air to for111m
calcite again(artificial limestone).
Concrete made with lime cement is well known from more than 5000 years old. It was widely
used in all over the world. Sign of its usage can be found easily after surveying different
archaeological sites. In dry conditions, it works extremely well.

1.5 PREPARATION OF LIME CONCRETE

The main ingredient of this concrete is slaked lime as binding material. The slaked lime is
obtained in various forms as hydrated lime powder, lime putty, slaked lime slurry that is
prepared by grinding in suitable Grinding Mills.
Slaked lime is first mixed with sand to prepare lime mortar which is then further mixed with
coarse aggregates, in suitable proportion. For preparation of lime concrete, first hard
impervious level base is prepared by stones or brick pitching. Then quantity of sand is spread
as the horizontal base.
Generally lime & sand are taken in ratio of 1:1 to 1:3 by volume. Measured quantity of slaked
lime is then added to sand and then mixing is done. In this mixing, water is sprinkled
continuously to make the whole mass plastic.
Then the whole mass is allowed to mature for 1 to 3 days. After that coarse aggregates of
desired type are used to lay on the prepared hard impervious level surface. After that lime
mortar which is made with sand & lime is introduced into the base. Sufficient water is
sprinkled over the base and it is cut into the layers and then is turned upside down with the
help of spade or shovel until the whole assembly has become uniform.

1.6 LYING OF LIME CONCRETE

The base where lime concrete is to be laid is prepared by cleaning, leveling and compacting
by ramming properly. The material is laid on prepared foundation bases and rammed manually

with steel rammer. During ramming water may be sprinkled if concrete is dry and stiff. After
that it is cured for 7 to 14 days.

1.7 PROPERTIES OF LIME CONCRETE

Lime concrete provides good bases to bear the sufficient loads and also provide certain degree
of flexibility.
It adjusts very well when it is in contact with surface.
Lime concrete also exhibits certain degree of water proofing property and thus prevents
subsoil dampness in floors and walls.
Lime concrete also exhibits volumetric stability. It can be made easily and can be available at
much cheaper rates.
It also resists weathering effects and is very durable.

1.8 DRAWBACKS OF LIME CONCRETE

1. Hydraulic lime usually gains strength in time greater than the time in which cement concrete
gains same value of strength.
2. Lime cement takes a long time to cure, and while the ancient world had lots of time, today
time is money.
3. Lime cement does not harden in water but stays soft. So there are situations where it cannot
be used.

1.9 USES AND PRECAUTIONS

1. Lime concrete is very widely used for foundation bases of load bearing walls, columns, and
under layers of floors.
2. Due to its flexibility it adjusts very well with the underneath base ground and upper
construction of cement base.
3. For better quality of lime concrete it is important to compact & cure concrete properly. Lime
causes rashes on human skin so the persons which are dealing lime concrete should be
provided with suitable rubber gloves.
4. Persons should use oil on their skin to avoid rashes and cracking of their skin due to reaction
of lime.
5. To achieve good quality lime concrete, certain admixtures, fibers etc can be used

1.10 WHY USE LIME

1. Lime Allows Buildings To Breathe

In the search by architects and conservators for building materials sympathetic to traditional
construction, lime was found to be one of the most important.

One of the reasons lime binders are promoted by the Society for the Protection of Ancient
Buildings for repairs is because they are vapour permeable and allow buildings to breathe.
This reduces the risk of trapped moisture and consequent damage to the building fabric.

2. Lime Provides A Comfortable Environment

Porous and open textured materials such as lime plasters, help to stabilize the internal
humidity of a building by absorbing and releasing moisture. This makes for a more
comfortable environment and reduces surface condensation and mould growth.

3. The Use Of Lime Has Ecological Benefits

Lime has less embodied energy than cement.

Free lime absorbs carbon dioxide in the setting process of carbonation.
It is possible to produce lime on a small scale.
The gentle binding properties of lime enable full re-use of other materials.
A very low proportion of quicklime will stabilize clay soils.
Small quantities of lime can protect otherwise vulnerable, very low energy materials such as
earth construction and straw bales.

4. Lime Binds Gently With Early Adhesion

The fine particle size of lime, far smaller than cement, is linked to the root meaning of the
word lime, which is sticky material. Due to the fine particle size, lime mixes penetrate
minute voids in the background more deeply than other materials. They bind gently and the
stickiness gives good adhesion to other surfaces.

5. Lime Mortar Can Protect Adjacent Materials

Lime mortars with a high free lime content are porous and permeable. These characteristics
allow lime mortars to protect adjacent materials by handling moisture movements through the
building fabric and protecting them from harmful salts. Adjacent materials frequently affected
this way include timber and iron as well as stone and brick masonry.

6. Lime Renders Can Assist Drying Out By Evaporation

Dense and impermeable renders can trap moisture within the building fabric. Trapped
moisture is often the agent for various decay mechanisms. Dense renders used in conjunction
with softer materials or on weaker backgrounds can cause serious problems by creating local
stresses.
High calcium lime renders allow evaporation and reduce the risk of trapped moisture and
decay. In simple terms, the greater the extent of pure lime and permeability the better this is
for the building.

This needs to be balanced with durability, however, and some reduction in permeability may
be necessary to obtain adequate weathering qualities, hence the advantage of feebly hydraulic
limes for external use.

7. Lime Mixes Have Good Workability

The ability of a mortar or plaster to remain smooth and mouldable, even against the suction it
may experience from porous building materials, is termed workability. Good workability
greatly assists good workmanship, helping to achieve full joints with good bonding to the
other materials.
This is what makes lime based mixes such a pleasure to use. The workability provided by the
lime allows the inclusion of widely graded and sharp aggregates in the mix. These enhance
both the performance and the aesthetic of the finished work.

8. Lime Binders Can Be Durable And Have Stood The Test Of Time

When used carefully, lime is exceptionally durable. Caesars Tower at Warwick Castle has
stood the test of time for over 600 years, and many cathedrals have stood longer. An
outstanding example is the Pantheon Temple in Rome which has a lime concrete dome
spanning over 43 metres (142 feet). This has survived for nearly 2000 years.

9. Lime Finishes Are Beautiful

The double refraction of light through calcite crystals give a unique aesthetic combining a soft
texture with a lustre that has a liveliness and delight of its own. The graceful softness apparent
in lime based materials is a visual indication of their intrinsic permeability, workability and
soft binding properties. They can rapidly develop a rich patina which has a glowing
translucent quality.

10. Lime Contributes To A Healthy Environment

Lime is caustic and has been extensively used, often in the form of limewash, for its
disinfectant qualities. Lime is also used for water purification. Lime mortars, plasters, renders
and limewash have been used to create hygienic surfaces and improve comfort conditions
within buildings for thousands of years.

11. Self-Healing

The nature of ground conditions and the elements are such that all buildings are subject to
varying degrees of movement over time. When buildings made with lime are subject to small
movements they are more likely to develop many fine cracks than the individual large cracks
which occur in stiffer cement-bound buildings.
Water penetration can dissolve the free lime and transport it. As the water evaporates this
lime is deposited and begins to heal the cracks. This process is called autogenous, or selfhealing.
10

12. Free Lime Encourages the Growth of Calcite Crystals

Calcite crystals are a different shape to those formed by the more complex compounds in
hydraulic limes and cements. The crystals form in voids in lime rich environments. The
growth of calcite crystals adds strength over time and generally provides a more open and
permeable material than the denser eminently hydraulic and OPC mixes with little or no free
lime.

13. Local Limes Enhance Regional Identity And Diversity

The diversity of limestone types provides variety and local distinctiveness. Different limes
will vary in colour, texture and setting properties. Local limes have a regional identity, they
give a sense of place and provide a continuous link with the local aesthetic. Local colour is
the obvious example in respect of limewashes.

14. Disfiguring By Cement Can Be Avoided By The Use Of Lime

On site the temptation to use quick and easy solutions for short term gain can lead to long
term problems. The attraction of using excess cement to be safe is understandable if not
desirable.
The fact that it is plentiful, inexpensive and readily available adds to the problem. There is a
high probability that over-strong and dense mixes that are not fit for purpose will be used in
excess.
The physical damage and unsightly aesthetic that results from this can be avoided by the use
of lime.

1.11 HOW TO USE LIME

When deciding the type of lime suitable for your job, it is important to understand that The
more hydraulic the lime, the greater its strength, nut the lower its permeability and flexibility
(SPAB), so the right balance must be struck.
The type of lime and aggregate used should be appropriate for the building and the local area.
Slaked lime in any form (hydrated powder or putty) can be caustic and cause burns, so hand
and eye protection must be worn.
Cement Can Be Avoided By The Use Of Lime

On site the temptation to use quick and easy solutions for short term gain can lead to long
term problems. The attraction of using excess cement to be safe is understandable if not
desirable.
The fact that it is plentiful, inexpensive and readily available adds to the problem. There is a
high probability that over-strong and dense mixes that are not fit for purpose will be used in
excess.

11

The physical damage and unsightly aesthetic that results from this can be avoided by the use
of lime.

15. Indefinite Shelf Life

Non-hydraulic limes have an indefinite shelf life when stored without access to air, usually as
a putty under water or in sealed containers. In fact the quality of the putty improves the longer
it is stored.

How to Use Lime

When deciding the type of lime suitable for your job, it is important to understand that The
more hydraulic the lime, the greater its strength, nut the lower its permeability and flexibility
(SPAB), so the right balance must be struck.
The type of lime and aggregate used should be appropriate for the building and the local area.
Slaked lime in any form (hydrated powder or putty) can be caustic and cause burns, so hand
and eye protection must be worn.

1.12 Costing

To analyse the cost savings obtained by replacing ordinary cement mortar with lime cement
mortar a one brick thick sample wall has been used for cost calculations. The sample wall is
3 metres in height and 5 metres in length. The Sample walls have been constructed using
ordinary bricks-one with ordinary cement mortar having mix proportion of 1 cement :3
sand and the other one with lime cement mortar having mix proportion of 1 cement : 1
lime: 6 sand.
Results have been incorporated in a table clearly indicating savings of Rs 1971 when lime
cement mortar is used.

12

2) POZZOLONA:

13

2.1 ORIGIN OF POZZOLANA:

The term pozzolan is derived from the name of the town Pozzuoli, Italy. It is situated near Mt.
Vesuvius and is the place where the Romans more than 2,000 years ago mined the ashes
deposited by the occasional eruptions of this volcano. Adding these ashes at a ratio of 2:1 to
aged lime putty (aged 2+ years) they were able to construct those sturdy buildings we still
admire today.
Given this mineral origin, some purists consider only volcanic ashes, pumice, tuffs, etc. as
pozzolans. But as the ashes of organic origin, like pulverized fuel ashes (PFA, mostly coal
ashes) and rice hull ashes (RHA) also show enhancing properties when mixed with cement or
lime, most of the times the origin is irrelevant.

2.2 INTRODUCTION:

A pozzolna is a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material which, in itself, possesses little
or no cementitious value but which will, in finely divided form and in the presence of water,
react chemically with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form compounds
possessing cementitious properties.
A pozzolanic material has to contain reactive silicates or alumino-silicates.
The particles must be fine enough to provide a sufficient reactive surface area for the solid-state
chemical reactions.
The particles react with the alkalis and calcium hydroxide from the cement to produce cementitious
compounds (calcium-silicate hydrate gel, calcium-alumino silicates, etc.).

2.3 POZZOLANIC MATERIALS:

Fly ash
Silica fumes
Slag
Natural pozzolona etc

Generally 45 m (micron) are specified as the maximum particle size. Realizing that these
particles are too big to allow a timely reaction between the lime that is given off as the cement
hardens, and the silicate or alumino-silicate of the pozzolan, fly ash producers often indicate
35 m as the maximum particle size. Some researchers in the field insist that even this is
normally still too big, and they specify a maximum of 10 m.

2.4 USES OF POZZOLANS:

14

Cement gives off lime as it hardens and this lime will inevitably react with silica (silicates or
alumino-silicates). The aggregate in the concrete is basically silica, but unfortunately it reacts
too slowly, due to its reduced total surface area. In a concrete without pozzolans, the lime
produced in the hardening of the cement will slowly react with the aggregate, producing gels.
These gels are expansive, and that is welcome as long as they just fill the voids with a slight
pressure thus avoiding water penetration and leaching.
The problem starts when too large a volume of gels is produced after the concrete has
hardened. That is the case if the lime only has aggregate or large pozzolanic particles to react
with. Given the relatively small total surface area of the aggregate or big pozzolanic particles,
as well as the slow reaction between lime and silica, most of the gels will be produced after
the hardening of the cement, resulting in possible disastrous pressure build-up and a slow
destruction of the concrete. This makes it clear that the pozzolan has to be very fine (<10 m)
to ensure that most of the gels are formed before the hardening.

2.5 BENEFITS OF POZZOLANS:

Pozzolans not only strengthen and seal the concrete, they have many other beneficial features
you will realize the moment you purchase them or add them to the mix. All of the below
benefits apply to fly ash and rice hull ash, and most of them to silica fume as well.
Spherical Shape: Fly ash (FA) and rice hull ash (RHA) particles are almost totally spherical
in shape, allowing them to flow and blend freely in mixtures.
Ball Bearing Effect: The "ball-bearing" effect of FA and RHA particles creates a lubricating
action when concrete is in its plastic state.
Economic Savings: Pozzolans replace higher volumes of the more costly cement, with
typically less cost per volume.
Higher Strength: Pozzolans continue to combine with free lime, increasing structural
strength over time.
Decreased Permeability: Increased density and long-term pozzolanic action, which ties up
free lime, results in fewer bleed channels and decreases permeability.
Increased Durability. Dense pozzolan concrete helps keep aggressive compounds on the
surface, where destructive action is lessened. Pozzolan concrete is also more resistant to attack
by sulfate, mild acid, soft (lime-hungry) water, and seawater.
Reduced Sulfate Attack: Pozzolans tie up free lime that otherwise could combine with
sulfate to create destructive expansion.
Reduced Efflorescence: Pozzolans chemically bind free lime and salts that can create
efflorescence. Denser concrete, due to pozzolans, holds efflorescence-producing compounds
on the inside.
Reduced Shrinkage: The largest contributor to drying shrinkage is water content. The
lubricating action of FA and RHA reduces the need for water and therefore also drying
shrinkage.
Reduced Volume: As pozzolans can in certain cases substitute for up to four times the mass
of cement, besides making the same amount of concrete harder than without pozzolans, less
voluminous structures are able to bear the same load.

15

Reduced Heat of Hydration: The pozzolanic reaction between pozzolan and lime generates
less heat, resulting in reduced thermal cracking when pozzolans are used to replace portland
cement.
Reduced Alkali Silica Reactivity: Pozzolans combine with alkalis from cement that might
otherwise combine with silica from aggregates, which would cause potentially destructive
expansion.
Workability: Concrete enhanced with FA and RHA is easier to place, with less effort,
responding better to vibration to fill forms more completely.
Ease of Pumping: Pumping of FA and RHA concrete requires less energy, therefore longer
pumping distances are possible.
Improved Finishing: Sharp, clear architectural definition is easier to achieve with FA and
RHA concrete, with less worry about in-place integrity.
Reduced Bleeding: Fewer bleed channels decreases porosity and chemical attack. Bleed
streaking is reduced for architectural finishes. Improved paste to aggregate contact results in
enhanced bond strengths.
Reduced Segregation: Improved cohesiveness of pozzolan concrete reduces segregation that
otherwise could lead to rock pockets and blemishes.
Very low Chloride Ion Diffusion: Pozzolans make concrete more resistant to salt water
(seawater).
Improved Water Tightness: The formation of expansive gels effectively seals the concrete.
Resistance to Freeze-Thaw: As water doesnt penetrate the hardened concrete, freezing cant
cause destructive expansion.
Resistance to Adverse Chemical Reactions: The example of Dynastone shows how
pozzolans can protect against strong acids.

3) FLY ASH:
.1 INTRODUCTION

Coal based thermal power stations account for as much as 60% of installed power
generating capacity in India. The same trend is expected to continue in foreseeable future,
considering availability of vast reserve of coal in India. The high percentage of fly ash
content in the Indian coal has resulted in huge production of fly ash at these coal-based
stations. But at the same time quality of fly ash produced is superior because of
low sulphur and unburnt carbon content.
Considering the tremendous growth required in the power sector for the development of
Indian economy, it is expected that ash generation will reach 175 million tonne per annum
by 2012 and 225 million tonne by 2017.
Fly ash in cement concrete is one of the areas where huge potential exists for large-scale
value added fly ash utilization on sustainable basis.

.2 VARIOUS USAGE OF ASH

16

Pulverized Fuel Ash is versatile resource material and can be utilized in variety of
application.
The pozzolanic property of fly ash makes it a resource for making cement and other ash
based products. The Geo-technical properties of bottom ash, pond ash & coarse fly ash allow
it to use in construction of embankments, structural fills, reinforced fills low lying area
development etc.
The physic chemical properties of pond ash is similar to soil and it contains P, K, Ca, Mg, Cu,
Zn, Mo, and Fe, etc. which are essential nutrients for plant growth. These properties enable
it to be used as a soil amender & source of micronutrients in Agriculture/ Soil Amendment.
The major utilization areas of PFA are as under: -

1. Manufacture of Portland Pozzolana Cement & Performance improver in Ordinary

Portland Cement (OPC).
2. Part replacement of OPC in cement concrete.
3. High volume fly ash concrete.
4. Roller Compacted Concrete used for dam & pavement construction.
5. Manufacture of ash bricks and other building products.
6. Construction of road embankments, structural fills, low lying area development.
7. As a soil amender in agriculture and wasteland development.

.3 CEMENT CONCRETE

Cement concrete - most widely used construction material in the world over, commonly
consists of cement, aggregates (fine and coarse) and water.
It is the material, which is used more than any other man made material on the earth for
construction works. In the concrete, cement chemically reacts with water and produces
binding gel that binds other component together and creates stone type of material.
The reaction process is called 'hydration' in which water is absorbed by the cement. In this
process apart from the binding gel, some amount of lime [Ca (OH)2 ] is also liberated. The
coarse and fine aggregates act as filler in the mass.

.4 THE NEED FOR FLYASH

As the hydration of cement takes place progressively, lime is also liberated gradually. A small
quantity of this liberated lime is used to maintain pH of the concrete and the major portion
remains unused/ surplus and makes concrete porous.
The high-grade cement which has high C S, releases higher amount of surplus lime resulting
in higher porosity in the concrete mass.
Further, higher heat of hydration, higher water content and high porosity increases the
susceptibility of concrete mass when it is exposed to a range of external and internal
aggressive environment. This disturbs the soundness of the concrete and result in reduced
durability.

17

To mitigate the above problem subsequent research work was carried out which established
that use of fly ash or Pozzolana helps to solve all problems related to durability of concrete
mass.

.5 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

The major constituents of most of the fly ashes are Silica (SiO 2 ), alumina(Al2O3 ), ferric
oxide (Fe2O3 ) and calcium oxide (CaO). The other minor constituent of the fly ash are MgO,
Na2O, K2O, SO3, MnO, TiO2 and unburnt carbon.
There is wide range of variation in the principal constituents - Silica (25-60%), Alumina (1030%) and ferric oxide (5-25%). When the sum of these three principal constituents is 70% or
more and reactive calcium oxide is less than 10% - technically the fly ash is considered as
siliceous fly ash or class F fly ash. Such type of fly ash is produced by burning of anthracite
or bituminous coal and possess pozzolanic properties.
If the sum of these three constituent is equal or more than 50% and reactive calcium oxide is
notless than 10%, fly ash will be considered as Calcareous fly ash also called as class C fly
ash. This type of fly ash is commonly produced by burning of ligniteor sub-bituminous coal
and possess both pozzolanic and hydraulic properties.
siliceous fly ash characteristically contains a large part of silicate glass of high silica content
and crystalline phases of low reactivity mullite, magnetite and quartz.The active constituents
of class F fly ash is siliceous or alumino-silicate glass.
In calcareous or class C fly ash, the active constituents are calcium alumino-silicate glass,
free lime (CaO), anhydrate (CaSO4), tricalcium aluminate and rarely, calciumsilicate. The
glassy materials of fly ash are reactive with the calcium and alkali hydroxides released from
cement fly ash system and forms cementitious gel, which provide additional strength.

.6 REACTION OF FLYASH WITH CEMENT IN CONCRETE

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is a product of four principal mineralogicalphases.

These phases are-Tricalcium Silicate-C3S (3CaO.SiO2 ), Dicalcium Silicate - C2S
(2CaO.SiO ), Tricalcium Aluminate- C3A (3CaO.Al2O3 ) and Tetracalcium alumino-ferrite C4AF(4CaO.Al2O3Fe2O3 ).
The setting and hardening of the OPC takes place as a result of reaction between these
principal compounds and water.The reaction between these compounds and water are shown
as under:

18

The hydration products from C3S and C2S are similar but quantity of calcium hydroxide
(lime) released is higher in C3S as compared to C2S.
The reaction of C3 A with water takes place in presence of sulphate ions supplied by
dissolution of gypsum present in OPC. This reaction is very fast and is shown as under:

Tetracalcium alumino-ferrite forms hydration product similar to those of C3A, with iron
substituting partially for alumina in the crystal structures of ettringite and monosulphoaluminate hydrate.
Above reactions indicate that during the hydration process of cement, lime is released out and
remains as surplus in the hydrated cement. This leached out surplus lime renders deleterious
effect to concrete such as make the concrete porous, give chance to the development of microcracks, weakening the bond with aggregates and thus affect the durability of concrete.
If fly ash is available in the mix, this surplus lime becomes the source for pozzolanic reaction
with fly ash and forms additional C-S-H gel having similar binding properties in the concrete
as those produced by hydration of cement paste. The reaction of fly ash with surplus lime
continues as long as lime is present in the pores of liquid cement paste. The process can also
be understood as follows:

19

 Salient advantage of using fly ash in cement concrete

Reduction in heat of hydration and thus reduction of thermal cracks and improves soundness
of concrete mass.
improved workability / pumpabilty of concrete
Converting released lime from hydration of OPC into additional binding material
contributing additional strength to concrete mass.
Pore refinement and grain refinement due to reaction between fly ash and liberated lime
improves impermeability. Improved impermeability of concrete mass increases resistance
against ingress of moisture and harmful gases result in increased durability.
Reduced requirement of cement for same strength thus reduced cost of concrete.

.7 ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF FLY ASH USE IN CONCRETE

Use of fly ash in concrete imparts several environmental benefits and thus it is ecofriendly.
It saves the cement requirement for the same strength thus saving of raw materials such as
limestone, coal etc required for manufacture of cement.
Manufacture of cement is high-energy intensive industry. In the manufacturing of one tonne
of cement, about 1 tonne of CO2 is emitted and goes to atmosphere. Less requirement of
cement means less emission of CO2 result in reduction in green house gas emission.
Due to low calorific value and high ash content i n Indian Coal,thermal power plants in
India,are producing huge quantity of fly ash. This huge quantity is being stored /disposed off
in ash pond areas. The ash ponds acquire large areas of agricultural land. Use of fly ash
reduces area requirement for pond, thus saving of good agricultural land.

.8 Costing
To analyse the cost savings obtained by replacing 30% cement with flyash two different one cubic metre
of concrete samples have been taken .
Sample A has been made with opc and having mix proportion of:
Cement = 350 kg/m3
Fine aggregate = 896 kg/m3 = 0.327cum
Course Aggregate = 1140 kg/m3 = 0.416cum
Chemical Admixture = 7 kg/m3
Sample B has been made by replacing 30% of cement with flyash and having mix proportion of:

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Cement = 270 kg/m3

Flyash = 115 kg/m3 = 0.052cum
Fine aggregate = 862 kg/m3 = 0.314cum
Course Aggregate = 1097 kg/m3 = 0.4cum
Chemical Admixture = 7 kg/m3

Results have been incorporated in a table clearly indicating savings of Rs380 when concrete with flyash
is used

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3.9 EXAMPLES OF USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE

World over
World over fly ash has been successfully utilized in cement concrete and as component of
1.
2.
3.

4.

Portland Pozzolana Cement/ Blended cement for more than 50 years. Some of the structures
wherein fly ash has been utilized are as under:
Fly ash concrete was used in Prudential Building the first tallest building in Chicago after
World-war II.
About 60,000 cum of fly ash concrete with an estimated saving of 3,000 tonne of
Ordinary Portland Cement was used in Lednock Dam construction in UK during the year
1955
About 60,000 m3 of fly ash concrete with 80/20
Ordinary Portland Cement/ fly ash having average slump of 175 mm was used in the piles and
the foundation slab to meet the requirement of sulphate resistance concrete of Ferrybridge C
power station in UK during 1964
Fly ash concrete was used for all the tunnel lining and slip formed surge shafts at the
Dinorwig Pumped Storage Scheme in the year 1979 & 1980 in UK mainly to provide increased
resistance to attack from aggressive water

IN INDIA

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In India calcined clay pozzolana as a mineral admixture was used in mass concrete work of
Bhakra and Rana Pratap sagar dam works in late fifties and early sixties. A special plant was
set up to produce calcined clay pozzolana in 1957 at Bhakra dam site to meet requirement of
pozzolana for mass concrete work. Some of the examples of application of fly ash as a
pozzolana in mass concrete works are Rihand Dam and Narora Barrage in UP, Jawahar
Sagar Dam in Rajasthan and Chandil Dam in Bihar when it has became available at thermal
power stations. The use was limited because of non-availability of good quality fly ash in
thermal power station.

4) Conclusion

From this report we conclude that if we use lime as a binding material then it serves
advantages like good workability and in terms of cost also it is beneficial. Even with the
addition of fly ash we can increase strength. From the literature review we come to know that
25-35% replacement of cement provide good amount of strength. So in this report when we
reduce cement content as 30% we find reduction in total cost. So it is beneficial. World is
suffering from pollution so with the use of fly ash we give contribution to reduce the pollution.
Total amount of reduction in cost, in case of using lime = Rs.1971
And in case of fly ash, reduction in cost = Rs. 380.

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