Professional Documents
Culture Documents
exaggerated sense that some groups have about their difference (and
superiority) to other groups, as if they were a separate species. (Witness the
Nazi elimination of lesser races to promote Aryan superiority.) Today we
have a global economy and need to find ways to value differences in races
and cultures, so that our entire planet survives. Turning our backs on
genocide or AIDS in Africa will come back to haunt all of us.
Gender was of interest to Erikson, as he believed differences in genders
were biologically determined. Social scientists today are casting more doubt
on that precept, but Erikson found evidence for his theory.
Childrens play would display this inherent difference between the
sexes. He observed 300 children and recorded the edifices they built
with the toys. Girls built more open structures, doorways and showed
people relating, boys built more towers. These structures displayed the
Freudian belief that biology determines destiny. So boys build phallic
structures, and girls build things representing the womb. Girls
emphasize inner space and boys emphasize out world space.
Upon further analysis of his information others have found his claims
were not supported by the buildings. It is also supposed that
socialization and differing exposure to certain toys would explain
differences in play styles.
Male and female identity resolution was emphasized by Erikson, as
he believed the different sexes had different roles to fill in the culture.
Feminist theorists have rejected this idea, saying we see differences in
sexes because of very different expectations, exposure to the world,
and reinforcement. They say Erikson did not recognize the powerful
impact of culture on gender roles. There is more that is similar about
men and women than what is different. One particularly difficult
theory espoused by Erikson is the idea that women must resolve
intimacy issues before they can fully move into advanced identity
development. Recent research does not support this idea. Measures of
identity resolution (self-actualization, internal locus of control,
principled moral reasoning) show equal development and positive
functioning equally for men and women. Girls today are expected to
develop a career and function independently just as much as boys.
Those girls who particularly embraced the womens movement
developed more confidence, initiative and self-esteem after college.
Measures of masculinity actually reflect autonomy and advanced
identity development for both men and women. Women high in
masculinity (androgyny) have better life outcomes than those who are
high only in femininity. Masculinity scales actually measure traits of
individualism and autonomy in both sexes. So women who master
more life roles show advanced identity development.
Research on development through the stages
Identity status as a paradigm has been developed by Marcia using the
poles of crisis (exploration) and commitment to assess development.
Identity development ranges from diffusion to achieved identity. It has
been seen, however that this is not a linear path, as people can move
up and back in the progression, depending on life experiences.
o Identity diffusion
o Foreclosure
o Moratorium
o Achieved identity
Correlates of stage measures- higher scores on measures of the
stages are associated with better functioning in many studies.
o Identity is most often studied of all the stages. Subjects who
score higher on ego identity also show career development, use
more mature defense mechanisms, have higher self-concepts,
and score higher on moral judgment. They also have better
recall of childhood memories and memories show themes that
are more mature. People in moratorium are less committed to a
career choice, feel greater anxiety which can interfere with
performance, and are less satisfied with college. Those in
foreclosure are more authoritarian and impulsive.
o Intimacy resolution correlates with interpersonal behavior.
Males who score low on intimacy (isolates) report having fewer
friends when growing up. Intimacy resolution correlates with
femininity on the Bem Sex-Role Inventory for men.
o Generativity is seen in higher levels in fathers than men who
have not had children. Generative parents are also more
authoritative as parents, rather than authoritarian. Generativity
concerns rise during midlife, as adults become more concerned
with others and social issues. Women high in generativity also
show higher levels of prosocial attitudes, more helping, and
volunteering. Generativity can be expressed through work,
political involvement, or social activism.