Renewable Heat in Coastal Communities - District Heating Case Study

RENEWABLE HEAT IN COASTAL COMMUNITIES:
DISTRICT HEATING CASE STUDY
by
Linda C Forbes
August 2009
A dissertation submitted in the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the

degree of
Master of Science
in Renewable Energy Development
Institute of Petroleum Engineering
Heriot-Watt University
Orkney
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................ 1
AIMS .................................................................................................................. 3
CRITICAL REVIEW OF LITERATURE ......................................................... 4
1. DRIVERS FOR RENEWABLE HEAT ........................................................ 4
1.1. EU Directive 2009/28 on promotion of energy .................................... 4
from renewable sources ................................................................................... 4
1.2. EU Directive 2006/32 on energy-end use and energy services ................ 5
1.3. Climate Change (Scotland) Bill .................................................................... 5
1.4. Scottish Government policy – Renewable Action Plan ............................ 6
1.5. Costs of national policies and administrative barriers ............................. 8
2. HEATING DEMAND .................................................................................... 9
2.1. Heat demand in the UK.................................................................................. 9
3. DISTRICT HEATING SCHEMES ............................................................. 10
3.1. Perceptions and penetration of district heating....................................... 10
3.2. Development of district heating in the UK ................................................ 12
3.3. Heat density and financial viability ............................................................ 13
4. HOUSING CONDITIONS .......................................................................... 14
4.1. Stock survey of Scottish homes ................................................................ 14
4.2. Energy efficiency of existing buildings ..................................................... 15
4.3. Building standards in Scotland .................................................................. 15
4.4. Wind chill factor in exposed locations ...................................................... 16
4.5. Fuel poverty .................................................................................................. 16
4.6. Insulation grants and energy efficiency improvement schemes ........... 17
5. PLANNING STROMNESS ........................................................................ 18
5.1. Orkney Local Plan..................................................................................... 18
6. ENERGY SURVEY .................................................................................... 20
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6.2. Survey area ................................................................................................... 21
6.3. Questionnaire design .................................................................................. 22
6.4. Response rates............................................................................................. 23
6.5. Property sizes and heating regime ............................................................ 23
6.6. Fuels and technologies ............................................................................... 23
6.7. Heat loss from buildings ............................................................................. 24
6.7.1. Insulation.................................................................................................... 25
6.7.2. Loft insulation ............................................................................................ 25
6.7.3. Double glazing and draught proofing..................................................... 26
7. POTENTIAL ENERGY SOURCES .......................................................... 27
7.3. Heat sources ................................................................................................. 27
7.3.1. Large scale power plants ......................................................................... 27
7.3.2. Small scale power plants ......................................................................... 27
7.4. Biomass......................................................................................................... 28
7.4.1. Willows and short rotation coppicing .................................................... 28
7.4.2. Other biomass crops ................................................................................ 29
7.5. Heat pumps ................................................................................................... 29
7.5.1. Ground........................................................................................................ 30
7.5.2. Sea water .................................................................................................... 30
7.6. Anaerobic digestion..................................................................................... 30
7.6.1. Qualified potential ..................................................................................... 31
7.6.2. Farmyard waste ......................................................................................... 32
7.6.3. Waste water treatment and human sewage .......................................... 33
7.6.4. Seaweed – biomass for anaerobic digestion ........................................ 34
7.7. Energy-from-Waste ...................................................................................... 34
7.7.1. Material excised as provided ‘commercial in confidence’........................... 35
7.8. Backup options - wind to heat and solar thermal .................................... 35
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8. MODELLING OF HEAT DEMAND AND SUPPLY .................................. 36
8.1. Maximum local heat demand ...................................................................... 36
8.2. Phased construction and connection ....................................................... 37
9. COSTINGS ................................................................................................. 39
9.1. Infrastructure ................................................................................................ 40
9.1.1. Anticipated lifetime of plant and network .............................................. 40
9.1.2. Pipework..................................................................................................... 40
9.1.3. Heat exchangers ....................................................................................... 41
9.1.4. Heat meters ................................................................................................ 42
9.2. Financial support mechanisms .................................................................. 42
9.2.1. Renewable Heat Incentive ........................................................................ 42
9.2.2. Enhanced Capital Allowance ................................................................... 43
10. OPERATING STRUCTURES ................................................................. 44
DISCUSSION ................................................................................................. 45
BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................. 55
Appendix 1 – Scottish Heat Map.............................................................. 56
Appendix 2 – Survey Schedule and Questionnaires................................ 57
Appendix 3 – Key District Heating Schemes in UK .................................. 60
Appendix 4 – Insulation material .............................................................. 62
Appendix 5 – Wind Chill Factor ................................................................ 63
Plagiarism Statement ....................................................................................... 64
Figure 1: Existing Incentives (FREDS, 2008b) .................................................. 7

Figure 2: From Source to Delivery (MVV Consulting, 2007) .............................. 8
Figure 3: UK Heat Demand, 2009 and 2020 (NERA, 2009 from Department of
Energy & Climate Change, 2009)....................................................................... 9
Figure 4: Energy Use in Scotland....................................................................... 9
Figure 5: Breakdown of Scotland’s Space Heating and Hot Water Demand ...... 9
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Figure 6: The Roman Baths, Bath .................................................................... 10
Figure 7: Penetration of District Heating by Building Types ............................. 11
Figure 8: District Heating Market Share (Ecoheatcool, 2006b, page 11) ......... 13
Figure 9: Age & Number of Dwellings (Scottish Government, 2007)................ 14
Figure 10: Energy Performance Certificate (Directgov, 2008) .......................... 15
Figure 11: Stromness, Orkney (Ordnance Survey, 2009) ................................ 18
Figure 12: Proposals Map 2 - Stromness (Orkney Local Plan, 2005b) ............ 19
Figure 13: Stromness - Surveyed Area ............................................................ 21
Figure 14: Number of rooms in house .............................................................. 23
Figure 15: Number of Rooms Heated in Houses.............................................. 23
Figure 16: Fuels & Technologies in Use .......................................................... 23
Figure 17: Heat Loss & Insulation (DEAC, 2007) ............................................. 24
Figure 18: Thermal Image (Press Association, 2008) ...................................... 24
Figure 19: Home Insulation Levels ................................................................... 25
Figure 20: Distribution Curve of Depths of Loft Insulation ................................ 25
Figure 21: Double Glazing & Draught Proofing ................................................ 26
Figure 22:Sea Surface Temperature Data – 2002 & 2003, (Hughes, 2005) ... 30
Figure 23: Lerwick District Heating (Martin, 2007) ........................................... 34
Figure 24: Heat Demand Profile, North Stromness .......................................... 36
Figure 25: Target Consumers in Stromness..................................................... 36
Figure 26: Overall Monthly Heat Demand and Potential Means of Supply ....... 37
Figure 27: Phase 1 Heat Demand and Supply ................................................. 38
Figure 28: Pipework Burial (Uponor, 2007) ...................................................... 40
Figure 30: Pipeline Costs in Sweden (Nilsson et al, 2007) ............................... 41
Figure 29: Building Density and Connection Costs .......................................... 41
Figure 31: Heat Exchanger (Utilicom, 2008) .................................................... 42
Figure 32: Ownership Models in Sweden (Ecoheatcool, 2006A) ..................... 44
Figure 33: Heat Sources in Sweden (Nilsson et al, 2008) ................................ 48
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Dr Sandy Kerr for his encouragement during the writing of
this thesis: his patience is reassuring and comments were always helpful.
To the residents of Stromness who took the trouble to complete and return the
survey forms so promptly – I really do appreciate your time and consideration
as without your responses I could have done little. Many of you gave freely of
your time to discuss various aspects of renewable energy during the course of
my work – I gathered much additional knowledge from these conversations.
For their help in explaining how they and their businesses were using, reducing
or producing energy, be it ‘brown’ or ‘green’, while addressing sustainability I’d
like to record my appreciation and mention particularly Russell Anderson,
Highland Park Distillery, Kirkwall; Richard Gauld, Orkney Sustainable Energy
Ltd, Stromness; Kenny Inkster, Orkney Herring Ltd, Stromness; Neville Martin,
Shetland Heat and Power Ltd, Lerwick; Dave Marwick, Scottish Water, Kirkwall;
Alistair Morton, Energy Manager, Orkney Islands Council, Kirkwall; Colin
Risbridger, Heat & Power Ltd, Westray; Ken Ross, Orkney Energy Agency,
Kirkwall; and James Walker, Orkney Meat Ltd, Kirkwall.
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INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Inspired by a group assignment earlier in this Renewable Energy Development

Masters course and encouraged by the enthusiasm of local councillors, this
thesis explores the potential for district heating schemes in coastal communities
being powered by renewable energy sources.
During the period of research and at the time of writing, the impacts of the
global recession continue to crash down particularly hard on the UK, with rising
unemployment, personal and commercial insolvencies, and homes being
repossessed. With the level of public debt being incurred to support the financial
sector, it is difficult to comprehend how UK plc and its shareholders, the
citizens, will find the funds to deliver energy security in the coming oil crunch.
While it’s possible to feel some regret that the benefits of North Sea oil to the
UK economy have not been ring-fenced as in Norway for future generations, or
targeted more effectively, as in Shetland with its development of district heating
schemes and community centres, we must focus on maximising the remaining
carbon income in meeting renewable energy targets agreed within the EU.
One could regard the effects of the recession positively: falling demand leading
to industrial closures and reduced imports thereby cutting demand for oil and
lowering our CO2 emissions, a government promise that a cohort of the
unemployed is to be trained as installers of insulation and renewable energy
technologies, ‘staycations’ leading to fewer flights and Ryanair grounding some
of its fleet, while people show a greater interest in local food production.
But, demand for fossil fuels will rise again as growth returns to the economy and
this will be reflected in the increasing cost of keeping warm in winter. The UK’s
reliance on imported fuels bought with a weakened currency makes us
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INTRODUCTION
vulnerable – examining how some of these needs might be met from home-
grown resources is an essential first step in taking action. The conflict between
supporting economic growth and minimising environmental impacts remains
unresolved at the heart of our society – might not money targeted towards the
car scrappage scheme have been better employed in a mass insulation project?
Enthusiasm at governmental level for renewable heat is clearly evident in the

many policy documents and legislation being brought forward: some foot
dragging is already apparent though as the Renewable Heat Incentive is
delayed until 2011.
Opportunities abound in the field of renewable heat for the development of new
industrial processes and supply chains to replace those of oil handling and
refining: this thesis investigates some of the potential sources of replacement
fuels and how they might be accessed by coastal or remote communities in
order to become less dependent on fossil fuels for their heating and hot water.
The majority of the research was undertaken in Orkney, with the main focus
being on the community in the northern part of Stromness. However, during the
survey stage of this thesis, the local authority, Orkney Islands Council,
advertised its tender for consultants to undertake a feasibility study into the
potential for a district heating scheme in Stromness.
As this study will require the surveying of commercial organisations approached

during my thesis, my ability to follow-up non-respondents was fettered by my
concern not to overburden or confuse participants. Accordingly, the focus of the
thesis changed to reflect the fact that information relating to the industrial
heating/cooling loads in Stromness was unavailable and could not be factored
into overall demand/supply calculations.
Although precluding the completion of a detailed mass balance of heating

requirements for one particular scheme, i.e. Stromness, the setback to data
gathering described has encouraged in this thesis a wider perspective as to the
opportunities there may be for recovering energy from with a locality.
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AIMS
AIMS
Sustainable energy = energy efficiency + renewable energy
This thesis explores the hypothesis that domestic, industrial, and commercial
buildings in coastal communities could obtain their heating, cooling and hot
water needs through district heating schemes powered by renewable energy.
The example of a remote coastal community in which to test this hypothesis is

Stromness in Orkney: however, the premise is that the processes underpinning
the research are translocatable to and replicable in other geographies.
The research will examine heating energy use within a specific locality and aims
to identify how users might optimise these requirements. It will explore fuels and
technologies that may be available for use within a local district heating
scheme, and aims to establish running costs, and those of installation.
It will examine whether governmental and financial drivers encourage, or

discourage, the potential for such schemes, and consider how the effectiveness
of these drivers could, or should, be improved. Comparisons with outcomes in
other countries will be used to inform opportunities and pitfalls in delivering
renewable heat to consumers.
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CRITICAL REVIEW OF LITERATURE
1. DRIVERS FOR RENEWABLE HEAT
Support for and encouragement of delivery of heat from renewable energy

sources and waste streams powered by fossil fuels are being legislated into
action through a number of key documents arising from Brussels, Westminster,
and Holyrood. Furthermore, the development of a renewable heat industry can
offer economic and employment opportunities at national and local levels, while
reducing dependence on energy imports from unstable regions or from those
countries with poor records in human rights.
1.1. EU Directive 2009/28 on promotion of energy

from renewable sources
During the proposal stages of this Directive, it was noted that development of
the renewable heat sector within the EU was almost stagnant, and that
promotion through legislation would encourage economic development, energy
efficiency, and lead to reductions in emissions (Commission of the European
Communities, 2008). With generation of electricity and transport use of biofuels
covered by earlier renewable energy Directives, a decision was made to
address this sector. The Directive, enacted by the European Parliament on 23rd
April 2009, has until 5th December 2010 to be adopted into UK law, Article 4
describing a requirement for national renewable energy action plans to be
prepared by each member state.
Article 17 lays obligations regarding district heating networks upon member

states. This requires national energy action plans to investigate whether district
heating infrastructure will be required to deliver their 2020 targets, and, if
necessary, consider how this might be implemented to provide heating and
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cooling schemes, using biomass, solar, or geothermal sources. Article 5
explains the criteria to use when calculating the energy consumption of heating
and cooling generated from renewables and other sources, while minimum
conversion efficiencies for biomass are given in Article 13.
A nod in the direction of the Merton Rule is also apparent in Article 13, as it
recommends that building development and refurbishment should be taken as
an opportunity to install energy-efficient heating and cooling systems, including
district heating schemes, powered by renewable energy. This is reinforced by
the content of Clause 33 which states that …Planning rules and guidelines
should be adapted to take into consideration cost-effective and environmentally
beneficial renewable heating and cooling and electricity equipment.
To encourage implementation of schemes, specific reference is made in the

Directive to member states addressing and removing gaps in information and
training which might hinder deployment of renewable energy technologies.
1.2. EU Directive 2006/32 on energy-end use and energy services
Promoting access to and use of energy-efficient products and services, this

Directive suggests that installation of district heating and cooling systems be
considered as means of improving energy efficiency.
1.3. Climate Change (Scotland) Bill
With ratification of the Climate Change (Scotland) Bill in July 2009, and
publication of a Renewable Action Plan in the same month, the Scottish
Government leads the way in the UK in promoting the use of renewables.
Setting a 2050 target of reducing carbon dioxide emissions by 80% from 1999
baseline figures, with an interim reduction of 42% by 2020, this Bill mandates
energy efficiency and heat from renewable energy in meeting its aims. Scottish
Ministers have been given a duty to promote both, while for renewable heat
they must produce a Renewable Heat Action Plan by 24th June 2010, including
targets and dates, which will deliver a proportion of Scotland’s heat
requirements from energy sources other than fossil fuels and nuclear power.
The Bill also makes clear that ‘the use of … surplus heat from electricity
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generation or other industrial processes for district heating or other purposes’ is
to be included when considering energy efficiency measures.
1.4. Scottish Government policy – Renewable Action Plan
In this Plan, renewable heat is described as that produced from low carbon
renewable sources. This heat may be derived from biomass and its wastes,
heat source pumps (all media), anaerobic digestion of wastes, solar heating,
wind to heat, or geothermal energy. The Plan identifies the development of
renewable heat as a top priority for Scotland, given the lack of market
penetration (currently 1.4%) and the scale of the demand by 2020 (2.1GW):
it proposes the following interim targets for renewable heat:
• 2% by 2011;
• 6.5% by 2015; and
• 11% by 2020.
It is clear from much of the policy documentation that the Scottish Government
sees biomass meeting the majority of the nation’s more immediate renewable
heat needs, with uptake being promoted through the use of demonstrator
projects. Heat pumps and solar heating are seen as supporting the medium- to
long-term demand.
However, it is noted that fewer than 4,200 hectares of new woodland were
planted in Scotland in 2008: despite the Scottish Government’s 10,000 hectares
annual target designed to increase woodland cover from 17% to 25% by 2050
(Forestry Commission Scotland, 2009). Should biomass demand require to be
met through imported wood-based fuels, as is the case in Orkney, then fluctuations
in cost and availability must surely influence decisions on technology selection.
Furthermore, the Strategic Environmental Assessment of the plan warns us that

combustion of biomass can release feedstock-dependent air pollutants,
including SOx, NOx, and particulates, while other pollutants, such as ammonia
from fertilisers, may be released during cultivation of biomass crops.
While development of a number of new heat installations in Scotland is now

underway, these will satisfy only 4.6% of 2020 demand. Predictably, the lack of
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joined-up thinking is demonstrated starkly by the development at Steven’s Croft
outside Lockerbie, where electricity is generated by combustion of biomass,
with heat being vented to atmosphere. This was truly a missed opportunity that
must not be repeated.
Despite the foregoing, the authors of the plan recognise that the potential for
recovery of existing by-product heat from waste facilities (common in many
Danish towns and cities) is important in meeting the 11% target – this
alternative may minimise costs by reducing reliance on future biomass imports
and the environmental impacts of their international transport.
The government also identifies a potential role for local communities in

developing community or district heating schemes and networks, particularly in
areas where the natural gas grid is absent.
There is a plethora of advice available to individuals, communities, and

companies; while funding may be accessible depending on the criteria at time of
application. Currently, the Communities and Renewable Energy Scheme
(CARES), successor to the Scottish Community and Householders Renewables
Initiative (SCHRI), supports renewable energy projects which promote its goals
of community cohesion, energy security and reducing fuel poverty. This maze of
benefits, incentives, and potential sources of funding available to project
initiators and operators is laid out below, having been identified by the
Renewable Heat Group at Forum for Renewable Energy Development in
Scotland.
F IGURE 1:
E XISTING I NCENTIVES
(FREDS, 2008 B )
Finally, given the

significant up-front
costs incurred during
consultation and
construction stages of district or community heating schemes, there may be a
need for the government to underwrite funding mechanisms in support of the
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development of renewable heat. Moreover, with scant experience of installing
and operating district heating schemes in the UK, there are supply chain risks
which will require to be addressed so as to ensure the quality of professional
advice and selection and delivery of appropriate capital equipment. Those
wishing to integrate renewable heat into communities must be able to do so,
while having confidence in their advisers and suppliers. Proposed support
mechanisms must, however, not breach EU legislation prohibiting state aid.
1.5. Costs of national policies and administrative barriers
MVV Consulting’s report for the European Commission DGTREN in 2007 examined
the technological development of three renewable heat resources (solar thermal,
geothermal, and biomass) by country, and the capacity and potential for their use in
each. Figure 2 shows the routes from resource to delivery of heating and cooling
which underpinned the research.
F IGURE 2: F ROM S OURCE TO D ELIVERY (MVV C ONSULTING , 2007)
The effect of support schemes, such as grants, obligations, and feed-in tariffs, in
promoting these renewable options formed a significant element of the report and
highlighted the need for improved data gathering on final heat consumption across
all EU member states in order to develop effective policies for promoting renewable
heating and cooling. Furthermore, it was perceived that the long lifecycle of heating
systems would make it difficult to measure how well particular support schemes
have encouraged deployment.
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2. HEATING DEMAND
2.1. Heat demand in the UK
NERA Economics (2009) projects a fall in UK heating demand between 2009

and 2020 (Figure 3, below) but does not suggest how this might be split across
the devolved nations.
This projected fall in UK’s heat demand is

almost exclusively within the domestic
sector, an anticipated outcome of
improved building standards and insulation
programmes.
F IGURE 3: UK H EAT D EMAND , 2009 AND 2020

(NERA, 2009 FROM D EPARTMENT OF E NERGY &
C LIMATE C HANGE , 2009)
The energy required to meet

Scotland’s heating and hot water
demand comprises 57% of the
nation’s overall energy use, and is
double that used by transport
(Figure 4, Forum for Renewable
Energy Development in Scotland - F IGURE 4: E NERGY U SE IN S COTLAND
FREDS, 2008b).
The Forum for Renewable Energy

Development in Scotland (FREDS)
estimates that 6.4TWh will be
required to meet the 11% renewable
heat target for 2020. Meanwhile,
IPA’s report for Scottish Renewables
calculated that a 50/50 split in
demand for heat between domestic
and commercial/industrial sectors
F IGURE 5: B REAKDOWN OF S COTLAND ’ S S PACE H EATING exists (Figure 5).
AND H OT W ATER D EMAND BY S ECTOR (IPA, 2008)
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3. DISTRICT HEATING SCHEMES
Article 2 of Directive 2009/28/EC defines district heating or cooling as:
‘…the distribution of thermal energy in the form of steam, hot water or chilled
liquids, from a central source of production through a network to multiple
buildings or sites, for the use of space or process heating or cooling;’
Might we then consider hypocausts such as those in Greece dating from 4th
century BCE and excavated in the late 19th century AD to be the precursor of
district heating? (Winter, 2004). This concept was embraced by the Romans:
whose complex systems, overlaid by mosaic
floors, allowed warm air to circulate thereby
heating the waters in bath houses and the
villas of the wealthy.
F IGURE 6: T HE R OMAN B ATHS , B ATH
Ecoheatcool (2006) tells us that the oldest district heating in the world is a
French geothermal heat system which has been operating since the 14th
century, while an American inventor, Birdsill Holly, is often credited with opening
the first commercially successful district heating system in 1877.
3.1. Perceptions and penetration of district heating
The continuum of public perceptions of district heating systems lies between

tales of inflexible systems in Stalinist blocks of flats in 1950s USSR – hot in
summer and cold in winter, and more positively, that of modern warm homes in
Scandinavia, with pale pine furnishings and cosy underfloor heating.
Denmark provides an example of what can be achieved. By 2000, 97% of

homes in the city were connected to district heating networks, only eight years
following the imposition of a connection obligation. And with over 400 schemes
in operation in Denmark, more than 1.5 million homes, housing 60% of the
population, rely on district heating, supplied primarily by waste heat from
industry and incineration (86%). Schemes range in size from those catering for
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100+ homes in a small village to 100,000+ in larger cities (Danish District
Heating Association, 2008).
Whereas in Sweden, the success of district heating may be put down to the lack
of competition from natural gas until the mid-1980s in the central heating
marketplace (Werner, 1991). Furthermore, the heat density is high due to long
cold winters and the widespread use of wet central heating systems: these
being optimal requirements for implementing district heating networks. The
Swedish Energy Agency reported that renewable energy supplied 55% of the
country’s district heating needs in 2006, up from 24% in 1990, while the
Swedish District Heating Association’s statistics show that district heating,
which is available in every community with more than 10,000 residents,
provides 50TWh each
year and meets half the
nation’s heat demands.
All is not rosy, however,
as the breakdown by
type of building shows
below – many family
(detached) homes remain unconnected – this being germane to the majority of
dwellings found in north Stromness and Orkney more widely.
F IGURE 7: P ENETRATION OF D ISTRICT H EATING BY B UILDING T YPES

(S WEDISH D ISTRICT H EATING A SSOCIATION , 2005)
At the opposite end of the public perception scale lies Eastern Europe. Here, a
study into combined heat and power plants (CHP) and district heating in Central
& Eastern Europe (CEE) (Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania,
Poland, Romania and Slovakia) was undertaken, examining plant
modernisation and improvement, increased use of biomass, and how expertise
in technologies might be transferred, for example, to China. According to the
final report:
… More than 40 million people in the CEE countries covered by these studies
are DH users and its share in the residential heat market is approximately 37%
Danish Technological Institute (2004)
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It was noted that heat demand in many CEE countries has fallen as industrial
production has declined, with being much of the heat provided by large-scale
fossil fuel plants there as in China, in contrast to the use of renewable biomass
(often with local small-scale CHP) in western and northern Europe.
3.2. Development of district heating in the UK
In 1979, a Department of Energy report (EP35) concluded that combined heat

and power generation associated with district heating systems could, in the long
term, be the cheapest method of heating buildings in UK towns and cities, and
make a significant contribution to meeting energy demand when oil and gas
supplies begin to decline.
A further report (EP53, 1984) undertook a feasibility study into the commercial
and technical aspects of implementing a programme of CHP-powered district
heating for nine major cities, viz. Glasgow, Edinburgh, Belfast, Tyneside,
Manchester, Sheffield, Liverpool, London, and Leicester. This report
recommended project plans be drawn up for at least two of these schemes, and
that the UK government should encourage the energy supply industry to
consider CHP heat distribution in their planning. However, at the time of these
reports being written, the energy industry was not yet privatised, and the
urgency engendered by oil shocks in the 1970s was beginning to fade. Of the
nine locations in the Department of Energy’s 1984 report, only Sheffield has
deployed a district heating scheme of significant size.
A more recent suggestion for district heating and cooling is one made by
London & Quadrant Housing Trust for the redevelopment at Gallions Park in
Docklands: this will include an Aquifer Thermal Energy System (ATES). In this
scheme, cold water would be drawn from an aquifer for cooling buildings in
summer and then, once warmed, passed to storage for re-use by heat source
pumps in winter to provide heating (London Development Agency, 2007).
However, the level of market share that district heating has in the UK heat
market is very low, lagging well behind the levels in most other European
countries according to Ecoheatcool (2006b) (see Figure 8).
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F IGURE 8: D ISTRICT H EATING M ARKET S HARE (E COHEATCOOL , 2006 B , PAGE 11) S OURCE : IEA
Somewhat surprisingly, perhaps, is the view that nearly twice as many private
houses in the UK may be connected to district heating as those in the social
housing sector. These data are provided as an estimate, which is
acknowledged as being subject to considerable uncertainty, and was first
published by Defra in 2007, and subsequently in BERR’s Heat Call for Evidence
(2008). It is apparent that, in the absence of major market players in the field of
heat supply, there is little reliable
data gathering or historical
reference data.
Nevertheless, as part of this research, an attempt to compile a detailed list of

district heating systems in the UK was undertaken. This can be found in
Appendix 3. The schemes range in size from a few flats through to several
thousands of homes and industrial sites – for the future might it be useful to
clarify how one differentiates ‘community’ and ‘district’ heating schemes?
3.3. Heat density and financial viability
District heating costs vary directly with density of housing and industrial process
heat requirements: if a large and cheap source of heat is available, the
competitive servicing of detached properties can, sometimes, be achieved. One
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example of this is Iceland where schemes are powered by geothermal heat, and
which has 85% of detached homes connected (Ecoheatcool, 2006a). On the
other hand, if alternative heating fuels or systems are cheaper then deployment
of a heating network may not be viable. Sullivan (2007) reminds us that the
planning system or legislation can, however, be used to encourage the inclusion
of networked heating in developments, as has been the case in Copenhagen.
This social engineering can deliver the heat density at which a network
becomes economically viable for a local Energy Service Company (ESCO).
4. HOUSING CONDITIONS
4.1. Stock survey of Scottish homes
This survey, carried out by the Scottish Government, is now undertaken on a

continuous basis rather than at fixed intervals as was the case prior to 2007.
Information and analysis in this thesis is based on the content of the 2007 survey,
these being the latest published data available.
The density of buildings being important to the viability or otherwise of district

heating schemes has already been mentioned: Error! Reference source not
ound. shows that the number of detached homes being built has been increasing
since the First World War, while the number of new terraced homes and flats
continues to decline. The proportions of non-detached to detached have reversed
over time: which leads
to a direct impact on
energy use in that
detached homes have
more external walls
(with increased heat
loss) and larger
internal volumes
requiring to be heated. F IGURE 9: A GE & N UMBER OF D WELLINGS (S COTTISH G OVERNMENT , 2007)
This pattern is reflected in Stromness: the older part of the town being comprised of
homes, mainly terraced, huddled together in the lee of the prevailing winds –
whereas post-war houses are often detached, standing in larger garden grounds,
and in the case of the newest homes at Hamnavoe, fully exposed to winds from all
CRITICAL REVIEW
directions. It is the case, however, that these newer homes are more likely to have
better energy efficiency ratings than older properties, given improvements to
building standards.
4.2. Energy efficiency of existing buildings
Two methodologies for measurement are available: these are NHER (National
Home Energy Rating) and SAP (Standard Assessment Procedure). NHER
takes account of all energy use in a dwelling and is able to model regional
varations, whereas SAP focuses only on energy used for heating and hot water
(and which might be a useful consideration when modelling for a district heating
scheme) but ignores the impact of geographical influences. The Scottish House
Condition Survey (2007) reports that energy efficiency ratings in the social
rented sector tend to be higher than in other dwellings, with 17% of privately
rented properties rated as ‘poor’ – there being no incentive for landlords to
improve conditions as they receive the rent but tenants pay the energy bills.
4.3. Building standards in Scotland
The thresholds were raised in 2005, following the introduction of the Energy
Performance of Buildings Directive, with SAP being used to demonstrate that
dwellings meet Section 6 of the standards, and to provide Energy Performance
Certificates (EPC) for use in Home Information Packs since 2008 (applicable to
both new builds and older homes).
The EPC displays a dwelling’s current

and potential energy efficiency levels:
its design reflecting the energy
efficiency labels found on white goods
and already familiar to consumers.
Sullivan (2007) noted that if Scotland

were to adopt Swedish U-values for its
F IGURE 10: E NERGY P ERFORMANCE C ERTIFICATE dwellings then space heating needs
(D IRECTGOV , 2008) would be reduced by 23%. These
CRITICAL REVIEW
savings could be further enhanced by improved airtightness standards and the
use of mechanical ventilation heat recovery systems, as propounded in both the
Code for Sustainable Homes and in PassivHaus standards.
4.4. Wind chill factor in exposed locations
Coastal communities on the north and west coasts of Scotland generally

experience a mild, wet, and windy climate, whereas those to the east
experience drier and colder weather. This combination of winter temperatures,
driving rain, and high wind speeds can result in a substantial wind chill factor
(see Appendix 5), with consequent increase in energy use. Heriot-Watt
University’s demonstration project in low cost, low energy housing for a high
wind and rain environment at Clouston’s Corner, in Stenness modelled a 31%
saving on space heating as being achievable in these conditions compared to
1998 Building Regulations.
4.5. Fuel poverty

4.5.1. Definition
The government sets this out in the Scottish Fuel Poverty Statement of 2002 as:
… "A household is in fuel poverty if it would be required to spend more than 10% of
its income (including Housing Benefit or Income Support for Mortgage Interest) on
all household fuel use." It goes on to say that ‘extreme fuel poverty’ is where
20% or more of household income is spent on fuel.
When, in 2008, kerosene was priced at 55p per litre householders with an
annual income below £13,000 would fall within this ‘fuel poverty’ definition.
4.5.2. Factors unique to peripheral communities
Transportation can add substantially to heating oil costs, despite lifeline ferry
services to many of island communities being subsidised by the Scottish
Government. This results in kerosene being at least 10% higher in the Orkneys
in comparison to mainland towns and cities (Orkney Islands Council, 2008).
CRITICAL REVIEW
4.6. Insulation grants and energy efficiency improvement schemes
With respect to buildings, the author of this thesis prefers to think in terms of
insulation poverty rather than fuel poverty, the latter term implying that if only
more money was available then more fuel could be bought and burned to provide
heat. Better that the requirement for heat is reduced by avoiding heat losses
through the use of insulation. Not only does this reduce fuel use, insulation is a one-
off spend in terms of money and embodied energy.
If Scotland is to lessen its dependence on energy-dense fossil fuels it must make

substantial energy efficiency improvements to enable the capacity of diffuse
renewable energy to meet and possibly maintain the living standards people have
come to expect. The latest government initiative, managed by the Energy Saving
Trust, and aiming to improve energy efficiency in buildings is known as the
Energy Assistance Package, replacing the earlier Warm Deal and Central
Heating programmes.
Energy Efficiency Advice Centres are available across Scotland for advice to
householders and businesses in gaining access to the Energy Assistance
Package. Divided into four stages, the package offers free advice on energy, on
how to claim benefits and reduced tariffs, provides insulation to qualifying
homes and householders, and heating systems in certain circumstances.
CRITICAL REVIEW
F IGURE 11: S TROMNESS , O RKNEY (O RDNANCE S URVEY , 2009)
5. PLANNING STROMNESS
5.1. Orkney Local Plan
Orkney’s second largest town, Stromness (population ~1,600) was deemed to

require an additional 140 homes by 2010 (Orkney Islands Council, 2004). This
was to be satisfied by the designation of a number of potential sites within the
existing settlement boundaries, subject to development of infrastructure to
permit access and provision of water and sewerage services. Areas identified
for new housing are marked H1-H6 (Error! Reference source not found.)
while those for industrial sites are at B3 and B4. The estimates of potential for
new dwellings is:
H1: suitable for approx 60 sites; to date, 16 dwellings constructed and occupied
(August, 2009).
H2: constrained by flood path, may be suitable for up to 16 dwellings.
CRITICAL REVIEW
H3: undeveloped brownfield land suitable for 8 dwellings.
H4: not available for housing development.
H5: 24 dwellings have been provided by Orkney Housing Association on

southern part of this site; there is scope for further development to north.
H6: road access improvements required before development could proceed.
5.2. Urban Design Framework
The Stromness Urban Design Framework (Orkney Islands Council, 2009a)

aspires to improve the local amenities with suggestions as to the addition or
replacement of a number of buildings in the area surveyed as part of this
research. The proposals are for the regeneration of Stromness Pierhead to
feature a new library, a new Primary School to be built at the current Lorry Park
site (site R1, Figure 12: Proposals Map 2 - Stromness (Orkney Local Plan,
2005b)), the redevelopment of Stromness Auction Mart site to deliver a
replacement supermarket
for the Co-operative
Society (site R2), Orkney
ZeroWaste’s earthship
and composting project
to south of Hamnavoe,
and construction of
additional affordable and
sheltered housing. This
framework makes
reference to a district
heating network as
having a role in the future
development of
Stromness.
F IGURE 12: P ROPOSALS M AP 2

- S TROMNESS (O RKNEY L OCAL
P LAN , 2005 B )
RESEARCH AND RESULTS
6. ENERGY SURVEY
A survey was undertaken to understand energy use and housing conditions in

the northern area of Stromness. Similarly, approaches were made to local
companies and organisations that had potential to provide renewable heat or
energy resources to the community.
Using the information gained, a number of scenarios were modelled to establish

the criteria under which a viable district heating scheme might be implemented
in a coastal community such as Stromness.
6.1. Heat demand satisfaction
Consumers may satisfy their heat demand directly through ownership and
operation of generating equipment such as a boiler or stove using natural gas
(mains connected, continuous flow) or kerosene, coal, wood, LPG, or other
fuels delivered in batches, or electrical heaters (mains connected, continuous or
timer regulated flow). Availability of fuels may vary between locations, and
noting that many of Scotland’s rural and coastal communities being off the
natural gas network.
In a fossil-fuel constrained world, some of these fuels and methods of supply

are likely to become overly expensive or obsolete, while the renewable energy
supply chain is a longer-term sustainable option but yet to be fully realised.
As an alternative, a domestic consumer may choose to purchase on-demand

heat under contract from a district heating scheme operator through direct
connection to their renewable energy network, or by means of a boiler or CHP
leasing scheme where the plant is installed on their (usually, industrial)
premises. Furthermore, newer technologies such as solar thermal may be used
to supply some or all of the consumer’s hot water needs.
6.2. Survey area
The Department of Energy & Climate Change makes available an interactive online
heat map to aid power station developers. However, no data are available for
Stromness thus requiring primary research be undertaken for this thesis.
The map below shows the boundaries of the area surveyed: the decision to focus
on this area was due to the ease of access should a district heating scheme
network require to be installed. On reflection, however, the heat density and
F IGURE 13: S TROMNESS - S URVEYED A REA
demand in the older part of Stromness is likely to be much higher, thus making a
district heating scheme more financially viable long-term.
Conversely, pipework installation in the southern area of Stromness would incur

higher initial construction costs, project time, and disruption to community life. There
exists the possibility of difficulties being encountered due to the area’s conservation
status and likelihood of trenches encountering granite, being inundated by sea
water, or constrained by space available under the roadway.
6.3. Key requirements for connection to a district heating scheme
6.3.1. Heat users
Buildings with a wet central heating system comprising radiators (or, depending
supply temperatures, underfloor heating coils), or without hot water storage
tanks, are most easily connected to a district heating network – nearly half the
homes in the survey area met one of these criteria. These are likely to
experience the least disruption to service and lowest connection costs, as only
the installation of a heat exchanger would be required to link into a DH network.
6.3.2. Heat providers
Local businesses and organisations with capacity to provide both demand from
and waste heat to a district heating scheme in Stromness were identified: a
survey form was supplied to each, but the absence of responses disappointing.
During the period of this research, Orkney Islands Council announced an
Invitation to Tender for a district heating feasibility study in north Stromness: as
a consequence the author was less persistent than might have been expected
in following up non-responses from local businesses out of concern at possibly
compromising the forthcoming commercial tender process and feasibility study.
6.3. Questionnaire design
Qualitative and quantitative research was required to establish which systems,

fuels, consumption levels, and geographic locations, were present in the north
end of Stromness. Two versions of a standard questionnaire were designed;
one for completion by domestic householders, the other for commercial and
industrial business users. The design was trialled and revised to encourage
completion: using images to prompt responses, and a number of closed
questions to make it more straightforward for participants to answer. The most
difficult open questions relating to annual fuel use were positioned at the top of
the second page – working on the presumption that by this stage respondents
would have already committed to the research and be more willing to locate
their energy bills and provide the necessary answers. Although this device was
not wholly successful an overall response rate of 26% from householders was
achieved.
6.4. Response rates
Responses were received from 66 of 250 questionnaires distributed to domestic

properties – a return rate of just over 26%.
Of the six forms delivered to industrial and
commercial organisations, some of whom
are heat producers in Stromness, none
were returned. A second, more direct,
approach was made to some but data
acquired was scanty.
6.5. Property sizes and heating regime F IGURE 14: N UMBER OF ROOMS IN HOUSE
Thirty responses were received to questions regarding the number of rooms in

each property and the number heated. It was noted that nearly 30% of
homeowners choose to heat only one room in their property.
F IGURE 15: N UMBER OF R OOMS H EATED IN H OUSES
Ranging from single room
properties to one with twelve
rooms, with three to five rooms
being most common (Figure 14),
it appears that, on average, just
over 50% of rooms in a home
are kept heated.
6.6. Fuels and technologies

F IGURE 16: F UELS & T ECHNOLOGIES IN U SE
The fuels and technologies

used for heating and hot
water are presented in the
graph (right): note that a
variety of these may be found
in each home, giving rise to a
total higher than the number
of questionnaires returned.
6.7. Heat loss from buildings
Figure 17 displays the heat loss routes from buildings, indicating the costs of
forestalling them, and the annual savings, based on figures from the Energy
Saving Trust in 2007, while Figure 18 makes visible to us heat being transmitted
in the absence of wall insulation.
F IGURE 17: H EAT L OSS & I NSULATION (DEAC, 2007)
F IGURE 18: T HERMAL I MAGE (P RESS A SSOCIATION , 2008)
6.7.1. Insulation
Given the earlier information in Figure 17 with regard to heat loss, the low levels
of wall insulation shown in Figure 19 suggest there is substantial scope for
improved energy efficiency in Stromness. However, it is possible that responses
may understate the levels of insulation in that homeowners can be unaware as
to whether their walls are of cavity construction, or insulation installed.
F IGURE 19: H OME I NSULATION L EVELS
6.7.2. Loft insulation
Of the 59 positive
responses to the
question on loft
insulation, only 29
(or 49%) stated the
depth installed.
This is depicted in
the histogram, and
shows that, at best,
fewer than one in
10 homes meet or F IGURE 20: D ISTRIBUTION C URVE OF D EPTHS OF L OFT I NSULATION
exceed the Energy Savings Trust’s recommended loft insulation depth of
270mm. There may be a number of reasons for this, including roof space
design or loft access: further research would be required to confirm these. It is
apparent too that many lofts were insulated to earlier standards and have not
been revisited to meet latest recommendations.
6.7.3. Double glazing and draught proofing
Over 80% of homes returning the survey were fully double glazed, rising to
nearly 90% when those with some double glazed windows are included.
Although the percentage with double glazed doors is lower than that of
windows, the author noted while delivering survey forms that the entrance doors
of many homes do not open directly outdoors but into porches, which act as a
form of draughtproofing, although no statistics were recorded. It appears that
draught excluders at doors are preferred to heavy curtaining.
As a follow-up to this survey, it would be useful to investigate why homeowners

chose to install expensive double glazing throughout their property, while
omitting to install wall or other insulation. Is this the result of high-pressure sales
teams operating in only one sector of the market?
F IGURE 21: D OUBLE G LAZING & D RAUGHT P ROOFING
7. POTENTIAL ENERGY SOURCES
The Scottish Government’s emphasis on providing renewable heat from

biomass overlooks not only the limits to growth of sufficient material locally but
also the variety of other energy sources that might better suit particular locales,
may have a lower environmental footprint, or become available through
judicious use of funding mechanisms.
As part of this study, research into a number of other options that might be
available was undertaken and is reported. The following factors were among
those considered: availability of resource, environmental impacts, cost per kWh
of energy to the consumer, and technical or operational difficulties.
7.3. Heat sources

7.3.1. Large scale power plants
Based on research commissioned from University of Southampton, the

Institution of Civil Engineers’ report ‘Why Waste Heat’ explains how the capture
of waste heat from large power stations such as Drax, Ferrybridge, and
Kingsnorth, could feed into district heating schemes serving nearby densely
populated conurbations. The work by James and Bahaj (2009) suggests that, by
2020, up to 5% of UK’s heat demand could be met from this resource alone,
subject to the replacement programme for older power stations being planned
to integrate CHP plants and district networks. Within coastal communities, this
concept might be adapted to Kirkwall or even Flotta, and is being actively taken
forward in Lerwick, whose 40% efficient fossil fuelled power station is adjacent
to the district heating plant.
7.3.2. Small scale power plants
On a smaller scale, it is common for boilers and CHP plants within schools,
hospitals, and industrial premises (be they fossil fuel powered or running on
renewable energy sources) to be integrated within district heating networks.
These provide substantial flexibility in meeting fluctuating demands, build
redundancy across the network, and maximise load factors and thus efficiency.
In Stromness, there are several businesses with waste process heat: these
include Tod’s of Orkney (bakers of oatcakes), Orkney Herring and Orkney
Fishermen’s Society (both have high cooling demands, with heat being emitted
from refrigeration systems), and Orkney Fudge/Argo’s Bakery (currently under
redevelopment), while the local swimming pool recycles its heat, gained from a
ground source heat pump.
7.4. Biomass
Very much the favoured fuel for renewable heat under the Scottish Government’s
proposals, biomass systems will only be competitive with their fossil fuel
counterparts when widespread supplies are available at cost-effective prices. The
security and volatility of this supply chain is important with respect to this thesis in
that both domestic and large-scale industrial consumers in the UK are being
encouraged to switch to biomass.
7.4.1. Willows and short rotation coppicing
The climate and conditions in Orkney do not generally support the growth of
trees as biomass. Despite this, the Agronomy Institute at Orkney College in
Kirkwall has embarked on the Pelletime programme of research with the
Northern Periphery grouping of universities and institutes. This academic
consortium seeks to identify suitable species for biomass production and
pelletising. Studies being undertaken in Orkney include the growth and short
rotation coppicing of willow and poplar clones, and the potential of C4 grasses
such as reed canary grass to become a biomass crop.
Simultaneously, a local farmer has chosen to plant four hectares of willow on

prime agricultural land, and aims to harvest one hectare each year on a rotating
basis to provide heating for his own home. The process involves cutting the
‘rods’ of willow and leaving them to air-dry before chipping prior to burning.
Although labour intensive at small scale, there is potential to industrialise should

large areas be devoted to biomass. An ongoing concern is the footprint of lands
to be taken out of food production to meet and deliver our energy demand.
7.4.2. Other biomass crops
Grass cuttings, straw and peat are further sources of biomass considered to be
available to many coastal communities, including Stromness. However, the
displacement of straw from animal bedding to fuel may provoke animal welfare and
substitution issues, while the drying and burning of peat not only releases large
amounts of carbon dioxide and methane but its removal can have negative impacts
on biodiversity and landscape generally. Furthermore, peat cannot truly be
considered a renewable resource – its replenishment rate being low to zero.
During the summer months, cutting and collection of grass and verges under
contract to Orkney Islands Council produces 4 tonnes of material daily, which is
composted over a period of 24 months at Bossack Quarry. This might instead
become a feedstock for anaerobic digestion, given that animal slurry volumes are
reduced as cattle graze outdoors throughout the long daylight hours.
There may in some communities be potential for planting of additional biomass

crops in set-aside or brownfield sites. However, issues of biodiversity, costs and
ease of harvesting, and other variables would need to be investigated on a species
case-by-case basis to confirm financial and biological viability of proposals.
7.5. Heat pumps
Increasingly being installed at domestic level, heat pumps (air, ground, or water)
can provide Coefficients of Performance up to 5 or 6, depending on temperature
differentials between input and output. By capturing and concentrating the heat
energy (i.e. stored solar energy) present in the source medium by means of
compression, this technology offers many benefits.
The potential for pollution from gases used in compression and from anti-freeze
liquid present in the ground loops needs consideration: a number of equipment
manufacturers are replacing refrigerant gases such as the HFCs (ozone-
depletors, although less so than their predecessor HCFCs) with CO2 (referred
to as R744) or ammonia. In situations where deployment of a water heat source
pump is possible, the ground loop can be replaced by direct pumping of water
from river, lake, or sea through the heat pump.
For heat pumps to be considered a renewable energy technology, the electricity
required by compressor and pumps must also come from renewable resources.
7.5.1. Ground
The water in the swimming pool at Stromness is warmed by heat gained from the
grounds opposite where the loop for its ground source heat pump is buried. On a
visit in June, the manager demonstrated its operation, confirming that a minimum
Coefficient of Performance of 3.3 was being achieved, and that the oil boiler had
been switched off completely.
7.5.2. Sea water
In the Netherlands, The Hague and Vestia Housing Corporation plans to use a
heat exchanger and seawater heat source pump (ammonia-based) which will
be deployed in the North Sea to pre-warm water in their network from 4°C in
winter to 11°C prior to circulation to 750 households in the town of Duindorp.
Each home has an individual ground source heat pump to raise the water
temperature to 45°C for heating and 65°C for hot water.
Average sea temperatures in Orkney range from 5 to 12C during the year
(Hughes, 2005). It was calculated, during an earlier
assignment, that a large scale heat pump, using
CO2 as its refrigerant would operate at a Coefficient
of Performance of approx 2.5.
F IGURE 22:S EA S URFACE

T EMPERATURE D ATA - 2002
( BLUE ) & 2003 ( RED ),
(H UGHES , 2005)
7.6. Anaerobic digestion
Anaerobic digestion is a biochemical process in which organic materials are

broken down in the absence of oxygen, thereby reducing the level of toxins,
odours, and microbial activity, and producing biogas (which consists of
methane, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide).
Bio-wastes suitable for treatment using anaerobic digestion include animal

slurry, animal and fish by-products, green agricultural and municipal wastes
(including foodstuffs), and human sewage. Slurry is defined as
…a mixture consisting wholly of or containing excreta, bedding, feed residues,

rainwater and washings from a building or yard used by livestock, dungsteads
or middens, high level slatted buildings and weeping wall structures, or any
combination of these, provided such excreta is present.
Scottish Government (2003).
Diversion of these from waste stream not only makes them available as an
energy resource but can also cut costs of disposal (through avoidance of gate
fees) and reduce the risks of pollution on land and in the marine environment.
The inclusion of some types of wastes may require PPC or waste management
licensing by SEPA.
Current restrictions on the use of resultant digestates may, however, act as a

deterrent to the inclusion of some of feedstocks. Late in 2008, the European
Commission introduced a Green Paper looking at the management of bio-waste
(up to 139 million tonnes arise annually in the EU, and are a significant source
of greenhouse gas emissions when not properly treated). The Commission
seeks to develop further legislation, if appropriate, extending the definition of
bio-waste and to ensure separate collection of each material. Introduction of a
quality assurance scheme for compost and digestate arising from treatment of
bio-waste, including supply chain traceability, and a labelling system with
defined quality standards to build consumer confidence, are proposed.
7.6.1. Qualified potential
Recognising the potential of this technology, the UK government appointed an

Anaerobic Digestion Task Group in March 2009 to deliver the following goal:
“By 2020 anaerobic digestion will be an established technology in this country,

making a significant and measurable contribution to our climate change and wider
environmental objectives. It will produce renewable energy in the form of biogas
that will be used locally or injected into the grid for heat and power and for transport
fuel. At the same time, it will capture methane emissions from agriculture. It will
also divert organic waste, especially food waste, from landfill. The digestate will
provide organic fertiliser and soil conditioner for agriculture and land use. Anaerobic
digestion and its products will be used in a way that is both beneficial to the
environment and cost effective for that particular location.”
Defra (2009).
However, the experiences of Orkney Meats, who installed an anaerobic

digestion plant to handle blood products, and had both equipment and supplier
fail to perform, and that of Highland Park Distillery’s investigations into the
potential of AD systems in the late 1990s, have been less than positive. It is
clear that the process is reliant upon stringent management of many variables
including feedstock consistency, pH, water content, temperature, and gas
withdrawal rate (Water Pollution Control Federation, 1990).
7.6.2. Farmyard waste
A visit to Tuquoy Farm on Westray

in May 2009 was undertaken to
inspect anaerobic digestors being
operated by Colin Risbridger. The
main digestor (pictured, right)
processes animal slurry from the
slatted courts (outlet pipe
pictured,below) where cattle are
housed for seven or eight months
each year.
According to the operator, this produces approx one cubic metre of biogas per
cow per day (two-thirds of which is methane, equivalent to
5.8kWh at 85% efficiency). This anecdotal figure has been
corroborated by reference to calculations undertaken by
the Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute (2009).
The digestor operates within the mesophilic temperature range, being
maintained at ~35°C by a heater running on methane produced during
digestion. The detention period within the digestor ranges from 10 to 20 days
depending upon feedstocks and operating temperature. As the biogas is
produced, impurities such as H2S and CO2 are removed, before the methane –
CH4 – is piped to two 10kW generators to produce electricity. It is planned to
export to grid when electrical connections are fully stable and operational.
Experiments to digest crab shell waste from the fishing industry are ongoing.
As a potential source of renewable energy this technology shows much promise

for use in areas such as Orkney. With up to 80,000 cattle being kept indoors
during the months when demand for heat is high, methane could be generated
at farm level and collected – as is done with milk production, for example – for
use in a CHP plant or domestic gas boiler.
7.6.3. Waste water treatment and human sewage
Although most town sewage treatment plants, such as that of Stromness on the
shore of the Bay of Ireland, are modest in scale, they might offer a further
opportunity for production of renewable energy. United Utilities announced it is
commissioning a biomethane project at the Davyhulme waste water treatment
works in Greater Manchester, where anaerobic digestion of human waste from
1.2 million people will produce biogas (Wardrop, 2009). The methane will be
piped into the natural gas grid from 2011 to supply up to 5,000 homes, used in
the company’s tankers, and supply electricity to run the plant.
Recently upgraded, the Stromness site uses activated aerobic digestion to

handle between 600 and 1800 tonnes of waste water per day (the volume is
high as the majority of foul and storm drains are combined). Being the opposite
to anaerobic digestion, the process minimises generation of methane and
produces significant quantities of hydrogen sulfide. Each week 40 tonnes at 5%
solids is transferred to Kirkwall’s Head of Works for final treatment, joining
waste from a number of other plants, while around 1,000 tonnes of digestate is
returned to the land each year.
It is to be hoped that water companies will consider anaerobic digestion when
installing or upgrading plants in future – if a market for the methane is created
then this may provide the necessary incentive to invest.
7.6.4. Seaweed – biomass for anaerobic digestion
An exhibition at the Westray Heritage Centre in 2008 focused on the history of

the kelp industry’s rise and fall in the Northern and Western Isles of Scotland;
with harvests being sent south to the chemical works in the industrial central
belt and profits to the landowners’ pockets. Those islanders who collected and
burned the seaweed to produce the valuable ash worked long hours in difficult
conditions, while smoke polluted the local atmosphere.
A research programme at the Scottish Assocation for Marine Science near

Oban is investigating seaweed as a potential feedstock for anaerobic digestion
and production of biogas for coastal communities. In its favour, seaweed does
not contain lignin: this is present in vegetation grown on land and is slow to
breakdown. It appears to be an ideal resource, being abundant and not
competing for space with food crops. However, its role in the marine biological
cycle needs to be better understood before embarking on wholesale harvesting
– this, and how to harvest and process such bulky material cost-effectively will
be researched in the coming years.
7.7. Energy-from-Waste
Some of the energy

that drives Shetland
Heat and Power Ltd’s
district heating
scheme is derived
from the incineration
of 23,000 tonnes of
municipal wastes
annually (Martin,
2007) from Shetland
and Orkney, wastes
F IGURE 23: L ERWICK D ISTRICT H EATING (M ARTIN , 2007)

from visiting cruise ships, and North Sea drilling muds.
Although individuals and businesses alike are being encouraged to reduce,

recycle, and re-use, within the waste hierarchy, the risk to this fossil-fuel derived
supply chain is low. Demand for heat energy in Lerwick is growing; the author
having seen a third oil boiler recently installed at Easter 2009, and being told
that the waiting list to join the network has now been closed to new applicants.
7.7.1. Material excised as provided ‘commercial in confidence’

7.8. Backup options - wind to heat and solar thermal
The renewable energy sources examined in this thesis as having potential to

power a district heating network in a coastal community may be susceptible to
having their availability disrupted from any number of causes: for example,
disease could render biogas production difficult or biomass may become overly
expensive or in short supply. By diversifying the supply of heat to the network,
the system can be made more robust and flexible, although certain to incur a
capital expenditure penalty to deliver this.
In situations such as Stromness, with excellent wind resources, the option of

wind to heat to maintain the temperature of stored hot water for use at peak
periods might be appropriate; while the deployment of solar thermal panels on
larger south-facing buildings to act as back-up in meeting the summer hot water
demand from tourists staying in local hotels might also be considered.
8. MODELLING OF HEAT DEMAND AND SUPPLY
Performance of renewable heat technologies within a district heating network

can be affected by factors such as seasonal or diurnal fluctuations of the
heating (and cooling) demand, which may ultimately compromise the plant’s
financial viability. Other characteristics having influence include size of heat
load, choice and availability of fuels, equipment load factor, adaptation or
replacement of existing heating systems, and suitability of particular
technologies to its operating environment.
8.1. Maximum local heat demand
From research undertaken by survey and interview, a month-by-month demand

profile for energy requirements for space heating and hot water was prepared,
being modelled using degree days information from a rolling 20-year average.
F IGURE 24: H EAT D EMAND P ROFILE , N ORTH S TROMNESS
The profile is based on data provided by the following premises in north

Stromness: assuming both a substantial increase in new homes and all those
surveyed will at some stage connect into a district heating network:
For consumers
currently using
electricity to meet
heating and hot water
needs, it has been
assumed that all kWh
charged on Economy 7 F IGURE 25: T ARGET C ONSUMERS IN S TROMNESS
tariff would be supplied through the district heating network in future.
An assumption has been made that the new primary school will use 50% less
energy than the existing 1970s building, and that an arbitrary 84% of the
daytime use of electricity by Orkney Herring is used for heating/cooling (and
thus could potentially be provided by the district heating scheme).
The table below provides a breakdown of this overall demand, and the means
that might be employed to satisfy this, including the sizing of plant and fuel
requirements for biomass, anaerobic digestion, and heat pump options. It is
evident from the number of cows required to produce sufficient methane to
maintain current levels of heating in one area of Stromness how dependent our
society is on energy dense fossil fuels in meeting its heating requirements, and
how vulnerable it may become.
F IGURE 26: O VERALL M ONTHLY H EAT D EMAND AND P OTENTIAL M EANS OF S UPPLY
8.2. Phased construction and connection
The previous section looked at the overall demand should all properties be
connected to the network. In reality, this is unlikely – Lerwick’s district heating
network supplies 30% of the town’s heat demand (62% of supply is to industrial/
commercial users) and has taken 10 years to reach this level of penetration.
The rate at which new and existing properties (and their relative locations) may
seek to connect to a district heating network requires to be factored into
calculations for sizing power plant and pipework. A review of construction
progress against the local plan (Orkney Islands Council, 2004) suggests that it
would be prudent to assume that, on average, not more than 20 new homes
annually may be connected to the network during the initial twenty years of the
plant, while replacement rates for existing heating systems may range from only
5% to 7% of existing stock (MVV Consulting, 2007). Developing a mechanism
to encourage take-up of district heating locally may be limited by both these
factors, unless either an attractive pricing regime or compulsion can be used to
build up the customer base.
Re-applying the model used earlier but assuming only 40 properties connect
initially (20 new homes, 10 oil central heating users, 10 storage heating users)
produces the following requirements for energy. As before, the various methods
of supplying demand are modelled and presented alongside.
F IGURE 27: P HASE 1 H EAT D EMAND AND S UPPLY
9. COSTINGS
Although district heating is a well established technology, the lack of experience

and implementation skills in the UK, particularly in more remote communities,
will add to costs by requiring the importation of personnel and equipment, often
at a currency disadvantage. At the same time, the raising of finance for new
plant and covering of operational costs is becoming more difficult during the
global recession, but the scale of opportunities elsewhere in the world,
exemplified by China and the USA, is proving to be more attractive to
manufacturers and suppliers alike, vide Vestas.
From a study by Poyry (2006), the levelised cost of biomass grid connected
heat displays a large range, due to the different costs of various biomass fuels
and their high transport costs depending where they are sited.
The majority of the cost of a district heating system comprises the insulated
pipework, heat exchangers, and civil engineering. Heat exchangers range in
price from £750 to £1,000 for domestic properties, while those for commercial or
industrial buildings may cost between £10 - £15,000.
9.1. Infrastructure
BSI definitions, calculations, and specifications for district heating schemes

have been published: a particularly relevant standard when engineering a new
plant is BS EN15316-4-5:2007 – Heating systems in buildings – Method for
calculation of system energy requirements and system efficiencies – Part 4-5:
Space heating generation systems, the performance and quality of district
heating and large volume systems.
9.1.1. Anticipated lifetime of plant and network
It is commonly held that the heating plant life is expected to be 25 years, while
that of the pipework is 40 years. Increasingly, pipelines are made from plastic
rather than metal: this may impact on longevity but there is no evidence as yet.
9.1.2. Pipework
Insulated pipes for district heating networks are required to meet EN 253 /448
standards. QA certification guidelines are available to pipework suppliers and
manufacturers for most standard combinations (Euroheat & Power, 2007), while
manufacturers will recommend minimum distances below roadway which must
be maintained to avoid damage from passing traffic.
F IGURE 28: P IPEWORK B URIAL (U PONOR , 2007)
The move to plastic pipelines allows for faster deployment as, unlike metal
pipes, they can be cold laid and trenches backfilled quickly. Metal pipes need to
be tested with water heated to operating temperature and pressure, with
excavated material being stored offsite until this is completed. This method
incurs longer disruption to traffic as trenches remain open.
The Energy Saving Trust

report, Power in Numbers,
provides a useful cost per
dwelling guide to
connection charges, which
further highlights the
benefit to district heating
operators of seeking to
recruit properties such as F IGURE 29: B UILDING D ENSITY AND C ONNECTION C OSTS
apartment blocks, or possibly (E NERGY S AVING T RUST , 2008)
schools, with high heat density to their networks.
This is supported by Swedish research on district network connection charges

for widely dispersed properties in a number of locations, which provided details
of costs (in euros) per house (Nilsson et al, 2008) – the nature of properties in
north Stromness would be similar to many of those in this study.
F IGURE 30: P IPELINE C OSTS IN S WEDEN (N ILSSON ET AL , 2007)
9.1.3. Heat exchangers
District heating networks may operate as an open, or direct, system whereby

heated water is pumped through radiators and hot water systems in buildings as
has been the practice in Eastern Europe and Russia. This mode of supply,
however, can produce pressure fluctuations in domestic pipework should the
relative altitude of properties across the network differ. The alternative, an
indirect or closed system which uses a heat exchanger to separate the water in
a customer’s circuit from that of the district heating network, is the more
common method of heat supply in modern installations.
F IGURE 31:
H EAT
E XCHANGER
(U TILICOM ,
2008)
9.1.4. Heat meters
BS EN 1434-6:2007 is the relevant standard for the installation, commissioning,

operational monitoring and maintenance of heat meters. The meter is installed
within the heat exchanger unit, and can be read remotely by the operator of the
district heating network to provide customer invoices for heat used.
9.2. Financial support mechanisms

9.2.1. Renewable Heat Incentive
The Energy Act 2008 allows for the setting up of a Renewable Heat Incentive
(RHI) although details have yet to be formally agreed. These are anticipated
during the latter half of 2009 – but it has been suggested that incentives may
not become payable until 2011.
Funded by a levy on fossil fuels, it is proposed that incentives will apply to all
scales of renewable heat generation and encompass biomass (including CHP),
biomethane, biogas (from anaerobic digestion) and heat source pumps. The
incentive may be banded according to the factors above, and payment
arrangements may vary.
9.2.2. Enhanced Capital Allowance
The UK government seeks to encourage business in minimising its

environmental impact by providing tax relief on capital purchases to companies
through the Enhanced Capital Allowance scheme. To qualify, the equipment
being purchased must meet defined energy-saving criteria and be on the list of
certified eligible products. For example, the Coefficient of Performance of an
approved heat source pump should exceed 4 in order to qualify for tax relief on
purchase cost – a sea water heat source pump deployed in Stromness may
achieve a CoP of 2.5 depending on operating conditions and thus be ineligible.
The Energy Technology List, which sets out these criteria and products, is
published annually, with monthly updates to the product list being posted to the
ECA’s website at www.eca.gov.uk
10. OPERATING STRUCTURES
A wide range of governance models are available to the district heating network
operator: from local
authority or social
landlord ownership, to
private sector ESCOs,
community-led
organisations, or
bodies supported by
Co-operative
Development
Scotland. Sweden, with its F IGURE 32: O WNERSHIP M ODELS IN S WEDEN (E COHEATCOOL , 2006A)
tradition of district heating, and use of laws and taxes to promote it in

preference to fossil-fuelled heating systems, has seen a shift from public to
private sector ownership of schemes over the last ten years.
Given the high capital costs in initiating district heating networks in smaller
communities, some thought at policy level will be needed to incentivise projects:
the market potential is unlikely to find favour with an unsubsidised private sector
when opportunities exist in cities or dense suburbs, be they coastal or not.
DISCUSSION
DISCUSSION
Last century, the production and generation of gas in the UK was undertaken by
privately owned or municipal companies, until they were nationalised under the
Gas Act in 1948 by the post-war Labour government. This, under the aegis of
British Gas, was then dismantled by the privatising policies of the Conservatives
under Thatcher nearly forty years later, in 1986. The electricity industry followed
a similar path, with privatisation demerging the National Grid (responsible for
distribution) from the Central Electricity Generating Board in the 1990s.
Responsibility for power generation was sold off to a number of private sector
companies, once the government underwrote issue of ageing nuclear power
plants to the business sector’s satisfaction. Although the industry is nominally
liberalised, competition and consumer choice remains an artificial construct, in
that it requires the intervention of Ofgem to ‘manage’ the market and protect
against oligopolistic abuse by the private sector.
Why is the foregoing important?
The author of this thesis thinks it is essential we remind ourselves of the

benefits and pitfalls that lie in wait when devising energy policy for the future
and recalling that market manipulation may not produce the outcomes sought.
In the latest drive for a holistic approach, the EU no longer sees energy
efficiency and renewable energy as mutually exclusive subjects but as the two
halves of ‘sustainable energy’. In this scenario we are encouraged to reduce our
energy requirements first, thus enabling renewable energy – garnered from less
energy dense sources – to meet our lower demand.
However, this approach introduces a tension to decision-making regarding

district heating schemes – that of energy efficiency versus the high heat density
required to support capital and operating costs. If homeowners insulate their
homes to meet the latest advice, will they then require to purchase sufficient
DISCUSSION
heat to keep the scheme financially viable? Or will this push up the unit price of
heat to such a level as to discourage others from joining, and continue to burn
fossil fuels instead? A detailed study to identify the optimal intersection between
all three competing criteria would prove beneficial in supporting investment
decisions.
Or might the owner, surrounded by their fully insulated home, succumb to the
Khazzoom Brookes postulate and decide to heat all their rooms, or turn up the
thermostat a few degrees, thereby enjoying additional thermal comfort while
maintaining their heating bills at the same costs as prior to insulation being
installed? Despite significant improvements in vehicle fuel economy, the
addition of energy-consuming gadgets such as air conditioning and in-car
entertainment systems has nullified the gains in miles per gallon – is this likely
to be repeated in the home insulation market? Few post-occupancy evaluation
studies of new buildings have been completed to confirm their energy
performance – might there be scope to review behavioural changes in newly
insulated homes as a predictor of energy demands of the future?
Furthermore, despite a number of documents emanating from the Scottish

Government in support of planned infrastructure and developer contributions,
‘planning gain’ is not routinely applied as the concern is that these measures should
not be cost prohibitive to those bringing forward plans for new homes. If we are to
build communities in which district heating networks run on renewable energy
sources, then who will provide the infrastructure and how will it be funded? Perhaps
a study of European district heating schemes would provide ideas and answers that
might be relevant to the Scottish situation .
On the planning front, there is an apparent clash between the conservation lobby
and the drive for energy efficiency in buildings. The costs of meeting the planning
department’s expectations with regard to conservation of a building’s outward
appearance can result in effective energy-saving improvements not being
implemented by homeowners, or an exemption from building regulations being
granted. The author of this thesis understands that an academic at Napier
University is studying the implications of this contradiction.
DISCUSSION
Having considered some of the potential renewable energy sources available to
a coastal community, the practicalities of accessing and dsitributing these
requires some attention.
For example, given the technical challenges of maintaining anaerobic digestion

of animal slurry might there not be a case for an organisation to offer modular
AD units for deployment on-farm, with specialist remote in-tank monitoring of
conditions supported by an area manager with expertise (as Scottish Water
does with its sewage plants)? Thought might also be given to whether potential
exists for conversion of existing slurry tanks into anaerobic digesters through
the addition of heaters and pipework. Should a network of AD plants become a
feasible option the development of a biogas tanker service will become
essential. Finally, might the expansion of AD allow for the construction of a gas
network, rather than a district heating one, in smaller communities – an example
of this is Lunan in Germany.
For large-scale reliable generation from renewable sources, the concept of sea
water heat source pumps holds much attraction for the author of this thesis. In
the longer-term, it may be possible to drive the pump using electricity generated
from the local tides, thus providing an assured source of energy for the
community. However, although there are a number of technical challenges to
overcome in the interim this solution could prove to have potential to address
some of the remaining 89% of heat demand post-2020.
In the meantime, improving the energy efficiency of people’s homes is a quick

win for everyone. The results of the survey with regard to the levels of insulation
in homes makes one realise how little progress we’ve made. Simple and
effective steps such as providing homeowners with a visible record of their
home’s heat loss by means of a thermal imaging camera might encourage
uptake of insulation products, or by extending grant schemes still further.
Alternatively, more draconian steps may be required: these need to be easy to
understand and implement and might include stamp duty at point of sale, or
changing the energy supplier’s tariff to reward lower energy use – but these
carry a risk in that they may deliver more people into fuel poverty and must
therefore be linked to access to insulation or other improvements.
DISCUSSION
So what are the benefits of district heating to a community?
They include simple and reliable delivery (always on), less floor space required
for own heating equipment (no boiler or fuel tanks), less capital investment in
your own heating equipment (once you have radiators installed), and a lower
fire risk as no fuel use in dwellings.
And the disadvantages?
Sweden’s experience (Nilsson et al, 2008) indicates that unless 70% of a low
density community is connected then the financial viability of a scheme may be
in jeopardy, and connection costs may exceed those of installing your own
equipment, such as a biomass boiler or ground source heat pump. Figure 33
affirms the importance of high heat density to a scheme’s success.
F IGURE 33: H EAT S OURCES IN S WEDEN (N ILSSON ET AL , 2008)
CONCLUSIONS
CONCLUSIONS
If Scotland is to fulfil 11% of its 2020 heat demand using renewable energy sources
then the government must focus its attention on locations with either the highest
heat densities or the largest available heat sources, and preferably both, as a
means of reaching the target. With up to 5% of the UK’s heat demand capable of
being met by waste heat from major power plants (Institution of Civil Engineers,
2009) and 17% from Energy-from-Waste (Martin, 2007) it’s essential that these be
utilised wherever possible through district heating networks (or at worst for
generating electricity for heat). However, it must be noted they cannot be classified
as renewable energy sources, rather that they are fossil fuel waste products.
There may be scope for units on industrial estates or other groups of large heat
users to develop small district heating networks as a preliminary step to extension
into the community. Planning departments could encourage this movement by
avoiding piecemeal development of single dwellings, and supporting applications for
multiple housing units with their own shared heat generation facilities powered by
renewable energy.
Smaller, more widely dispersed communities, such as Stromness, will find that the
achievement of renewable heat targets is more likely to be met by individual
responses: firstly by reducing demand through insulation, and then by installation of
biomass boilers, heat pumps, and solar thermal hot water systems. Continued
support through grants and incentives will be required until such time as the cost of
fossil fuel exceeds that of the renewable alternative.
The research and calculations undertaken during this thesis reaffirms the author’s
view that fossil fuels are too valuable to be burnt – their unique chemical properties
are essential to our future – and that we are surrounded by many different energy
sources if only we but look and think. Coastal communities have advantages over
densely populated conurbations, as have villages in forests or cities in north Africa.
Each must find and develop energy solutions best suited to their environment.
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Werner. (1991). Why district heating has been successful in Sweden In District Heating in
Sweden 1948-1990. Available at: www.energy.rochester.edu/se/werner/1991/success.htm
Accessed on 14th July 2009.
West, P. (2008). Opportunities for biomass district heating in low carbon new build. [Powerpoint
presentation]. Available at: www.regensw.co.uk/downloads/RegenSW_242.pdf Accessed on
25th February 2009.
Wheatley. M. (2003). Part of a Roman Hypocaust (Under Floor Heating System) [Image].
Available at: http://www.pbase.com/mpwheatley/image/17854604 Accessed on 6th August 2009.
Winter, F. E. (2004). Studies in Hellenistic Architecture. Available at:

http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=03UNLhtEP1oC&lpg=PP1&dq=studies%20in%20hellenistic
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BIBLIO GRAPHY
E & Cyril Swett. (2009). Putting a Price on Sustainability. Building Research Establishment
(BRE). Watford.
Department for Communities and Local Government. (2009). Code for Sustainable Homes.
Case Studies. Department for Communities and Local Government. London.
IMechE. (1999). Recent Developments in Refrigeration and Heat Pump Technologies.

Professional Engineering Publishing Ltd. London.
APPENDICES
Appendix 1 – Scottish Heat Map
The Scottish Heat Map project was undertaken by AEA Energy & Environment
on behalf of the Forum for Renewable Energy Development in Scotland
(FREDS) in 2007 with support from the Energy Saving Trust. Compiled from a
number of data layers using GIS, a software package for modelling
geographical information, a Heat Map for Scotland was produced. From this,
coastal communities with significant heat requirements can be identified.
Author’s note: the legend has been enlarged from original to improve legibility.
APPENDICES
Appendix 2 – Survey Schedule and Questionnaires
Survey area and questionnaire delivery schedule
Date Location References
Wednesday 17th June 2009 Coplands Drive, Coplands Road 1-16
Thursday 18th June 2009 Hamnavoe 17-89
Friday 19th June 2009 Hillside Road 90-160
(Hillside Park from 122 to 140)
Monday 22nd June 2009 North End (north from Co-op), 161-200
Cairston Road (to Garson Drive)
Tuesday 23rd June 2009 Garson Loan, Cairston Drive 201-217
remainder of Cairston Road
Academy, Business Park B4-B5
Wednesday 24th June 2009 Stromness Hotel, from Pier 218-249
Head - Ferry Road to Co-op, inc
John Street and North End (east side),
and North End (west) from Northvet to Co-op
Tod’s of Orkney B6
APPENDICES
Example questionnaire – domestic
APPENDICES
Example questionnaire – industrial
APPENDICES
Appendix 3 – Key District Heating Schemes in UK
continued on next page
APPENDICES
APPENDICES
Appendix 4 – Insulation material
Farm diversification –
a business opportunity?
In Orkney, and other remote areas of Scotland, one factor raised as a deterrent
to home insulation is the bulkiness of insulation products and costs of
transporting them from manufacturing locations.
The question arose as to whether there was potential for manufacturing

insulation locally.
On investigation, the National Farmers’ Union confirm there are 60-70,000

sheep in Orkney, while Thermafleece advise that 25 fleeces are required to
produce 10m2 of 100mm thick insulation.
Assuming an average loft area of 100m2 the annual clip in Orkney might provide
sufficient loft insulation for approx 1,000 houses: further research is required
into the economic feasibility of such a project.
At £3-4 per fleece, however, the cost of natural sheepswool insulation is higher
by a factor of 4 than those products using glassfibre.
Borax is commonly used as a fire retardent in natural insulation. An alternative

solution could be whey (a waste product from Orkney Cheese), which releases
nitrogen when heated and is used to treat wood shavings insulation in kit
houses built by Baufritz in Germany.
APPENDICES
Appendix 5 – Wind Chill Factor
The Northern & Western Isles Energy Efficiency Centre, Kirkwall, Orkney
PLAGIARISM STATEMENT
INSTITUTE OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
MSc Renewable Energy Development
2008 / 2009
Project Title:
RENEWABLE HEAT IN COASTAL COMMUNITIES:
DISTRICT HEATING CASE STUDY
I, Linda Craig Forbes, confirm that this work submitted for assessment is my
own and is expressed in my own words. Any uses made within it of works of
other authors in any form (ideas, equations, figures, text, tables, programmes
etc) are properly acknowledged at the point of their use. A full list of the
references employed is included.
Signed: ............................................................
Date: ..............................................................

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RENEWABLE HEAT IN COASTAL COMMUNITIES:

DISTRICT HEATING CASE STUDY

A dissertation submitted in the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the

in Renewable Energy Development

Institute of Petroleum Engineering

CRITICAL REVIEW OF LITERATURE ......................................................... 4

1. DRIVERS FOR RENEWABLE HEAT ........................................................ 4

1.1. EU Directive 2009/28 on promotion of energy .................................... 4

from renewable sources ................................................................................... 4

1.2. EU Directive 2006/32 on energy-end use and energy services ................ 5

1.3. Climate Change (Scotland) Bill .................................................................... 5

1.4. Scottish Government policy – Renewable Action Plan ............................ 6

1.5. Costs of national policies and administrative barriers ............................. 8

2. HEATING DEMAND .................................................................................... 9

2.1. Heat demand in the UK.................................................................................. 9

3. DISTRICT HEATING SCHEMES ............................................................. 10

3.1. Perceptions and penetration of district heating....................................... 10

3.2. Development of district heating in the UK ................................................ 12

3.3. Heat density and financial viability ............................................................ 13

4. HOUSING CONDITIONS .......................................................................... 14

4.1. Stock survey of Scottish homes ................................................................ 14

4.2. Energy efficiency of existing buildings ..................................................... 15

4.3. Building standards in Scotland .................................................................. 15

4.4. Wind chill factor in exposed locations ...................................................... 16

4.5. Fuel poverty .................................................................................................. 16

5. PLANNING STROMNESS ........................................................................ 18

5.1. Orkney Local Plan..................................................................................... 18

6. ENERGY SURVEY .................................................................................... 20

6.3. Questionnaire design .................................................................................. 22

6.4. Response rates............................................................................................. 23

6.5. Property sizes and heating regime ............................................................ 23

6.6. Fuels and technologies ............................................................................... 23

6.7. Heat loss from buildings ............................................................................. 24

6.7.1. Insulation.................................................................................................... 25

6.7.2. Loft insulation ............................................................................................ 25

6.7.3. Double glazing and draught proofing..................................................... 26

7. POTENTIAL ENERGY SOURCES .......................................................... 27

7.3. Heat sources ................................................................................................. 27

7.3.1. Large scale power plants ......................................................................... 27

7.3.2. Small scale power plants ......................................................................... 27

7.4. Biomass......................................................................................................... 28

7.4.1. Willows and short rotation coppicing .................................................... 28

7.4.2. Other biomass crops ................................................................................ 29

7.5. Heat pumps ................................................................................................... 29

7.5.1. Ground........................................................................................................ 30

7.5.2. Sea water .................................................................................................... 30

7.6. Anaerobic digestion..................................................................................... 30

7.6.1. Qualified potential ..................................................................................... 31

7.6.2. Farmyard waste ......................................................................................... 32

7.6.3. Waste water treatment and human sewage .......................................... 33

7.6.4. Seaweed – biomass for anaerobic digestion ........................................ 34

7.7. Energy-from-Waste ...................................................................................... 34

7.7.1. Material excised as provided ‘commercial in confidence’........................... 35

8.1. Maximum local heat demand ...................................................................... 36

8.2. Phased construction and connection ....................................................... 37

9. COSTINGS ................................................................................................. 39

9.1. Infrastructure ................................................................................................ 40

9.1.1. Anticipated lifetime of plant and network .............................................. 40

9.1.2. Pipework..................................................................................................... 40

9.1.3. Heat exchangers ....................................................................................... 41

9.1.4. Heat meters ................................................................................................ 42

9.2. Financial support mechanisms .................................................................. 42

9.2.1. Renewable Heat Incentive ........................................................................ 42

9.2.2. Enhanced Capital Allowance ................................................................... 43