Network

An Interconnected collection of autonomous computers

Need for Network
Resource Sharing
Cost Factor
Reliability
Communication Medium
ADVANTAGES OF A NETWORK
RESOURCE SHARING :- The aim is to make all programs, data peripherals available to
anyone on the Network irrespective of the physical location of the resources and the user.
RELIABILITY :- A file can have copies on two or more machines so that if one of them is
unavailable due to any reason the other copies could be used.
COST FACTOR :- Personal computers have better price and its performance ratio than micro
computers. So it is better to have PCs, one per user, with data stored on one shared file
server machine.
COMMUNICATION MEDIUM :- Using a Network it is possible for others working apart to
prepare a project of a Company. The changes can be immediately noticed at another and
hence it speeds up co-operation among them.

History
ARPANET(1969)
NSFnet (1980)
Internet(1990)
ARPANET
The first computer network was jointly designed by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)
and Department of Defence (DoD) in 1969 and was called ARPANET. It was an experimental project,
which connected a few computers of some of the reputed universities of USA and DoD. ARPANET
allowed access and use of computer resource sharing projects.
Later Defence Data Network(DDN) was born in 1983.
NSFnet
In 1980s, NSFnet was started to make a high-capacity network to be used strictly for academic and
engineering research.
Internet
In 1990s the internetworking of ARPANET, NSFnet and other private networks resulted into Internet.
The Interspace
Interspace is a vision of what the Internet will become, where users cross-correlated information in
multiple ways from multiple sources.

Switching Techniques
Switching techniques are used for transmitting data across network.
Different types of switching techniques are employed to provide communication between two
computers. These are Circuit Switching, Message Switching and Packet Switching.
Circuit Switching
In this technique , first the complete physical connection
between the computers is established and then data are
transmitted from the source computer to the destination
computer .i.e. , when a computer places a telephone call, the
switching equipment within the telephone system seeks out a
physical copper path all the way from sender telephone to the
receivers telephone. The important property of this switching
technique is to setup an end-to- end path (connection)
between computers before any data can be sent.
Message Switching
In this technique, the source computer sends data or the message
to
the switching office first, which stores the data in the buffer. buffer. It
then looks for a free link to another switching office and then sends
the data to this office. This process is continued until the data are
delivered to the destination computers.
Owing to its working principle, it is also known as Store and
Forward. i.e., store first (in switching office) forward later, one
jump at
a time.

Packet switching
With message switching, there is no limit on block
size, in contrast, packet switching places a tight
upper limit on block size. A fixed size of packet
which can be transmitted across the network is
specified. another point of its difference from
message switching is that data packets are stored
on the disk in message switching.
whereas in packet switching, all the packets of fixed size are stored in the main memory This
improves the performance as the access time (time taken to access a data packet) is reduced, thus,
the throughput ( measure of performance) of the network is improved

Data communication Technologies

Data Channels:
A channel is the medium to carry information or data from one point to another.
Baud:
It is unit of measurement for the information carrying capacity of communication channel. The baud is
synonyms with bps (bits per second), another unit of measuring data transfer rates.
Bandwidth:
Technically the bandwidth refers to the difference between the highest and the lowest frequencies of
a transmission channel.
Bandwidth is the capability of a medium to transmit an amount of information over a distance.
In digital systems, bandwidth is data speed in bps. In analog systems, bandwidth is defined in
terms of difference between the highest frequency signal component and the lowest frequency signal
component. Frequency is measured in hertz thus bandwidth can have further units like kilohertz
(kHz), Megahertz (MHz), Gigahertz (GHz) and terahertz (THz).
Data Transfer Rates:
The data transfer rate represents the amount of data transferred per second by a communication
channel or a computing or a storage device.
Data rate is measured in bps (bits per second), kbps, mbps etc.

COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
It is meant that the connecting cables are being considered these cables that connect two or more
autonomous computers or workstations are the communication channels.
They are two types 1. Guided media 2.Unguided media (wireless).
Obstacles of the transmission media
1. Noise 2. Attenuation
AttenuationIs a measure of how much the strength of the signal is reduced is passing through the medium. It is
proportional to distance travelled.
Guided Media
Twisted Pair Cable :- It is the most common form of wiring in data communication. It consists
of two identical wires wrapped together in a double helix.
Advantages of twisted pair:
It is simple
It is physically flexible.
It is easy to install and maintain.
It has a low weight.
It can be easily connected
It is very cheap
Disadvantages:
Because of high attenuation, it is incapable of carrying a signal over long distances without the
use of repeaters.
Its low bandwidth capabilities make it unsuitable for broadband applications
Coaxial Cable :- It is the type of cable which consists of a solid wire core surrounded by one
or more foil or wire shield, each separated by some kind of plastic insulator.
Advantages of Coaxial Cable
The data transmission characteristics are considerably better than twisted pair cables
Can be used as the basis for a shared cable network
Can be used for broadband transmission i.e. several channels can be transmitted
simultaneously
Offer higher bandwidths up to 400 MBPS.

Disadvantage
Expensive compared to twisted pair cable
Coaxial cables are not compatible with twisted pair
cables.

Optical Fibers :- It consists of thin strands of glass which

are so constructed that they carry light from a source at
one end of the fiber to a detector at the other end.

Unguided Media (Wireless)

MicrowaveMicrowave signals are used to transmit data without the use of cables. The microwave signals are
similar to radio and television signals and are used for long distance communication. The microwave
transmission consists of a transmitter, receiver and the atmosphere.
In microwave communication , parabolic antennas are mounted on towers to send a beam to other
antennas tens of kilometers away. The higher the tower, the greater the range. The microwave
transmission is also known as line-of sight transmission.
Advantages
It proves cheaper than digging trenches for laying cables and maintaining repeaters and
cables.
It offers ease of communication over difficult terrain.
Microwaves have the ability to communicate over oceans
Disadvantages
Microwave communication is an
insecure communication.
Signals may split and cause
interference.
Propagation is susceptible to weather
effects like radio, thunder , storms
etc.
Bandwidth allocation is extremely
limited.
The cost of design, implementation
and maintenance is high
RadiowaveThe transmission making use of radio frequencies is termed as radio-wave transmission. Private
citizens and business users are licensed to operate in the range of 10 miles.
The radio set up has two parts
1. Transmitter
2. Receiver
Advantages:
1. Offers mobility.
2. Proves cheaper than digging trenches & laying cables.
3. It offers ease of communication over difficult terrain.
Disadvantages:
1. Insecure communication
2. Propagation is susceptible to weather effects like rain, thunder
storms etc
Infrared-

This type of transmission uses infrared light to send data. TV remotes, Automatic Garage doors,
wireless speakers etc. all make use of infrared as transmission media.
The infrared light transmits data through the air and can propagate throughout the room but will not
penetrate walls. It is used in hand held devices like palm pilots etc.
The infrared transmission is considered to be a secure one

BluetoothBluetooth technology uses radio waves in the frequency range of 2.402 GHzto 2.480 GHz.
This technology is used for short range communication (approx. 10m) in a variety of devices for
wireless communication. Baby monitors, door openers, and cellphones are some of the devices that
utilize Bluetooth communication.
Characteristics of Bluetooth Transmission:
Line of sight between communicating devices is not required. (Think Why?)
Bluetooth can connect upto eight devices simultaneously.
Slow data transfer rate (upto 1Mbps).
Satellite- Radiowave can be classified by frequency and wavelength. When frequency is higher than
3 Giga Hertz it is names as Microwave. Satellite communication use the synchronous satellite to relay
the radio signal transmitted from ground station.
In satellite communication the earth station consists of a satellite dish that functions as an
antenna and communication equipment to transmit and receive data from satellite. Most
communication satellites have multiple, independent reception and transmission devices known as
Transponders.
Advantages:
1. The area coverage through stellite communication is quite large
2. No laying cables.
3. Heavy usage of intercontinental traffic makes the satellite commercial attractive.
4. As it covers large areas of earth so it is useful for sparsely populated areas.
Disadvantages:
1. Technological limitations preventing the deployment of large, high antennas on satellite
platforms.
2. Over crowding of a available bandwidths due to low antennas.
3. High investment cost and insurance.
4. High atmospheric losses above 30 GHz limit carrier frequencies.
Network Devices
MODEM
A Modem is a computer peripheral that allows you to connect and
communicate with other computers via telephone lines.
RJ-45

In
short Registered Jack-45. RJ-45 is an eight-wired connector, which is commonly used to connect
computers on a LAN especially.
Ethernet Card:
A standard for LAN connection which uses a CSMA/CD protocol is known as Ethernet card.

A network card is used to physically attach a computer to a

network, so that it can participate in network communication, Ethernet Network Card is the most
commonly used network card.(nowadays most of the computer motherboards come with the inbuilt
Network Card.)
Networking Cables
Modern Ethernet networks use twisted pair cable containing eight wires. These wires are arranged in
a special order, and an RJ-45 connector(similar to but bigger than the connector used within the
Telephone wire) is crimped at both the ends of the cable.
Hub:
A hub is a common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are commonly used to connect
segments of a LAN.
Switch:
A switch is similar to a hub, in that it provides a central connection between two or more computers
on a network, but with some intelligence.
Gateway :-

A node on a network that serves as an

entrance to another network is known as
gateway.
In enterprises, the gateway is the computer
that routes the traffic from a workstation to
the outside network that is serving the Web
pages.
In homes, the gateway is the ISP that connects the user to the internet.

Repeater :- A repeater is a device that

amplifies a signal being transmitted on the network. It is used in long network lines, which exceed the
maximum rated distance for a single run.

Bridge :- A Bridge is a device that lets you link two

networks together. Bridge are smart enough to know which computers are on which side of the
bridge, so they only allow those messages that need to get to the other side to cross the bridge

Router :- A device that works like a bridge but can handle different protocols, is known as Router. It
differ from a bridge in a way that former uses logical address and the latter uses physical addresses.
Router/Wireless Access Point:
A router is a device that analyzes the contents of data packets transmitted within a network or to
another network. Routers determine whether the source and destination are on the same network or
whether data must be transferred from one network type to another.
Instead of hubs/switches. These have a wireless antenna which increases the communication range
of the radio signals. Access points can also be used to join a wired network, thus making the network
a combination of wired as well as wireless network.

Networking Devices
Hubs, Bridges, Switches and Routers are used to build networks. If you are trying to design your
own LAN (Local Area Network) at home, then you probably need to know what they do and the main
differences between them.
Hubs are used to build a LAN by connecting different computers in a star/hierarchal network
topology, the most common type on LANs now a day. A hub is a very simple (or dumb) device,
once it gets bits of data sent from computer A to B, it does not check the destination, instead, it
forwards that signal to all other computers (B, C, D) within the network. B will then pick it up while
other nodes discard it. This amplifies that the traffic is shared.
Hub:
A hub will accept a packet from a source and re-broadcast it to each and every device attached to it
whether those devices are the intended target or not. This is analogous to sending a letter to the post
office where the post office duplicates it and sends it to as many addresses as it can find. The
rationale for this is that only the intended recipient will actually open the letter and read it. Here's what
that looks like in principle:
Switch:
A switch is an intelligent hub. It looks exactly like a hub. It has the same functionas that of a hub: to
connect multiple computers/devices in a network. But the difference between the two is in the way
they re-transmit the received information. Unlike a hub, instead of broadcasting (sending to each
device attached to it) the received information, a switch sends the information selectively only to those
computers for which it is intended. This makes a switch more efficient than a hub.
Bridge :- A Bridge is a device that lets you link two networks together. Bridge are smart enough to
know which computers are on which side of the bridge, so they only allow those messages that need
to get to the other side to cross the bridge.
When a road needs to extend across a river or valley, a
bridge is built to connect the two land masses. Since the
average car cannot swim or fly, the bridge makes it
possible for automobiles to continue driving from one land
mass to another.
In computer networking, a bridge serves the same
purpose. It connects two or more local area networks
(LANs) together. The cars, or the data in this case, use the
bridge to travel to and from different areas of the network.
The device is similar to a router, but it does not analyze the
data being forwarded. Because of this, bridges are typically
fast at transferring data, but not as versatile as a router. For
example, a bridge cannot be used as a firewall like most
routers can.

Network Application
EMAIL: electronic mail or email is the process of sending message and file electronically using
computer networks.
CHATTING: it is a feature of the internet that allows users to "talk" to one another in real time. Users
communicate by typing message which are sent instantly to another person or group within the chat
program.
VIDEO-CONFERENCING: video conferencing provides real time video and voice communication
between terminals, over a network by using webcam and personal computer.

SMS : It is the abbreviation for Short Message Service available on digital GSM network. Using
SMS , a short alphanumeric message (160 alphanumeric characters) can be sent and received via the
network operator's message center to a mobile phone.

FA1 Syllabus
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
A Pattern of interconnection of nodes in a network is called the topology
Factors to be considered in making choice
Cost Effective
Flexibility
Reliability
TYPES OF NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Star Topology :- This topology consists of a central
node to which all other nodes are connected by a
single path. E.g. IBM 370 installation.
Advantage
Ease of Service
One device per connection
Centralized control
Simple access protocols
Disadvantage
Long cable length
Difficult to expand
Central node dependency
Bus Topology :- This topology consists of a
medium onto which the various nodes are
used in traditional data communication network
one end of the bus communication with several
Advantage
Short cable length with simple wiring
Resilient Architecture
Easy to extend
Disadvantage
Fault diagnosis is difficult
Repeater configuration
Fault isolation is difficult

single length of the transmission

attached. It is
where the host at
terminal attached along its length.

Ring or Circular Topology :- In this topology each node is connected to two and only two
neighbouring nodes. The data travels in one direction only, from node around the ring.
Advantage
Short cable length with simple wiring
Suitable for optical fibers
No wiring closet space required
Disadvantage
Node failure causes network failure
Network reconfiguration is difficult
Difficult to diagnose faults
Tree Topology :- In this topology transmission takes place in the same as in the bus topology. It is
best suited for applications which have a hierarchical flow of data and control. Hence it is a
modification of a pure network topology, bus topology , it is a hybrid topology.

Advantage
Short cable length with simple wiring
Suitable for optical fibers
Resilient Architecture
Disadvantage
Fault isolation is difficult
Repeater configuration
Difficult to diagnose faults
Types Of Computer Network
A computer network may span any amount of geographical area. It can be on a table, in a
room, in a building, in a city, in a country, across continents or around the world. On the basis
of area covered computer networks are classified as:
PAN - Personal Area Network
LAN - Local Area Network
MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
WAN -Wide Area Network

PAN (Personal Area Network): A PAN is a network of

Communicating devices (Computer,Phone, MP3/MP4 Player,
Camera
etc.) in the proximity of an individual. It can cover an area of a few meters
radius.When
you have to transfer songs from one cell phone to another, you set up a PAN of twophones.
When files are transferred from a PC to an MP3 player, a PAN is set up betweenthe two. There
can also be multiple devices in PAN. A PAN can be set up using guided media (USB cable) or
unguided media (Bluetooth, Infrared).
LAN (Local Area Network) :- Small Computer Networks that are confined to a localized area.
The key purpose of a LAN is to serve its users in resources sharing.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) :- Those Network which are spread over a city (e.g. T.V.
Cable). The purpose of a MAN is also the sharing of hardware and software resources among
its user.
WAN (Wide Area Network) :Those Network which are spread
Across countries.
(e.g.
Broadband Cable or
transmission through satellite).
The purpose of a WAN is to
facilitates fast and efficient
exchange of information at
lesser cost and higher speed.
Difference between LAN & WAN
LAN
Diameter is not more than a few kilometers
A total data rate of at least several Mbps
Complete ownership by a single organisation
Very low error rates

WAN
Span entire countries
Data rate less than 1 Mbps
Owned by a multiple organisation
Comparatively higher error rate

Protocol

Protocol : -

A protocol means the rules that are applicable for a network. Protocol defines standardized formats
for data packets, techniques for detecting and correcting errors.
TCP/IP:
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol . A group of protocols that specify how computers
communicate over the Internet.
FTP:
File Transfer Protocol. A set of rules which enables files to be transferred between computers is
known as FTP.
PPP:
Point to Point Protocol. PPP allows a computer to use TCP/IP protocol and to be connected directly to
the Net using a standard wire telephone line and high-speed modem.
HTTP:
Stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. HTTP is a set of rules that governs the transfer of hypertext
between two or more computers.
Telnet:
A text-based Internet program used for connecting to a remote host or server.
SMTP:
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is a set of rules enables Electronic Mail to move smoothly through
the Internet.
INTERNET
Internet is a network of networks, made by joining computer networks together with telephone
lines. The Internet has more than 10,00,000 computers all over the world, joined together to
form a backbone and each of these are connected to thousand of others and so on. Thus
millions of millions computers make up the INTERNET.
Mobile Communication
Wireless Local Loop(WLL): It is a system that connects subscribers to the PSTN(Public Switched
Telephone Network) by radio signals in lieu of copper.
Global System for Mobile Communication(GSM): It is the most popular for mobile phones in the
world. It is a wide area wireless communications system that uses digital radio transmission to provide
voice, data and multimedia communication services.
CDMA(Code Division Multiple Access): It is a digital wireless telephony transmission technique that
uses spread-spectrum techniques. Unlike other channel allocation techniques CDMA does not assign
a specific frequency to each user. Instead, every channel uses the full available spectrum.
TDMA( Time Division Multiple Access): It is a method of digital wireless communication
transmission that allows a large number of users to access(in sequence) a single radio frequency
channel without interference by allocating unique time slots to each user within the channel. Each
frequency is broken into time slots through which bits of data flow.
4G Technology:
The scenario of how computers are networked is changing very fast. Before full implementation of a
technology, a new technology is visible at the horizon. One such new technology is 4G. 4G stands for
fourth generation of mobile technology. Change from one generation to another involves a major
advancement in the technology used. 1G technology was used in the first mobile phones. 1G used
analog radio signals. 1G was introduced in 1980s and continued until 1992 when 2G was introduced.
2G technology used a digital format and introduced text messaging. 2G also introduced data services
for mobiles, starting with SMS. 3G technology has introduced more efficient ways of carrying
data, making it possible to have faster web-services, live chat, fast downloading, video
conferencing etc. over mobile phones. Today we are living in the world of 3G.
Soon, 4G will rule the mobile market. Unlike previous generations of mobile technology, 4G mobile
technology will be used for internet access on computers also, and it will be totally wireless! 4G will
provide internet access, high quality streaming video and "anytime, anywhere" voice and data
transmission at a much faster speed than 3G. The "anytime, anywhere" feature of 4G is also
referred to as "MAGIC" (Mobile multimedia; Anytime/anywhere; Global mobility support;
Integrated wireless solution; Customized personal services).
Network Security Concept
CYBER LAW: - It refers to a set of laws governing the usage of cyberspace/Internet. It encompasses
a wide variety of political and legal issues related to the internet and other communications technology,
including intellectual property, privacy, freedom of expansion and jurisdiction.

COOKIES: - A cookies is a small piece of information that a server sends to a client. When a person
visits a website with cookie capabilities, its server sends certain information about him to the browser,
which is stored on his hard drive as a text file.
FIREWALL:- A firewall is a hardware device or a software that is installed to monitor the data entering
the computer/Network or leaving it. A firewall permits only that data to enter or leave a
computer/Network for which permissions have been granted by the computer/network administrator.
HACKERS & CRACKERS: Hackers are the person who break and enter a computer/network
without having authorized access and with no malicious intent. It is the duty of an ethical hacker to
inform the system administrator of the security flaw as soon as he/she identifies it. The term is used in
the computing community to describe a particular brilliant programmer or technical expert. On the
other hand, a cracker is a person who breaks and enters a computer/network without having
authorized access with malicious intent. Typically they like to:
1: crack someones password
2: crack someones e-mail password and monitor their email
3: steal channel privileges
Hacker

Cracker

1.

Those who break into computer

systems with no malicious
intentions are known as hackers.

Those who break into computer

systems with malicious intentions are
known as Crackers.

2.

Hackers believe it is their

responsibility to seek out security
holes in computer networks so
that systems administrators may
fix them

Crackers perform illegal activities

such as stealing data, changing bank
accounts, distributing viruses etc.