Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Common
noun
a
naming
word
for
a
thing
that
is
tangible,
e.g.
chair,
penguin,
man,
arsonist,
murderer,
ghost,
crumpet,
trumpet.
Abstract
noun
a
naming
word
for
an
idea,
concept,
state
of
being
or
belief,
e.g.
tidiness,
sadness,
antidisestablishmentarianism,
love,
politics,
Marxism.
Proper
noun
a
naming
word
for
a
specific
example
of
a
common
noun
(often
are
names
of
places
or
specific
people),
e.g.
Bob,
Eiffel
Tower,
Burnley,
Wayne
Rooney.
Verb
a
word
that
represents
an
action
or
process:
in
simple
terms
a
doing
word.
Active
verb
a
word
that
represents
a
physical
action,
e.g.
jump,
run,
kill,
slap,
kiss,
make-love,
wallop,
sleep.
Stative
verb
a
word
that
represents
a
process
that
is
often
only
mental,
e.g.
think,
love,
ponder,
believe,
(to)
fear.
Auxiliary
verb
a
verb
that
has
to
be
used
with
another
verb
in
order
to
create
present
participles
or
the
future
tense,
e.g.
DID
you
go?;
I
AM
going;
you
WILL
go.
Modal
verb
an
auxiliary
verb
that
express
a
degree
of
either
possibility
or
necessity,
e.g.
might,
could,
must,
should,
may.
Adjective
a
describing
word
that
modifies
a
noun.
Adverb
a
describing
word
that
modifies
all
types
of
word,
excluding
nouns.
Superlative
an
adjective
that
displays
the
most
extreme
value
of
its
quality,
e.g.
most,
biggest,
smallest,
worst,
furthest,
farthest,
quietest,
zaniest.
Most
of
the
time
superlatives
end
with
-est.
Comparative
an
adjective
that
relates
one
thing
in
some
way
to
another
and
usually
ends
in
er:
bigger,
smaller,
further,
farther,
quieter,
zanier.
Definite
article
the.
Indefinite
article
a
or
an.
Pronoun
a
word
that
takes
the
place
of
a
noun
in
a
sentence,
e.g.
him,
her,
it,
he,
she,
I,
you,
me
(self-reflexive
pronoun),
they.
First
person
pronoun
I,
and
the
first
person
plural:
we,
our,
us.
Second
person
pronoun
you.
Third
person
pronoun
him,
her,
he,
she,
it,
and
the
third
person
plural:
them,
those.
Possessive
pronoun
(1st,
2nd
or
3rd
person
depending)
my,
mine,
our,
your,
his,
hers,
theirs.
Demonstrative
pronoun
this,
that,
those.
Monosyllabic
lexis
words
of
one
syllable.
Polysyllabic
lexis
words
of
two
or
more
syllable.
Imperative
sentence
mood
when
a
sentence
is
issuing
a
command.
Declarative
sentence
mood
when
a
sentence
is
making
a
statement.
Interrogative
sentence
mood
when
a
sentence
is
asking
a
question.
Exclamatory
sentence
mood
when
a
sentence
conveys
a
strong
sense
of
emotion,
sense
of
alarm
or
overly
strong
emphasis.
Register
the
level
of
formality
of
a
text.
Tenor
the
tone,
or
the
relationship
between
author
and
reader
and
how
it
is
created.
Attitudes
The
opinions
expressed
in
the
text.
Content
What
the
text
is
about.
Context
Things
outside
the
text
which
may
shape
its
meaning,
e.g.
when
it
was
written,
who
wrote
it.
Form
the
structure
and
shape
of
a
text.
Themes
the
recurring
ideas
and
images
in
a
text.
Colloquialism
Informal
language
usage,
e.g.
bloke,
fella,
lass,
bog
(toilet),
arse,
bum,
grub,
scram,
Exclamation
a
one
word
sentence
(always
a
minor
sentence)
with
an
exclamation
mark
at
the
end.
Ellipsis
when
parts
of
a
written
structure
are
missing.
In
texts,
sometimes
they
are
indicated
by
three
full
stops
in
a
row,
denoting
perhaps
a
significant
pause...
Do
you
see?
Syntax
the
way
words
form
sentences
(the
ordering
of
them
to
create
meaning).
Parenthesis
an
aside
within
a
text
created
by
sectioning
off
extra
information
between
brackets,
dashes
or
between
two
commas.
Parenthetic
commas,
dashes
or
brackets
see
above.
Rhetorical
question
a
question
designed
not
to
be
answered,
perhaps
to
pique
interest
or
make
a
point;
a
stylistic
choice.
Hypophora
when
a
rhetorical
question
is
immediately
followed
by
an
answer
in
a
text,
e.g.
Is
this
the
best
film
ever?
You
bet
it
is!
Hyperbole
deliberate
over-exaggeration
of
things
for
effect.
Litotes
deliberate
downplaying
of
things
for
effect.
Parallelism/patterning
the
creation
of
patterns
in
a
text,
through
repetition
of
words
or
phrases
(phonological
parallelism)
or
by
balancing
meanings
(semantic
parallelism)
for
deliberate
effect.
Repetition
the
repetition
of
words
or
phrases
(see
parallelism)
Tricolon/tripling
grouping
in
threes,
either
through
repetition
or
through
structures
(either
within
a
sentence
or
paragraph).
This
can
be
for
emphasis
or
to
add
a
sense
of
gathering
momentum
to
a
point
being
made.
Imagery
a
descriptive
or
metaphorical
use
of
language
to
create
a
vivid
picture.
Pre-modification
a
descriptive
technique
where
the
descriptive
words
come
before
the
thing
they
are
describing,
e.g.
the
big,
fat
wad
of
cash
spewed
from
his
inadequate
pocket.
Post-modification
-
a
descriptive
technique
where
the
descriptive
words
come
after
the
thing
they
are
describing,
e.g.
the
wad
of
cash,
big
and
fat,
spewed
from
his
pocket.
Metaphor
a
comparison
that
states
that
something
is
actually
something
else.
Take
a
leaf
out
of
her
book
or
Im
a
demon
driver.
Simile
a
comparison
that
states
that
something
is
like
or
as
something
else.
I
drive
like
a
demon
or
hes
as
big
as
a
house.
Synecdoche
a
metaphor
that
states
that
something
is
only
a
small
constituent
part
of
itself,
even
though
we
commonly
understand
otherwise,
e.g.
a
new
set
of
wheels
(car)
or
hes
behind
bars
(prison)
Homonym
when
one
word
has
multiple
meanings,
e.g.
great
can
mean
both
size
and
positivity;
cool
can
mean
both
coldness
and
a
cool
dude;
heavy
can
mean
physical
weight
or
the
seriousness
of
a
situation.
Archaism
a
word
that,
over
time,
has
fallen
out
of
common
usage.
Older
ones
include
zounds,
thus,
betwixt
etc,
however
slang
can
become
archaic
as
new
generations
opt
to
choose
new
terms
for
things:
dig
it,
bodacious
and
radical
are
perhaps
examples
of
this.
Juxtaposition
the
placing
together
of
elements
(whether
text,
image
etc)
for
some
conscious
effect,
whether
that
be
complimentary
or
contrasting.
Antithesis
when
ideas
contrast
or
oppose
one
another;
a
semantic
contrast
in
a
text.
Often
used
in
reasoned
arguments
or
to
create
emphasised
contrast.
Binary
opposites
elements
of
a
text
that
hold
opposite
ends
of
a
notional
scale
e.g.
hot/cold,
big/small,
loud/quiet.
Oxymoron
The
use
of
apparently
contradictory
words
in
a
phrase,
e.g.
peaceful
war,
hot
ice.
Collocations
words
that,
through
usage
just
naturally
go
together.
We
collectively
understand
they
are
inextricably
linked,
e.g.
Laurel
and
Hardy,
fish
and
chips,
salt
and
vinegar,
John,
Paul,
George
and
Ringo,
fire
and
ice,
broad
grin,
broad
backed.
Asyndetic
Listing
the
listing
of
elements
that
excludes
any
form
of
co-ordinating
conjunction.
The
prefix
a
basically
means
absence
of.
Syndetic
listing
the
listing
of
elements
that
features
a
co-ordinating
conjunction.
Phonological
features
any
devices
used
that
relate
to
sound,
e.g.
alliteration,
repetition.
Onomatopoeia
when
a
word
is
spelled
exactly
as
the
same
as
the
sound
it
describes
kaboom,
drip,
plop,
quack,
miaow.
Consonance
the
repetition
of
double
consonants
in
the
middle
of
words,
e.g.
Id
better
buy
more
butter
before
I
go
out
and
post
these
letters.
Assonance
the
repetition
of
vowel
sounds,
e.g.
you
should
wear
a
hood
while
you
chop
the
wood
good.
Assonance
can
create
rhyme.
Alliteration
(guttural,
lateral,
sibilant,
bilabial/plosive,
dental,
aspirant,
fricative)
the
repetition
of
consonant
sounds
in
a
text,
often
at
the
beginning
of
words.
You
must
always
correctly
label
the
exact
type
of
alliteration
as
listed
above.
Plot
the
structured
cause
and
effect
of
incidents
experienced
by
a
protagonist
that
makes
a
story
interesting:
the
exposition,
the
complication
and
the
resolution.
Exposition
the
parts
of
a
story
(usually
early
on)
where
the
writer
gets
across
all
the
information
about
the
situation
of
a
character,
who
they
are,
where
they
are
and
what
the
status
quo
is
before
the
plot
begins
in
earnest.
It
should
always
be
as
subtle
as
possible,
which
usually
means
avoiding
expressing
exposition
through
dialogue.
Narrator
the
voice
that
tells
a
fictional
story.
Can
be
a
first,
second
or
third
person
narrator
(see
personal
pronouns
to
find
out
more).
Protagonist
the
character
the
reader
is
meant
to
identify
with
the
most
and
follow
through
the
story.
The
hero
(or
anti-hero).
Anti-hero
a
protagonist
who
isnt
always
morally
virtuous
but
has
enough
qualities
to
endear
themselves
to
a
reader.
Antagonist
the
character
who
opposes
the
goals
of
the
protagonist.
Dialogue
the
presentation
of
characters
speech.
Monologue
-
a
type
of
poem
or
a
prolonged
piece
of
drama
where
one
character
delivers
a
speech
that
reveals
their
innermost
feelings.
Dramatic
monologues
can
infer
an
addressee
or
audience
who
the
speaking
character
is
relating
to.
Soliloquy
see
monologue.
Dramatic
irony
When
the
audience
is
aware
of
more
than
one
of
the
characters
in
either
a
play
or
a
piece
of
fiction
to
create
a
dramatic
effect.
Ambiguity
when
there
can
be
more
than
one
possible
meanings
or
outcomes
in
a
story,
creating
a
sense
of
intrigue.
Anthropomorphism
when
an
animal
takes
on
the
characteristics
of
a
human
being,
e.g.
wearing
clothes,
buying
cakes
and
talking.
Suspension
of
disbelief
the
readers
ability
to
take
for
granted
fantastical
aspects
of
fiction
in
order
to
enjoy
the
story.
Genre
category
of
fiction
or
type
of
text,
e.g.
romance,
horror,
thriller,
magazines,
etc.
Audience
who
the
text
is
aimed
at.
Purpose
the
reason
the
text
has
been
produced,
e.g.
to
entertain,
inform
etc.
information
than
necessary.
Youre
husband
had
his
head
blown
off
and
there
was
blood
everywhere.
Headline
the
large
text/title
of
a
newspaper
article.
Often
these
can
incorporate
word
play
and
alliteration.
Tagline
beneath
the
headline,
there
may
be
a
slightly
smaller
sentence,
designed
to
clarify
the
gist
of
the
story.
Subheading
usually
a
one
or
two
word,
emboldened
phrase
that
breaks
up
the
main
article,
often
foreshadowing
what
is
to
come
later
in
the
story.
Caption
part
of
a
multi-modal
text,
these
will
be
juxtaposed
with
an
image.
Often
they
are
used
to
say
something
witty
or
humorous,
maybe
punning
or
taking
out
of
context
the
image
in
question.
Grab
quote
an
enlarged
example
taken
from
the
text,
usually
a
sensationalised
piece.
It
attempts
to
draw
the
readers
eye,
engender
curiosity,
and
thus
make
the
reader
read
the
story.
Slogan
a
catchy
line,
often
a
minor
sentence,
that
sums
up
an
advert,
sticks
in
the
mind,
and
makes
the
product,
ultimately,
seem
more
appealing.
Pun
a
play
on
words:
SupercallygoballisticCelticareatrocious
Caledonian
Thistle
beat
Celtic
5-0;
Celebrity
Big
Blubber
Wally
the
Whale
dies
in
the
Thames,
right
by
the
Celebrity
Big
Brother
house.
Journalese
the
sensationalised
language
that
is
particular
to
tabloid
newspapers,
e.g.
slam,
probe,
spat
(as
in
fight),
shocker.
Multiple
modifiers
doubling
and
trebling
up
of
adjectives
is
used
frequently
in
tabloid
newspapers
and
also
other
genres
of
text.
Clich
when
language
is
used
over
and
over
until
it
becomes
so
well
known
that
it
loses
its
original
potency,
e.g.
at
the
end
of
the
day,
Im
over
the
moon,
he
was
as
quiet
as
a
mouse.
Idiom
a
saying,
often
a
clich
where
the
words
that
make
up
the
saying
do
not
have
the
same
meaning
as
the
overall
semantic
effect,
e.g.
Im
over
the
moon;
youre
taking
the
Mickey;
hes
pushing
up
daisies;
youre
having
a
laugh.
Malapropism
when
a
speaker
accidentally
uses
the
wrong
word
that
sounds
the
same,
or
like
it
should
belong
in
their
sentence/utterance:
The
worlds
my
lobster;
I
will
illiterate
you
from
my
memory.
Text
speak
the
phonetic
spelling
of
text
too
long
to
type
out
in
full
on
a
mobile
phone.
Orthography
the
method
of
spelling/correct
spelling
we
would
refer
to
the
non-
standard
orthography
of
words
from
the
past
in
comparison
to
how
we
write
them
today.
Etymology
the
origin
of
a
word
or
the
history
of
how
it
came
to
be.
Ampersand
the
symbol
&,
arguably
more
prominent
in
the
past.
Non
standard
capitalisation
you
may
see
in
very
old
texts,
capital
letters
being
allocated
mid-sentence
to
words
other
than
proper
nouns,
perhaps
for
emphasis,
or
perhaps
arbitrarily.
Look
at
the
specific
text
in
question
and
put
forward
your
own
reasoning
for
it.
Archaism/archaic
language
a
word
that
has
fallen
out
of
common
usage
or
is
old
fashioned.
These
can
also
include
slang
words
that
have
fallen
out
of
the
youth
lexicon.
Anachronistic
language
language
that
seems
out
of
time.
For
example,
something
may
be
written
in
a
very
old
fashioned
way
for
stylistic
reasons,
say
a
fantasy
style
novel,
yet
it
may
contain
dialogue
that
would
appeal
to
a
modern
young
audience,
using
slang
etc.
Its
like
when
you
spot
an
extra
wearing
a
digital
watch
in
a
historical
movie.
Semantic
shift
the
shift
in
a
words
meaning
over
time,
e.g.
sick
evolves
to
become
something
other
than
illness
but
a
slang
reference
to
something
positive..
Inverted
syntax
when
the
ordering
of
words
is
rearranged
to
create
an
alternative
weighting
to
a
sentence.
Think
of
Yoda
on
Star
Wars
Good
with
the
force,
he
is.
Slang
colloquial
language,
often
coined
by
the
younger
generations
to
imprint
their
own
social
identity
on
the
language
and
differentiate
themselves
from
the
perceived
establishment.
Globalised
vocabulary
in
the
20th
Century,
in
the
advent
of
mass-media,
social
mobilization
and
international
travel,
there
have
been
an
influx
of
new
words
and
phrases
that
we
now
take
for
granted,
e.g.
kebab,
cab,
sushi,
karaoke,
knish,
talk
to
the
hand,
zombie,
savoir-faire.
Discourse
the
study
of
spoken
language.
Mode
the
mode
of
the
text
is
how
it
is
presented.
Is
it
in
the
written
or
spoken
mode?
Whichever
mode
it
is,
it
will
be
governed
by
differing
rules
and
structures.
Vocabulary
the
amount
of
words
available
to
an
individual.
Paralinguistic
features
literally
beyond
language.
The
things
that
aid
communication
but
dont
literally
constitute
language,
e.g.
body
language,
facial
expressions,
laughter,
sighs,
whispering.
Prosodic
features
the
sound
effects
of
spoken
language.
Things
like
stress,
intonation
and
pitch.
Stress
the
emphasis
placed
on
certain
words,
through
volume,
significant
pauses
beforehand,
or
inflexion.
Intonation
the
rise
and
fall
of
an
individuals
natural
speaking
voice
or
the
variation
or
tune
to
keep
listeners
interested.
These
naturally
differ
from
nation
to
nation
as
different
languages
have
different
intonation
qualities.
Pitch
the
rise
or
fall
of
the
voice.
High
pitch
is
squeaky
and
low
pitch
is
deep.
Turn
taking
co-ordinated
and
rule
governed
co-operation
between
two
or
more
participants
of
a
conversation.
Adjacency
pair
a
moment
in
turn
taking
where
one
utterance
constrains
the
response
in
some
way,
e.g.
a
question
leads
to
an
answer;
a
suggestion
leads
to
an
acceptance
or
declination.
Back
channelling
the
process
of
giving
feedback
through
encouraging
noises
and
positive
comments
when
a
speaker
is
talking
to
encourage
them.
Running
repair
the
process
of
socially
organising
a
conversation
if
two
people
find
that
they
have
been
talking
simultaneously.
Topic
marker
an
utterance
that
establishes
the
topic
of
a
conversation.
Topic
shifter
an
utterance
that
moves
a
conversation
on
to
another
topic,
e.g.
Anyway...
Interrupted
construction
the
breakdown
of
an
utterance
where
half
way
through
the
speaker
will
completely
change
tact,
focus
or
even
topic
and
move
onto
something
else,
sometimes
abandoning
the
original
utterance
mid
word.
Explain
in
detail
how
these
have
occurred.
False
starts
The
speaker
realises
the
beginning
of
an
utterance
isnt
working
and
so
effectively
re-starts
by
rephrasing.
Hesitation
indicators
moments
in
discourse
that
indicate
that
the
speaker
is
in
some
way
playing
for
time.
This
can
be
seen
in
certain
forms
of
stuttering
and
in
fillers
such
as
um,
err
and
ahh
when
the
speaker
is
thinking
of
the
next
thing
to
say.
Fillers
the
insertion
of
words,
phrases
or
noises
into
a
speakers
discourse,
e.g.
like,
yknow,
sort
of,
right.
These
can
be
due
to
the
individuals
own
idiolect
or
convey
some
subliminal
conversational
purpose,
depending
on
the
context.
Latch-ons
when
a
speaker
takes
their
turn
immediately
after
the
preceding
speaker
has
finished
speaking
leaving
no,
or
little,
pause.
This
can
be
due
to
an
attempt
for
conversational
dominance
or
a
degree
of
familiarity
between
the
speakers,
among
other
reasons.
Overlaps
when
one
speaker
speaks
over
another.
Glottal
stops
the
omission
of
(usually)
dental
sounds
in
the
middle
of
words
like
butter,
letter,
better
etc,
in
pronunciation.
Occasionally
these
can
occur
at
the
ends
of
words
like
what.
Non-fluency
features
any
feature
which
would
indicate
that
the
speaker
is
not
speaking
with
fluency
for
whatever
reason,
e.g.
someone
might
stammer
if
they
are
under
severe
pressure,
or
a
foreign
speaker
may
invert
syntax
or
elide
certain
words
from
their
utterances.
Tag
question
a
question
tagged
onto
the
end
of
an
statement,
e.g
Its
cold,
isnt
it?
Vocative
a
direct
reference
to
another
speaker
in
discourse,
e.g.
Bob,
can
you...
Elision
the
omission
of
a
vowel
or
syllable
in
the
pronunciation
of
a
word
OR
the
omission
of
a
vowel
at
the
end
of
a
word
when
the
subsequent
word
begins
with
a
vowel
(as
apparent
in
northern
pronunciation),
e.g.
its
either
one
or
tother.
Code
switching
the
ability
of
a
speaker
to
alter
the
register
or
clarity
of
their
speech
to
suit
a
different
social
situation.
Received
Pronunciation
the
typical
pronunciation
associated
with
the
social
elite
of
Britain.
The
Queens
English
etc.
Accent
The
manner
of
pronunciation
particular
to
a
certain
geographical
region.
Regional
Dialect
the
actual
words
used
and
the
spoken
grammar
which
is
particular
to
a
certain
geographical
region.
Sociolect
the
vocabulary
and
spoken
grammar
which
is
particular
to
a
certain
social
group.
Idiolect
the
speech
patterns
of
an
individual.
Alternate
rhyme
Caesura
Couplet
End-focus
Enjambment
Eye
rhyme
foregrounding
Form
Iambic
Internal
rhyme
Octet
Pentameter
Petrarchan
or
Italian
sonnet
Quatrain
Rhythm
Sestet
Shakespearean
or
English
sonnet
Stanza
Verse
Type
Volta
When analysing a text, the worst thing you could possibly do is dive
straight in and start analysing. There are things you need to consider
before you start writing in order for you to successfully structure
your work and analyse in sufficient depth to succeed on this course
to the required level.
First, you must GASP at the text, whatever it may be. Youve probably
guessed that GASP is one of those horrible acronyms, but it should help you
remember the process of initial consideration.
G Genre what type of text is it? Is it a leaflet, advertisement, piece of
rhetoric, transcript of somebody singing in the bath, shopping list, or maybe a
piece of high literature what is it? Once, youve answered this question, you
should begin thinking about the general linguistic conventions of such a text.
A Audience who is it written for (specifically)? So, its an advert for
chocolate, for example, but who is the target audience? Is the text trying to
appeal to men and women, old or young, rich or poor?
S Subject what is the text about? If it is an article, what is the subject
and will that have an effect on the language used?
P
After thinking about the GASP you need to write your analytical essay. To
do this you will need to apply the CLIPO framework. CLIPO is not a hard
and fast rule that must be applied; however you must include all its
elements in some form within your analytical work.
C CONTEXT you need to begin your essay with a rundown of the
contextual factors that will shape the thrust of your discussion. Who has
written the text, when was it written etc? In essence, you can make this
opening to the essay something resembling the GASP paragraph.
L LEXIS or the language used. Make analytical comments on
grammar, syntax, imagery, lexical choices etc.
I INTERACTIONAL FEATURES - how does the text interact with the
audience. Look at the graphology. Are there any typographical features.
Does it address the audience directly using first person pronouns? Does it
utilise images? Are modal elements juxtaposed for effect?
P PHONOLOGICAL FEATURES are there any sound effects utilised by
the text? Is there alliteration, assonance, consonance, onomatopoeia,
phonetic spelling etc?
O OVERVIEW sum up your findings and perhaps evaluate the
effectiveness of all the features that you have analysed in relation to the
points you made in the CONTEXT section, referring once again to GASP.
At school, you will probably have been told to use POINT, EVIDENCE &
EVALUATION when analysing texts.
Were going to be a little bit more grown up here at College (well, a bit
anyway) so from now on well use CQA. Once, youve GASP(ed) and
planned your analytical essay with CLIPO, every single point you make
must follow thusly:
C COMMENT okay, so youve spotted a feature of language so now
you need to mention it. Go on write a declarative sentence. Thats all you
need to do. Just come out and say it!
Q QUOTE oh? Does the text really utilise synecdoche to create a
parallel image to the central notion that the concept of robots symbolise a
whole totalitarian society of emotionless drudgery. What an excellent
comment. Although an examiner will always want proof that you know
what youre talking about and that you arent trying to merely create a
good impression with waffled terms. Prove it! Follow up your comment with
a direct quote from the text to support your astute claims.
A ANALYSIS Going good so far. Youve commented well and proved it
with a quote. Now analyse the quote in depth. Discuss the effect of the
notion youve outlaid in the comment and relate it to GASP. For example,
why is it using metaphor? How does the metaphor work? Why will the
intended audience appreciate this particular metaphor? Is it a clich? If it is
a rather commonly understood metaphor, used in wider circles, then what
effect does this have on the audience? Is it usual for this type of text to
utilise imagery like this?