CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Mortar is a building material that plays a significant role in the field of construction. With
its characteristics such as good adhesion property, relatively low costs, durable and easily
workable make it an essential component in structural construction worldwide. Mortar binds
building block such as stone, brick or tile through filling and sealing the irregular gaps between
structural units forming a single performing unit. Moreover, it also adds decorative colors or
patterns in masonry walls. Mortar comes in different composition suited for its particular
specialization area.
In the advent of technology, mortar is continually developed to improve set concrete
properties and expand field applications. Typically, mortar is a material composed by mixing
together the sand, binder (cement) and water. The water is used to hydrate the cement and holds
the mixture together. Over time, the mortar hardens into a stonelike mass and with proper
application, distributes the load of structure uniformly over the bonding surfaces and provides a
weathertight joint.
Most valuable use of cement takes place in the production of mortar in both masonry and
concrete. Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general use around the world.
Portland cement is a binding agent, and is the most functional component of concrete.
Economically, it is a relatively costly building material considering the energy spent in its
production. Environmental concerns are the high energy consumption required to mine,
manufacture, and transport the cement and the related air pollution including release of
1

greenhouse gases. The use of either industrial by-products with scrap value or waste materials
can result in major conservation of energy and raw materials. Moreover, by utilizing wastes in
useful manner, the environmental pollution is also reduced to a great extent.
Mahogany is a large tropical tree with a symmetrical appearance and best-known for its
valuable heartwood. The tree is also appreciated as a beautiful and useful street tree. Mahogany's
flowering season occurs within the month of March and April while fruit bearing season occurs
within the month of June and July. The different mahoganies vary in color from golden to deep
red brown; most are close-grained and resistant to termites. It loses its leaves just as new leafs
sprout, so the tree is not without leaves for long. Tiny flowers are followed by 4-5", woody fruits
that burst its carpel to expel the seeds. The fruit of the Philippine Mahogany is almost spherical,
about one (1) centimeter across, and densely covered with short, soft hairs. The mahogany fruit
concentrate is sold as a natural remedy that is said to improve blood circulation and skin. Aside
from which, no other possible usage of mahogany fruit were discovered despite its abundance in
the country and following properties such as Flavonoids, Saponins, and Alakaloids.

1.1 Background of the Study

The use of mortar as a building material is a fast growing construction innovation adopted
by different countries. Generally, it is used as a binding agent that coats concrete structures and
gives strength overtime.
As countries continue to develop, the demand for mortar, which is directly proportional to
the demand for cement, is high. Extensive production of cement can destroy the environment due
to the release of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. In economic aspect, cement is costly
compared to other mortar components.

In the Philippines, mahogany carpels are used as fire wood substitute or sometimes
subjected to disposal. The researchers believed that reducing the amount of cement usage by
means of replacing an amount with mahogany carpel ash as required in a mortar mix. Promotion
of conservation of the environment through the reduction of carbon dioxide release in the
atmosphere during cement production can be achieved. Moreover, it is useful to society and to
the industry in terms of effectiveness, rate and performance for most purposes.
Mortar mixes with mahogany carpel ash as a partial cement replacement are studied. The
experiment was then considered with the design mixtures (0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100%
replacement) on the basis of composition. Test can be performed, obtained and discussed.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

1. What are the physical and chemical properties of the mahogany carpel ash
that can affect the standard compressive strength of mortar?
2. At what percentage of mahogany carpel ashes, by mass of cement, will the
compressive strength of mortar be at maximum?
3. Will the use of mahogany carpel ash as partial cement replacement viable
in terms of economy?

1.3 Objective of the Study

1. To determine the physical and chemical properties of mahogany carpel ash
as partial cement replacement to the compressive strength of mortar.
2. To determine the optimum content of mahogany carpel ash as partial
cement replacement in mortar.
3. To evaluate the economic viability of mahogany carpel ash as partial
cement replacement in mortar.

1.4 Significance of the Study

This study will be a significant endeavor in promoting the conservation of our environment
through the reduction of carbon dioxide release in the atmosphere during cement production.
The research study will also be helpful in the utilization of waste materials which is one of
the vast problems our country is facing today.
Moreover, this study will also be beneficial to the construction industry as an innovative
way of responding to the fast growing demand of developing nations in terms of construction as
well as the rapid increase of infrastructure material prices. It will also serve as a future reference
for researchers on the subject of mortar mixture with partial replacement of waste materials with
scrap value. More importantly, this research will educate individuals on the feasible ways of
utilizing mahogany carpel ash which is widely available in the country.

1.5 Scope and Limitation

The study focuses on determining the compressive strength of mortar by using Mahogany
carpel ash as partial cement replacement in mortar. These are the design mortar mixtures to be
considered: 0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and up to 100% replacement. The 0% cement
replacement will be the control mix which contains 100% Ordinary Portland cement; while the
remaining cement replacements act as the experimental group.
Sun-drying and burning of Mahogany carpel were done in Molugan, El Salvador City,
Misamis Oriental. The testing of specific gravity for aggregates was conducted in Test Lab at
Gusa, Cagayan de Oro City. The ash content from the Mahogany carpel was conducted in Fast
Lab at Lapasan, Cagayan de Oro City. The chemical property testing was conducted at Holcim
Philippines laboratory.
4

The study also limits to plain cement mortar.

1.6 Theoretical Framework

Independent Variable

Dependent Variable

Percentage replacement of cement

Compressive strength of mortar
(with 7 and 28 days curing period)

with Mahogany carpel ash such as

0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, 100%

Figure-1
Figure 1 Shows the relationship between the dependent and independent variable. This study
helps the researchers as well as the readers to know the variable factor that affects the
compressive strength of mortar that is mixed with cement partially replaced with mahogany
carpel ash.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This section focuses on the studies that support and relate the ideas prior to this study.
Mortar has been used to bond building blocks or structural units and to improve
workability and durability in masonry construction. It is applied as a paste obtained by adding
water to a mixture of binding material and sand, which the strength of the mortar depends upon
the specified ratio. The standards of ASTM are provided for different ratios of mixture for each
type of mortars and results may be used to determine agreements with specifications. Because of
its less expensive to repair, the mortar is intended to be weak and its compressive strength is very
low.
Utilization of agricultural and industrial wastes, such as ash, had been encouraged in
construction field for the production of cement. It contributes in functional benefit of waste

reusability for sustainable development, and the economy it could offer.

CEMENT
Cement is known as a basic component of concrete. According to Allen (2008), it is a
fine gray powder which combines with water to form strong crystals that bind the coarse and fine
aggregates together under chemical process.
Watson (1989) stated that Joseph Aspdin in England have developed and patented a
hydraulic cement and called it as Portland cement because of its resemblance to a grayish
limestone mined on the Isle of Portland.
Portland cement is the most commonly used type of cement. They are characterized by
their physical and chemicalproperties that influence its quality and strength. They are
manufactured by crushing, milling and proportioning the following materials: limestone or
Gypsum (CaO, CaSO4, 2H2O), sand (SiO2), Alumina or bauxite, and clay or iron (Fe 2O3). These
materials, without the gypsum, are proportioned to produce a mixture with the desired chemical
composition and then ground and blended by one of two processes - dry process or wet process.
The materials are then fed through a kiln at 2,600 F to produce grayish-black pellets known as
clinker. The alumina and iron act as fluxing agents which lower the melting point of silica from
3,000 to 2600 F. After this stage, the clinker is cooled, pulverized and gypsum added to regulate
setting time. It is then ground extremely fine to produce cement (Kozmatka&Panarese 1988).
Portland cements are composed of four primary compounds which are tricalcium silicate
(C3S), dicalcium silicate (C2S), tricalcium aluminate (C3A), tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF).
Tricalcium silicate (C3S) hydrates and hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial set
and early strength. The more tricalcium silicate on Portland cement, the higher its early strength.
Dicalcium silicate (C2S) hydrates and hardens slowly and contributes largely to strength increase
7

at ages beyond one week. tricalcium aluminate (C3A) liberates a large amount of heat during the
first few days of hydration and hardening. It also contributes slightly to early strength
development. The lower percentage of C3A, the more it is resistant to soils and waters containing
sulfate. Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF) is composed of iron and aluminum raw materials to
reduce the clinkering temperature during cement manufacture. It contributes less for strength.
These are the components and compounds that composes a Portland cement. The strength of
cement depends on the percentages of the components and compounds present on it (Caldarone
2009).
POZZOLANAS
Pozzolanas first found at Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli), near Naples, Italy. According to
Varshney (1982), a pozzolana is a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material, which possesses
small or no cementitious value but will react with calcium hydroxide to form compounds having
cementitious properties. Natural pozzolanic materials occur in large deposits in the form of clays,
shales obsidian, pumicite, volcanic ashes, tuffs and diatomoceous earth which usually requires
grinding. In addition, clays and shales must be activated by calcining at 650degrees to 1000
degrees celcius.
Based from Gibbons (1997), pozzolan have five major sources. In Europe and the Middle
East, naturally occurring pozzolan deposits, which resembles an ash-like product of volcanic
activity can be found. This pozzolan is suitable for use in concrete under wet conditions.
Pozzolan can also be collected from fired and crushed clay like bricks and this type is more
durable than volcanic pozzolan. Furnace slag from industrial processes can also take the form of
a pozzolan which is currently used as a concrete admixture. Another type is organic ash,
produced by burning coal or lime. Finally by crushing rock and sand, some pozzolans are also

been produced and these have been used in mortars before but are not commonly used at present.
Pozzolans are proved to be effective at lowering the mortars heat of hydration, which increases
its workability and durability. Also, pozzolans resist sulfate and alkali-silica reactions, which is
beneficial to use in large concrete projects.
ASH CEMENT
Construction has been observed everywhere and it means that massive production of
cement is required to create concrete for structures. Every one ton of cement produced leads to
about 0.9 tons of CO2 emissions and a typical cubic yard of concrete contains about 10% by
weight of cement. Since a cubic yard of concrete weighs about 2 tons, CO 2 emissions from 1 ton
of concrete varies between 0.05 to 0.13 tons. Approximately 95% of all CO 2 emissions from a
cubic yard of concrete is from cement manufacturing and so it is no wonder that much attention
is paid to using greater amounts of supplementary cementitious material (SCM) such as fly ash
and slag. (Obla 2009)
Ordinary cement usually takes 7 days for it to be fully solidified. After 28 days, 70 percent
of the process has been completed, but the process continues for many years. Ordinary cement is
typically stronger during the first few months than the ash cement, but after one year the ash
cement is stronger than the ordinary cement (Niels Bohr 2013)
ASH
According to McClements (2003), ash is the inorganic residue remaining after the water
and organic matter have been removed by heating in the presence of oxidizing agents. The
chemical composition of an ash depends on that of the substance burned. Wood ash contains
metal carbonates (e.g., potassium carbonate) and oxides formed from metals originally
compounded in the wood. Coal ash usually has a high content of minerals and is sometimes
9

contaminated with rock; during combustion the mineral matter may become partially fused,
forming cinders or clinker. Bone ash is largely made up of calcium phosphate. Seaweed ash
contains sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate, and iodine that can be extracted. Fly ash is very
fine ash produced during the combustion of many materials.
SUPPLEMENTARY CEMENTITIOUS MATERIAL (for Mortar and Concrete)
Mortar is similar to concrete in terms of the materials mixed such as cement, water, and
aggregate. The difference is that mortar uses only graded sand and it is the only aggregate
present in the mixture (Kentucky 2015).
Supplementary Cementitious Material (SCM) such as ash from sugar production is stronger
than ordinary cement. The research shows that the ash helps to bind water in the cement so that
it is stronger, can withstand higher pressure and crumbles less. At the same time, energy is saved
and pollution from cement production is reduced. The results are published in the scientific
journal, Scientific Reports. (Niels Bohr 2013)
Abrea et al. (2014) have studied on the feasibility of charcoal ash (Ipil-ipil) as partial
replacement to cement in concrete particularly in terms of compressive strength. Five design
mixtures with three (3) samples each were prepared at 0% of charcoal ash which served as
controlled group, while 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% of charcoal ash served as the experimental
group. The concrete cylinders were then tested for compression after 28 days of curing. Results
revealed that in the 15 concrete samples of 5 mixtures, the 2 samples in 0% of charcoal ash
(control) did pass the required compressive strength test, while the rest of the samples had
failed. One of the factors that could have affected the strength was improper water-cement ratio.

10

Obilade (2014) have studied about the properties of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) when used as
partial replacement for Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) in concrete. OPC was replaced with
RHA by weight at 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25%. 0% replacement served as the control.
Compacting factor test was carried out on fresh concrete while Compressive Strength test was
carried out on hardened 150mm concrete cubes after 7, 14 and 28 days curing in water. The
results revealed that the Compacting factor decreased as the percentage replacement of OPC
with RHA increased. The compressive strength of the hardened concrete also decreased with
increasing OPC replacement with RHA.
Raheem et. al. (2012) have studied about Saw Dust Ash as Partial Replacement for Cement
in Concrete. The study investigated the physical properties and chemical composition of saw
dust ash (SDA) as well as the workability, and compressive strength properties of the concrete
produced by replacing 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% by weight of ordinary Portland cement
with SDA. The concrete cubes were tested at the ages of 3, 7, 28, 56 and 90 days. The results
showed that SDA is a good pozzolan with combined SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 of 73.07%. The
slump and compacting factor decreased as the SDA content increased indicating that concrete
becomes less workable as the SDA content increased. The compressive strength decreased with
increasing SDA replacement. The compressive strength of concrete with SDA was lower at early
stages but improves significantly up to 90 days. An optimum value of 23.26N/mm at 90 days
was obtained for concrete with 5% SDA replacement. It was concluded that 5% SDA
substitution is adequate to enjoy maximum benefit of strength gain.
MAHOGANY TREE

11

Mahogany is a kind of wood- the straight-grained, reddish-brown timber of three tropical

hardwood species of the Swietenia. Indigenous to the Americas, part of the pantropical
chinaberry family, Meliaceae. The three species are: Honduran or big-leaf mahogany
(Swieteniamacrophylla), with a range from Mexico to southern Amazonia in Brazil, the most
widespread species of mahogany and the only true mahogany species commercially grown
today; West Indian or Cuban mahogany (Swieteniamahagoni), native to southern Florida and
the Caribbean, formerly dominant in the mahogany trade, but not in widespread commercial use
since World War II; Swietenia Humilis, a small and often twisted mahogany tree limited to
seasonally dry forests in Pacific Central America that is of limited commercial utility.
Some botanists believe that S. humilis is a mere variant of S. Macrophylla.
While the three Swietenia species are classified officially as "genuine mahogany", other
Meliaceae species with timber uses are classified as "true mahogany." (Only the Swietenia
species can be called "genuine mahogany"). Some may or may not have the word mahogany in
their trade or common name. Some of these true mahoganies include the African
genera Khaya and Entandrophragma; New Zealand mahogany kohekohe (Dysoxylumspectabile);
Chinese mahogany, Toonasinensis; Indonesian mahogany, Toonasureni; Indian mahogany,
Toonaciliata; Chinaberry, Meliaazedarach; Pink mahogany (or Bosse), Guarea; Chittagong (also
known as Indian mahogany), Chukrasiavelutina; and Crabwood Carapaguianensis. Some
members of the genus Shorea (Meranti, Balau, or Lauan) of the family Dipterocarpaceae are also
sometimes sold as Philippine mahogany, although the name is more properly applied to another
species of Toona, Toonacalantas.
Also known as Lauan, the Philippine Mahogany is considered the very best in Asia. The
types growing in Luzon are generally harder and darker, while Mindanao origin is a lighter and
12

milder type.

Plantation Mahogany in the Philippines can be Swietenia Macrophylla, or

KhayaIvorensis species. It is mostly 20-25 years of growth and mainly used for indoor furniture.
Mahogany is a commercially important lumber prized for its beauty, durability, and color,
and used for paneling and to make furniture, boats, musical instruments and other items. The
leading importer of mahogany is the United States, followed by Britain; while the largest
exporter today is Peru, which surpassed Brazil after that country banned mahogany exports in
2001. It is estimated that some 80 or 90 percent of Peruvian mahogany exported to the United
States is illegally harvested, with the economic cost of illegal logging in Peru placed
conservatively at $US40-70 million annually. It was estimated that in 2000, some 57,000
mahogany trees were harvested to supply the U.S. furniture trade alone.
Mahogany has a straight, fine, and even grain, and is relatively free of voids and pockets..
Its reddish-brown color darkens over time, and displays a reddish sheen when polished. Its fruit
has exactly five carpels containing seventy seeds It has excellent workability, and is very
durable. Historically, the tree's girth allowed for wide boards from traditional mahogany species.
These properties make it a favorable wood for crafting cabinets and furniture.

13

Fig. 2
Figure 2- Shows the parts of a Mahogany fruit.

CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY

The research study shall be conducted in Cagayan de Oro City, Misamis Oriental, Region
14

X, Philippines. The Philippines being one of the developing countries wherein construction
activities are evident, it utilizes great amount of cement as one of mortars component.
With the increasing demand for cement, the chemical emissions produced through cement
manufacturing heavily affects the environment. In economical aspect, cement is costly compared
to other mortar components: sand and water. The Philippines as one of the countries in Asia
where mahogany trees are abundantly growing, the researchers have thought of using its carpel
ash as partial cement replacement in mortar to provide beneficial effects to both environmental
and economic aspects. The research material used in this study is Mahogany carpels burned into
ash.
The study conducts an experimental research design to evaluate the effectiveness of
Mahogany carpel ash as partial replacement of 0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100% ratio in
cement for mortar mix. This chapter explains the procedure and computation to obtain the
objectives of the study.

3.1 Flowchart of Activities

Preparation and Collection of Mahogany

Sun drying of Mahogany Carpels
Burning of Mahogany Carpels

15

Ash Powder Collection

Chemical Property Testing
Physical Property Testing (Ash Content, S.G, Time Setting)
Specimen Production
(with Cement Replacement of 0%, 20%,
40%, 60%, 80% and 100%)
Demolding
Curing of Samples
Testing
(Compression Test and Moisture Test)
Results
Evaluation
Figure 3
Figure 3 Shows the procedure that the researchers should perform in order to complete
and attain the goals and objectives of the study.
3.2 Preparation and Collection of Material

Figure 4
Figure 4- Picking of
Mahogany carpels at

16

City Library Area

Figure 5
Figure 5- Malasag
Garden vicinities
The Mahogany
carpels used in this
study

were

obtain

from Cagayan de Oro City particularly in schools such as Mindanao University of Science and
Technology (MUST), City Central School (CCS), Gusa Elementary School and in Malasag Eco
Park, Camp Evangelista, and Capitol Grounds vicinity where Mahogany trees are abundantly
existing.
3.3

Sun drying of Mahogany Carpels

\
Figure 6
Figure 6- Sun drying
of collected
Mahogany carpel
samples

The collected Mahogany carpels were cleaned through brushing to secure that no other
organic materials were present together with the research material. After which, the Mahogany
carpels were sundried for 48 hours in preparation for burning phase.
17

3.4 Burning of Mahogany Carpels

Figure 7
Figure 7- Gradual burning of Mahogany carpels
The sundried Mahogany carpels were then set for burning. The collected samples were
burnt into ash in a limekiln.
3.5 Ash Powder Collection

Figure 8
Figure 8- Sieving of
Collected Mahogany
Carpel Ash

Figure 9
Figure 9- Mahogany
Carpel Ash Passing
No.200 sieve

18

In this procedure, a sieving apparatus was used. The researches then sieved the ash
obtained from burning Mahogany carpels. The ashes which have passed through No.200 sieve
was then considered as the final product which were already free from impurities and were
placed inside a closed container to avoid air and moisture exposure.
3.6 Chemical Property Testing
The collected ashes were sent to Holcim Philippines Laboratory at Lugait, Misamis
Oriental for chemical analysis to know the percentage of SiO 2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and CaO present in
the ash sample.
3.7 Physical Property Testing
The collected ashes were subjected to tests specifically Ash Content, Time Setting, and
Specific Gravity together with the cement. On the other hand, the fine aggregates also undergone
through specific gravity test.
3.7.1 Ash Content
A hammer was used to crash and pulverize Mahogany carpels. After which, a weighing
scale was used to attain 250 grams of pulverized Mahogany carpels as a requirement for ash
content testing.
Weigh 2grams test portion into porcelain crucible and place in temperature control furnace
preheated to 600 degree Celsius. Hold at this temperature for 2 hours. Transfer the crucibles
directly to desiccator, cool, and weigh immediately, reporting percent ash to first decimal place.

%( w/w)ash =Error: Reference source not found

19

3.7.2 Time Setting for Cement

Standard Test Methods for Time Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle
(ASTM C191-04b)
Manual Vicat Apparatus
Refer to the Apparatus section, paragraphs P.1, P.2, and P.3, and Annex A1 for a description
of the Vicat Apparatus.
TEST METHOD:
A paste that is proportioned and mixed to normal consistency, as described in the Test
Method C187 (see Annex A2), is molded and placed in a moist cabinet and allowed to start
setting. Periodic penetration tests are performed on this paste by allowing a 1-mm Vicat needle to
settle into this paste. The Vicat initial time of setting is the time elapsed between the initial
contact of cement and water and the time when the penetration is measured or calculated to be 25
mm. The Vicat final time of setting is the time elapsed between initial contact of cement and
water and the time when the needle does not leave a complete circular impression in the paste
surface.

CALCULATION
Calculate the Vicat time of setting to the nearest one minute as follows:

E - Time in minutes of last

penetration greater than 25 mm,
H - Time in minutes of first penetration less than 25 mm,
C - Penetration reading at time E, and

20

D - Penetration reading time at time H.

Calculate the Vicat final time of setting by determining the elapsed time between the time
of the initial contact between cement and water and the time when the needle does not sink
visibly into the paste, rounded to the nearest five minutes.

3.7.3 Specific Gravity Testing of Cement (ASTM C188 95)

Specific Gravity for Partially replaced Cement
The cement samples with specific amount of ash percentage (0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%,
and 100%) must be ignited as described in the test for loss ignition (ASTM C 114). Then the Le
Chatelier Flask (Annex 2, Fig. 2.1) shall be filled with naptha to a point of stem in the flask
between 0 and 1mL mark. After pouring, inside of the flask above the level of the liquid shall be
dried and will be immersed in the water bath using a loose-fitting. The initial reading must be
recorded after immersion. Then, about 64g of cement in small increments will be weighed and
carefully introduced into the flask. After pouring or introducing the cement to the flask, the
stopper shall be placed in the flask and the flask is then whirled gently in horizontal circle until
no further air bubbles rise to the surface of the liquid. The flask shall be immersed in the water
bath with the same temperature on the first immersion and for sufficient period of time. After
immersion, final reading must be recorded. Then repeat steps to other samples.

Density of Cement () = Error: Reference source not found

Specific Gravity of Cement (SG) = Error: Reference source not found

3.7.4 Specific Gravity Testing of Fine Aggregates

21

Procedure for Fine Aggregates (ASTM C128)

About 500g of the fine aggregates sample was prepared. Water must cover the test
sample, either by immersion or by the addition of at least 6% moisture to the sample, and must
permit to stand for 244h. Excess water was decanted with care to avoid loss of fines. The
sample was then spread on a flat nonabsorbent surface exposed to a gently moving current of
warm air, and was stirred frequently to secure homogeneous drying. Continue until the sample
approaches a free-flowing condition. The specimen was weighed when it has reached a SSD (g).
The pycnometer was filled with to the top, and weighed: PYC (g). Part of the water was
removed, and started to introduce the SSD sample into the pycnometer. Then additional water
was filled to approximately 90% of its capacity. The pycnometer was rolled, inverted, and
agitated to eliminate all air bubbles. Then the water was brought level in the pycnometer to its
calibrated capacity. The total weight of the pycnometer, specimen, and water was then
determined: SUB (g). The sample from the pycnometer was removed, and dried to a constant
weight at a temperature of 1105 C, cool, and weigh: OD (g).

Bulk Gs (Air Dry)

Bulk Gs (SSD)

Apparent Gs =

Air
PYC SSD SUB
SSD
PYC SSD SUB
OD
PYC OD SUB

3.8 Specimen Production (ASTM C 109/C 109M)

The proportion of materials for the standard mortar was one part of cement to 2.75 parts of

22

graded standard sand by weight. The water-cement ratio of 0.485 was used for all portland
cements. The proportion was mixed together by a mechanical mixer and was molded in test
cubes. After molding, the specimens were then carefully transported to the curing cabinet for
initial curing. After 24 hours, the specimens was stripped and returned immediately to the curing
cabinet for proper curing of specified days (3 days, 7 days, 28 days) before compression testing.

3.8.1 Cement with Mahogany Carpel Ash

Figure 10
Figure 10 shows the proportioning of Cement and Mahogany Carpel Ash

After the collection of Mahogany carpel ash, it was then used to replace a partial amount of
cement (20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, 100%) for mortar cubes production. The cement with Mahogany
23

carpel ash was weighed to approximately 1000g using triple beam balance, to create 9 mortar
cube samples for every specific replacement.
3.8.2 Standard Graded Sand

24

a
b
c

25

Figure 11
Figure 11 (a) shows the sieving of sand using flowing water method.. (b) shows the
collected standard graded wet sand (c) shows the oven dried standard graded sand.

The sand used was graded sand, predominantly graded to pass a 850-m (No. 20) sieve and
be retained on 600-m (No. 30) sieve. The standard grading process conducted was running
water directly into the sieve for the purpose of removing impurities from the standard sand to be
used. The wet standard graded sand was then collected and dried by either sun drying or oven
drying. After the sand was fully dried, it was then cooled for a couple of minutes. After cooling,
the sand is ready to use for specimen productions. The proportion of sand for every mixture was
2.75 of the cement ash used.
T he quantities of materials to be mixed at one time in the batch of mortar for making six
and nine test specimens shall be as follows:
NUMBER OF SPECIMENS
6

Cement, g

500

740

Sand, g

1375

2035

Water, mL

242

359

For Portland (0.485)

3.8.3 Mixing of Materials

26

Figure 12
Figure 12 shows
the mechanical
mixing of materials

The

fine

aggregates, cement
and

water

was

mechanically
mixed

in

accordance
the

with

procedure

given in practice
ASTM C305 (See
Annex A3).

3.8.4 Molding

27

Figure 13
Figure 13 shows the molding of fresh mortar into cubes

The specimens were molded within a total elapsed time of not more than 2 min and 30 s
after completion of the original mixing of the mortar batch. A layer of mortar was placed for
about 1 in. or [25 mm] (approximately one half of the depth of the mold) in all of the cube
compartments. The mortar was tamped in each cube compartment 32 times in about 10 s in 4
rounds, each round to be at right angles to the other and consisting of eight adjoining strokes
over the surface of the specimen, as illustrated in Fig. 1. The tamping pressure was just sufficient
to ensure uniform filling of the molds. The 4 rounds of tamping (32 strokes) of the mortar were
28

completed in one cube before going to the next. After tamping the first layer, the compartments
were fully filled with the remaining mortar and then tamp as specified for the first layer. During
tamping of the second layer, the mortar was brought in forced out onto the tops of the molds after
each round of tamping by means of the gloved fingers and the tamper upon completion of each
round and before starting the next round of tamping. On completion of the tamping, the tops of
all cubes was extended slightly above the tops of the molds. The mortar that has been forced out
onto the tops of the molds was brought in with a trowel and smooth off the cubes by drawing the
flat side of the trowel (with the leading edge slightly raised) once across the top of each cube at
right angles to the length of the mold. Then, for the purpose of leveling the mortar and making
the mortar that protrudes above the top of the mold of more uniform thickness, the flat side of the
trowel (with the leading edge slightly raised) was drawn lightly once along the length of the
mold. The mortar was cut off to a plane surface flush with the top of the mold by drawing the
straight edge of the trowel (held nearly perpendicular to the mold) with a sawing motion over the
length of the mold.

Figure 14
Figure 14 shows the tamping pattern for compaction of mortar in cubes.

29

3.9 Curing of Samples (C 109/C 109M)

Figure 15
Figure 15 shows the curing of mortar cubes in a curing cabinet.

Immediately upon the completion of molding, the test specimens was placed in the moist
closet or moist room for 24 hours with their upper surfaces exposed to the moist air but protected
from dripping water. After which, the samples were placed in a curing cabinet for final curing
until the specified days (3, 7, 14, 28 days) before compression testing of samples.

30

3.10 Testing for Strength (ASTM C39)

31

32

Figure 16
Figure 16 shows the compression test for mortar cubes at specified curing age.

After required days of curing for the specimen, the specimen was transported from moist
storage to the testing laboratory as soon as practicable (not exceeding to 4hours of transport) to
determine its compressive strength capacity. It was transported gently, providing cushion such as
sawdust or fine sand to prevent disturbance of the concrete due to travel deficiency. Each
specimen was placed on the center of the compression machine and properly tested.
Concrete Strength =Error: Reference source not found

REFERENCES
ASTM C39 Testing of Strength
ASTM C127-07 Specific Gravity Testing of Coarse Aggregates
ASTM C128 Specific Gravity Testing of Fine Aggregates
ASTM C172 Specimen Production and Curing of Samples
ASTM C188-95 Specific Gravity Testing of Cement
ASTM C191-04b Standard Test Methods for Time Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle
A.A Raheem and O.K Sulaiman(2012), Saw Dust Ash as Partial Replacement for Cement in
Concrete, Organization, Technology and Management in Construction an International Journal,
33

pp.474-480
Abrea, Bagtasos, Lungay, Paragas (2014), Green Concrete Using Ipil-Ipil Wood Charcoal Ash
as a Partial Replacement for Cement, pp. vii
ASCC Education, Research & Development Foundation (2013), Lab and Field Data for
Assessing the Impact of Green Concrete Mixtures on Building Construction, pp7

Don A. Watson (1989), Construction Materials and Processes, Second Edition, pp.45
Edward Allen (2008), Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials and Methods, pp.433
Ghassan K. Al-Chaar, David A. Yaksic, and Lisa A. Kallemeyn (2011), The Use of Natural
Pozzolan in Concrete as an Additive or Substitute for Cement, pp. 1
International Journal of Research in Engineering & Technology (2014), Green Concrete:
Efficient & Eco-friendly Construction Materials , Vol. II, Issue 2, pp.259-264
KakamareM.S.1, Nair V. V. (2015), SUSTANABLE CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND
TECHNOLOGY: GREEN CONCRETE, International Journal of Advanced Technology in
Engineering and Science, pp.310-314
Karthik H. Obla, Ph.D., P.E., (2009), Managing Director, Research and Materials Engineering,
NRMCA, p17

Michael A. Caldarone (2009), High-Strength Concrete. A Practical Guide,pp. 25

Obilade, I.O (2012) USE OF RICE HUSK ASH AS PARTIAL REPLACEMENT FOR
CEMENT IN CONCRETE, International Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, pp
11.Vol. 5. No. 04, pp.11-16
R.S Varshney (1982), Concrete Technology, pp.20
Steve Kosmatka& William Panarese (1988), Design and Control of Concrete Mixes, Portland
Cement Association, Skokie, Ill., pp. 205.
Utsev, J. T., Taku, J. K., (2012), Coconut Shell Ash As Partial Replacement of Ordinary
Portland Cement In Concrete Production, International Journal Of Scientific & Technology
Research,Vol. 1, Issue 8, pp. 86-89
William P. Spence (2008), Construction Methods, Materials, and Techniques, pp.121

34

APPENDIX
C187 Test for Normal Consistency of Hydraulic Cement
P.1 Vicat ApparatusSee Annex A1.1 and Figure A1.1. The Vicat apparatus for this test method
shall have a movable rod, B, of mass 300 0.5 g. The end of the rod used for measuring
penetration shall have a removable needle, D, with a diameter of 1.00 0.05 mm and length
no less than 50 mm.
P.2 Plane non-adsorptive plate, 100 5 mm square of similar planeness, corrosivity, and
absorptivity to that of glass (see Annex A1.1, Figure A1.1, H).
P.3 Conical ring, made of a rigid non-corroding, non-absorbent material and shall have a height
of 40 1 mm, an inside diameter at the bottom of 70 3 mm, and an inside diameter at the
top of 60 3 mm (see Annex A1.1, Figure A1.1, G).

ANNEXES
A1. VICAT APPARATUS
A1.1 The Vicat apparatus shall consist of a frame, A, Figure A1.1, bearing a movable rod, B,
with a mass as specified by the method referencing this apparatus, one end, C, the plunger end,
with a diameter as specified by the method referencing this apparatus, and the other end having a
mass or removable steel needle, D, as specified by the method referencing this apparatus. The
rod, B, is reversible, and can be held in any desired position by a set screw, E, and has an
adjustable indicator, F, which moves over a scale graduated in millimeters and attached to the
frame, A. The gradations on the graduated scale, when compared to a scale accurate to within 0.1

35

mm at all points, shall not show a variance from the reference scale greater than 0.25 mm.

Figure A1.1Vicat
Apparatus

A2. LE CHATELIER
FLASK
A2.1

36

Fig.2.1 Le
Chatelier
Flask

A3.
Standard
Method
of Test for

37

Mechanical Mixing of Hydraulic Cement Pastes and Mortars of Plastic Consistency (ASTM C
305)
The mixer shall be an electrically driven mechanical mixer of the epicyclic type, which
imparts both a planetary and a revolving motion to the mixer paddle. The mixer shall have a
minimum of two speeds, controlled by definite mechanical means. (Rheostat adjustment of speed
will not be acceptable.) The first, or slow, speed shall revolve the paddle at a rate of 140 5
r/min, with a planetary motion of approximately 62 r/min. The second speed shall revolve the
paddle at a rate of 285 10 r/min, with a planetary motion of approximately 125 r/min. The
electric motor shall be at least 124 W (1/6 hp). The mixer shall be equipped with a screw which
is an integral part of the mixer or a clearance adjustment bracket as shown in Figure A3.1 (Note
1), which shall be used to maintain the clearance between the lower end of the paddle and the
bottom of the bowl not greater than 2.5 mm but not less than 0.8 mm when the bowl is in the
mixing position.

Fig. A3.1 Clearance Adjustment Bracket

Note 1-When the bracket is in the proper position beneath the motor housing, the lugs are to the
38

front and facing upward and the heads of the adjustment screws are to the rear and facing
downward in the path of the sliding frame that holds the bowl. It is intended that the bracket be
fastened at the front housing connection by inserting replacement screws of an appropriate size
upward through the opening in each lug and into the existing threaded holes in the bottom of the
motor housing. The original stops for the sliding frame are to be filed down if they prevent the
frame from coming in contact with the adjustment screws.

The paddle shall be readily removable, made of stainless steel, and shall conform to the
basic design shown in Figure 2. The dimensions of the paddle shall be such that when in the
mixing position, the paddle outline conforms to the contour of the bowl used with the mixer, and
the clearance between corresponding points on the edge of the paddle and the side of the bowl in
the position of closest approach shall be approximately 4.0 mm, but not less than 0.8 mm.

39

Fig. A3.2 Paddle

The removable mixing bowl shall have a nominal capacity of 4.73 L, shall be of the
general shape and comply with the limiting dimensions shown in Figure 3, and shall be made of
stainless steel. The bowl shall be so equipped that it will be positively held in the mixing
apparatus in a fixed position during the mixing procedure. There shall be provided a lid, made of
a non- absorbing material not attacked by cement.

Fig. A3.3 Mixing Bowl

The scraper shall consist of a semirigid rubber blade attached to a handle about 150 mm

40

long. The blade shall be about 75 mm long, 50 mm wide, and tapered to a thin edge about 2 mm
thick.
Note : A kitchen tool known as a plate and bowl scraper conforms to these requirements.
The balances, weights, glass graduates, and any other supplementary apparatus used in
measuring and preparing the mortar materials prior to mixing shall conform to the respective
requirements for such apparatus as specified in the method for the particular test for which the
mortar is being prepared.

PROCEDURE FOR MIXING MORTARS

Place the dry paddle and the dry bowl in the mixing position in the mixer. Then
introduce the materials for a batch into the bowl and mix in the following manner: Place all the
mixing water in the bowl; Add the cement to the water; then start the mixer and mix at the slow
speed (140 f 5 r/min) for 30 seconds; Add the entire quantity of sand slowly over a 30-second
period, while mixing at slow speed; Stop the mixer, change to medium speed (285 It 10 r/min),
and mix for 30 seconds; Stop the mixer and let the mortar stand for 90 seconds. During the first
15 seconds of this interval, quickly scrape down into the batch any mortar that may have
collected on the side of the bowl; then for the remainder of this interval, cover the bowl with the
lid; Finish by mixing for 60 seconds at medium speed (285 f 10 r/min); In any case requiring a
remixing interval, any mortar adhering to the side of the bowl shall be quickly scraped down into
the batch with the scraper prior to remixing.
A4. Standard Test Method for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar (ASTM C1437)
A4.1 Apparatus
Flow Table, Flow Mold, Tamper, Trowel having a steel blade 100 to 150 mm (4 to 6 in.)

41

in length, with straight edges. The edges when placed on a plane surface shall not depart from
straightness by more than 1 mm (0.04 in.), Straightedge, made of steel, shall be at least 200 mm
(8 in.) long and not less than 1.5 mm (0.06 in.) nor more than 3.5 mm (0.14 in.) in thickness. Its
edge shall not depart from a plane surface by more than 1 mm (0.04-in.)

A4.2 Materials
Hydraulic Cement MortarA mortar for which the determination of flow is specified or
desired.

A4.3 Determination of Flow

Carefully wipe the flow table clean and dry, and place the flow mold at the center. Place a
layer of mortar about 25 mm (1 in.) in thickness in the mold and tamp 20 times with the tamper.
The tamping pressure shall be just sufficient to ensure uniform filling of the mold. Then fill the
mold with mortar and tamp as specified for the first layer. Cut off the mortar to a plane surface
flush with the top of the mold by drawing the straightedge or the edge of the trowel with a
sawing motion across the top of the mold. Wipe the table top clean and dry, being especially
careful to remove any water from around the edge of the flow mold. Lift the mold away from the
mortar 1 min after completing the mixing operation. Immediately drop the table 25 times in 15 s,
unless otherwise specified.

A4.4 Calculation
The flow is the resulting increase in average base diameter of the mortar mass, expressed
as a percentage of the original base diameter.

42

A.5 Minimum Compressive Strength of 2in. Cubes (ASTM C270)

Fig.

A.5.1 Table of Minimum Compressive Strength of 2 in. Cubes

Four Grades of Mortars:
Grade H : Portland Cement Mortar
Grade M-1 : Cement- Lime Mortar
Grade M-2 : Masonry Cement Mortar
Grade L : Lime Mortar

43