Saint Thomas Christians

Nasrani redirects here. For other uses, see Nasrani (dis- spoke.[6]
ambiguation).
This article is about the Saint Thomas Christian people.
For their churches, see Saint Thomas Christian churches. 1 Terminology
The Saint Thomas Christians, also called Syrian
The Saint Thomas Christians are so called due to their
reverence for Saint Thomas the Apostle, who is said to
have brought Christianity to India. The name dates to
the period of Portuguese colonization. They are also
known, especially locally, as the Nasrani or Nasrani Mappila. Nasrani is a term meaning Christian"; it appears to be a local pronunciation of Nazarine, derived
from Nazareth, the home town of Jesus. Mappila is an
honoric applied to members of non-Indian faiths, including Muslims (Mappila) and the Cochin Jews (Yuda
Mappila).[7][8] Some Syrian Christians of Travancore
continue to attach this honoric title to their names.[9]
The Indian government designates members of the community as Syrian Christians, a term originating with the
Dutch colonial authority distinguishing the Saint Thomas
Christians, who used Syriac as their liturgical language,
from newly evangelized Christians who followed the
Latin liturgy.[10] The term Syrian relates not to their
ethnicity but to their historical, religious and liturgical
connection to the Church of the East, or East Syrian
Church.[7]

Marth Mariam Syro-Malabar Catholic Church at Arakuzha,

Kerala

Christians or Nasrani, is a community of Christians

from Tamilakam in present day Kerala, India, who trace
their origins to the evangelistic activity of Saint Thomas
in the 1st century, and is one of the oldest Christian communities of the world.[4][5] The community was historically united in leadership and liturgy, but since the 17th
century have been split into several church denominations
and traditions.

2 History

Historically the Saint Thomas Christian community was 2.1

part of the Church of the East, centred in Mesopotamia.
They were organised as the Ecclesiastical Province of India in the 8th century, served by bishops and a hereditary Archdeacon. In the 16th century the overtures of the
Portuguese padroado to bring the Saint Thomas Christians into the Catholic Church led to the rst of several
rifts in the community and the establishment of Catholic
and Malankara Church factions. Since that time further
splits have occurred, and the Saint Thomas Christians
are now divided into several Eastern Catholic, Oriental
Orthodox, and independent bodies, each with their own
liturgies and traditions.
The Saint Thomas Christians represent a single ethnic
group. Saint Thomas Christian culture is Hindu in origin
with inuences from East Syrian, West Syrian, Jewish and
later European sources. Their language is Malayalam, the
language of Kerala, and Syriac is used for liturgical purposes. Syriac is a dialect of Aramaic, the language Jesus

Early history and tradition

Roman trade with ancient Coastal South West India according to

the Periplus Maris Erythraei 1st century AD

According to longstanding tradition, St.

Thomas,
one of the 12 apostles, came to Muziris, Tamilakam
around AD 52 which is in the present day Pattanam,
1

HISTORY

Kerala). As per most recorded versions of the legend, the community began with Thomass conversion
of Brahmin Gramams or families, which are named in
some sources as Pakalomattom, Sankarapuri, Kaliyankal,
Kalli, Kalikay, Kottakali, Kayakkam, Madeipur, Muttal, Nedumpally, and Panakkamattam.[11][12][13][14] The
four families Sankarapuri, Pakalomattam, Kalli, and
Kaliyankal were considered the most preeminent.[14]

ginning of the Brahmin dominance of medieval Kerala.

He argues that the Christians in Kerala, integrated with
Persian Christian migrant merchants, in the 9th century
had become a powerful trading community and were
granted the privileges by the Hindu rulers to promote
revenue generation and to undermine Buddhist and Jain
traders who rivaled the Hindus for religious and political
hegemony in Kerala at the time.[33][34]

Though Cochin Jews are known to have existed in Kerala

around that time,[15][16][17] and it was possible for a Jew
such as St. Thomas from Galilee to make a trip to Kerala
in the 1st century, there is no contemporary evidence for
this tradition. The earliest known source connecting the
apostle to India is the Acts of Thomas, likely written in
the early 3rd century, perhaps in Edessa.[18][19][20]

An organised Christian presence in India dates to the arrival of East Syrian settlers and missionaries from Persia,
members of what would become the Church of the East,
in around the 3rd century.[35] Saint Thomas Christians
trace the further growth of their community to the arrival of the Thomas of Cana from the Middle East, which
is said to have occurred sometime between the 4th and
8th century. The subgroup of the Saint Thomas Christians known as the Knanaya or Southists trace their lineage to Thomas of Cana, while the group known as the
Northists claim descent from Thomas the Apostles indigenous converts.[22][36]

Further, a number of 3rd- and 4th-century Roman writers

also mention Thomas trip to India, including Ambrose
of Milan, Gregory of Nazianzus, Jerome, and Ephrem
the Syrian, while Eusebius of Caesarea records that his
teacher Pantaenus visited a Christian community in India
in the 2nd century.[21][22]

The tradition of origin of the Christians in Kerala is found 2.2

in a version of the Songs of Thomas or Thomma Parvam, written in 1601 believed to be a summary of a larger
and older work.[23][24] Thomas is described as arriving
in or around Maliankara and founding Seven Churches,
or Ezharapallikal: Kodungallur, Kollam, Niranam, Nilackal (Chayal), Kokkamangalam, Kottakkavu (Paravur),
Palayoor (Chattukulangara) and Thiruvithamcode Arappally (a half church).[25][26][27]

Classical period

The Thomma Parvam also narrates the conversion of 40

Jews, along with the 3000 Hindus, and the local King at
Kodungallur by St Thomas[13][18][28] The Thomma Parvam further narrates St Thomass mission in the rest
of South India and states that before his martyrdom
at Mylapore in present-day Chennai, Tamil Nadu, he
had converted 6,850 Brahmans, 2,800 Kshatriyas, 3,750
Vaishiyas, and 4,250 Shudras.[29] Legends tend to claim Tharisapalli Copper plate grant (9th century) - One of the reliable
that many of the converts in other parts of South India documentary evidences of the privileges and inuence that Saint
reverted to Hinduism.
Thomas Christians enjoyed in early Malabar.[37] The document
The tradition of the coming of a foreigner by the name
Thoman who debated with the Brahmins and converted
many prominent people including a king is part of
Nambudiri Brahmin folklore and is found in the important Nambudiri Brahmin 17th Century tract, the
Keralolpathi. However, in this Brahmin version of the
legend, the Thoman referred to is Thomas of Cana.[13]
Though historians doubt the historicity of the Brahmin
conversion legend, there is evidence that some St Thomas
Christians observed Brahmin customs and were granted
privileges usually reserved for Brahmins in the Middle
Ages, i.e. after the 9th century A.D., including the wearing of the sacred thread and having a kudumi.[30][31][32]
The medieval historian Pius Malekandathil believes these
were customs adopted and privileges won during the be-

contains signatures of the witnesses in Pahlavi, Kuc and Hebrew

scripts.[38] It is the oldest documentary evidence available to attest
the presence of a Persian Christian community in South India.[39]

As the community grew and immigration by East Syrians increased, the connection with the Church of
the East, centred in the Persian capital of SeleuciaCtesiphon, strengthened. From the early 4th century
the Patriarch of the Church of the East provided India with clergy, holy texts, and ecclesiastical infrastructure, and around 650 Patriarch Ishoyahb III solidied the
Church of the Easts jurisdiction over the Saint Thomas
Christian community.[40] In the 8th century Patriarch
Timothy I organised the community as the Ecclesiastical
Province of India, one of the churchs Provinces of
the Exterior. After this point the Province of India
was headed by a metropolitan bishop, dispatched from

2.4

Division and deance

Persia, the Metropolitan-Bishop of the Seat of Saint

Thomas and the Whole Christian Church of India.[22]
His metropolitan see was probably in Cranganore, or
(perhaps nominally) in Mylapore, where the shrine of
Thomas was located.[22] Under him were a varying number of bishops, as well as a native Archdeacon, who had
authority over the clergy and who wielded a great amount
of secular power.[22]

3
and the Saint Thomas Christians found themselves under
pressure from the rajas of Calicut and Cochin and other
small kingdoms in the area. The Saint Thomas Christians and the Portuguese newcomers quickly formed an
alliance.[48]
The Portuguese had a keen interest in implanting themselves in the spice trade and in spreading their version of
Christianity, which had been forged during several centuries of warfare in the Reconquista.[49] Facilitating their
goals was the Padroado Real, a series of treaties and decrees in which the Pope conferred upon the Portuguese
government certain authority in ecclesiastical matters in
the foreign territories they conquered. They set up in
Goa, forming a colonial government and a Latin church
hierarchy under the Archbishop of Goa, and quickly
set to bringing the Saint Thomas Christians under his
authority.[50]

Some contact and transmission of knowledge of the Saint

Thomas Christians managed to reach the Christian West,
even after the rise of the Islamic empires.[41] Byzantine
traveller Cosmas Indicopleustes wrote of East Syrian
Christians he met in India and Sri Lanka in the 6th
century.[42] In 883 the English king Alfred the Great reportedly sent a mission and gifts to Saint Thomas tomb in
India.[41] During the Crusades, distorted accounts of the
Saint Thomas Christians and the Nestorian Church gave
rise to the European legend of Prester John.[43]
The Portuguese subjection of the Saint Thomas ChrisThe great distances involved and the geopolitical turmoil tians was relatively measured at rst, but they became
of the period caused India to be cut o from the churchs more aggressive after 1552, the year of the death of
heartland in Mesopotamia at several points. In the 11th Metropolitan Mar Jacob and of a schism in the Church
century the province was suppressed by the church en- of the East, which resulted in there being two rival
tirely, as it had become impossible to reach,[44] but ef- Patriarchsone of whom entered communion with the
fective relations were restored by 1301.[45] However, fol- Catholic Church. Both patriarchs sent bishops to India,
lowing the collapse of the Church of the Easts hierar- but the Portuguese consistently managed to outmaneuver
chy in most of Asia later in the 14th century, India was them, and eectively cut o the Saint Thomas Christians
eectively cut o from the church, and formal contact from their hierarchy in 1575, when the Padroado legiswas severed. By the late 15th century India had had no lated that neither patriarch could send representatives to
metropolitan for several generations, and the authority India without Portuguese approval.[51]
traditionally associated with him had been vested in the By 1599 the last Metropolitan, Abraham, had died, and
archdeacon.[46]
the Archbishop of Goa, Aleixo de Menezes, had seIn 1491 the archdeacon sent envoys to the Patriarch of
the Church of the East, as well as to the Coptic Pope of
Alexandria and to the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch, requesting a new bishop for India. The Patriarch
of the Church of the East Shemon IV Basidi responded
by consecrating two bishops, Thoma and Yuhanon, and
dispatching them to India.[46] These bishops helped rebuild the ecclesiastical infrastructure and reestablish fraternal ties with the patriarchate, but the years of separation had greatly aected the structure of the Indian
church. Though receiving utmost respect, the metropolitan was treated as a guest in his own diocese; the Archdeacon was rmly established as the real power in the Nasrani
community.[47]

cured the submission of the young Archdeacon George,

the highest remaining representative of the native church
hierarchy.[52] The Archbishop convened the Synod of Diamper, which implemented various liturgical and structural reforms in the Indian church. The Synod brought the
parishes directly under the Archbishops purview; anathematised certain superstitious social customs characteristic of their Hindu neighbors, including untouchability
and a caste hierarchy; and purged the indigenous liturgy,
the Malabar Rite, of elements deemed unacceptable according to the Latin protocol.[53][54][55] A number of
texts were condemned and ordered burnt, including the
Peshitta, the Syriac version of the Bible.[56] Some of
the reforms, especially the elimination of caste status, reduced the Saint Thomas Christians standing with
their socially stratied Hindu neighbors.[54] The Synod
2.3 Portuguese contact
formally brought the Saint Thomas Christians into the
Catholic Church; however, the actions of the Portuguese
Further information: Goa Inquisition and Portuguese over the ensuing years fueled resentment in segments of
Inquisition
the community, and ultimately led to open resistance to
their power.[57]
The Saint Thomas Christians rst encountered the
Portuguese in 1498, during the expedition of Vasco da
Gama. At the time the community was in a tenuous position: though thriving in the spice trade and protected by
their own militia, the local political sphere was volatile

HISTORY

even more.[60]
This was the last straw for the Saint Thomas Christians,
and in 1653 Thomas and community representatives met
at the Church of Our Lady in Mattancherry to take bold
action. In a great ceremony before a crucix and lighted
candles, they swore a solemn oath that they would never
obey Garcia or the Portuguese again, and that they accepted only the Archdeacon as their shepherd.[60] The
Malankara Church and all its successor churches regard
this declaration, known as the Coonan Cross Oath after the outdoor cross in the churchyard, as the moment
when their church regained its independence.[60] Shortly
after, the leaders of this newly independent church decided Thomas should be elevated to bishop. Thomas
was consecrated in a ceremony in which twelve priests
laid hands on him, and he became the metropolitan of
Malankara.[61]

Tomb of Francis Roz, rst Jesuit Metropolitan of Kodungalloor

Archeparchy, inside Kottakkavu Mar Thoma Syro-Malabar Pilgrim Church, North Paravur.

2.4

Division and deance

Over the next several decades, tensions seethed between

the Portuguese and the remaining native hierarchy, and
after 1641 Archdeacon Thomas, the nephew and successor to Archdeacon George, was often at odds with the
Latin prelates.[58] In 1652, the escalating situation was
further complicated by the appearance in Mylapore of a
mysterious gure named Ahatallah, who claimed to have
been sent by the Pope to serve as Patriarch of the Whole
of India and of China.[58][59]
Ahatallah made a strong impression on the native clergy,
but the Portuguese quickly decided he was an impostor,
and put him on a ship bound for Europe by way of Goa.
Archdeacon Thomas, desperate for a new ecclesiastical
leader to free his people from the Padroado, travelled to
Cochin and demanded to meet Ahatallah and examine his
credentials. The Portuguese refused, stating the ship had
already left for Goa.[59] Ahatallah was never heard from
in India again, inspiring rumours that the Portuguese had
murdered him and inaming anti-Portuguese sentiments

After the Coonan Cross Oath the Portuguese missionaries attempted for reconciliation with Saint Thomas Christians but was not successful. Later Pope Alexander VII
sent the Roman bishop Joseph Sebastiani at the head
of a Carmelite delegation who succeeded in coercing
some of Saint Thomas Christians, including Palliveettil
Chandy Kathanar and Kadavil Chandy Kathanar. As a
reward for his submission, Palliveettil Chandy Kathanar
was consecrated as the bishop for the Latinized Syrian
Catholics.[62][63][64] This led to the rst permanent split
in the Saint Thomas Christian community. Thereafter,
the faction aliated with the Catholic Church under
Parambil Mar Chandy was designated the Pazhayakuttukar, or Old Party, while the branch aliated with
Mar Thoma was called the Puthankuttukar, or New
Party.[65][66][67][68] These appellations have been somewhat controversial, as both groups considered themselves
the true heirs to the Saint Thomas tradition, and saw the
other as heretical.[69]
After the Coonan Cross Oath, between 1661 and 1662,
out of the 116 churches, the Latinized Syrian Catholics
claimed eighty-four churches, and Archdeacon Mar
Thoma I thirty-two churches. The eighty-four churches
and their congregations were the body from which the
Syro-Malabar Catholic Church and Chaldean Syrian
Church have descended. The other thirty-two churches
and their congregations were the body from which the
Syriac Orthodox (Jacobites & Orthodox), Thozhiyur
(1772), Mar Thoma (1874), Syro-Malankara Catholic
Church have originated.[70]
In 1665, Mar Gregorios Abdul Jaleel, a Bishop sent by
the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch arrived in India and the St.Thomas Christians who stayed loyal to the
Coonan Cross Oath, under the leadership of the Archdeacon, welcomed him.[71][72] This visit gradually introduced
the West Syrian liturgy, customs and script to the Malabar
Coast.[65]
The Old Party, who continued with the Latin theological and liturgical tradition and stayed faithful to the Ro-

2.5

British period

man Catholic Church were given the name Syro-Malabar

Catholic Church by the Roman masters from the second half of the 19th century onward. They were nally
granted a Hierarchy was established on 21 December
1923 with the Metropolitan Mar Augustine Kandathil as
the Head of their Church.[65][73][74]

5
in favor of the reformed ideologies of the missionaries, stood along with them and joined the CMS. These
Syrian Anglicans, were the rst Reformed group from
among the Saint Thomas Christians. They joined the
missionaries in their evangelical activities among the nonChristians and worked along with the missionaries in their
reformative and educational activities.[85] In 1879, the
Anglican diocese of Travancore and Cochin was established, in Kottayam.[86] On 27 September 1947, a little
over a month after the Indian independence, the Anglican
Church in South India united with similar other reformed
Churches in the region and formed the Church of South
India (CSI);[87] an autonomous Indian church within the
Anglican Communion.[88][89] Since then, the Syrian Anglicans have been members of the CSI, in which they
practically stay ethnically distinct.

The Jacobite prelate Mar Gregorios who came to Kerala in 1751 AD, consecrated Rev. Kurian Kattumangat
as bishop Abraham Mar Koorilose in 1772 AD at Mattancherry church, Cochin.[75] He was driven into exile
from the states of Travancore and Cochin where the majority of St. Thomas Christians lived, to Anjoor in the
state of Malabar. He spent his days in prayer and meditation in a hut. A few relatives and friends joined him
there.[71][76][77][78][79] This group was known as Thozhyoor Church later named as Malabar Independent Syrian
Church, after a court verdict on 28 May 1863.[80]
By June 1875, there were two factions in the Malankara
Church (Puthencoor faction); Jacobite Party (Bava) and
Reform (Methran) Party. Mathews Mar Athanasius was
the Malankara Metropolitan approved by the Govern2.5 British period
ments of Travancore and of Cochin[90] and the group
In 1795, the kings of Travancore and Cochin entered with him was known as Reform Party since Mathews
into tributary alliance with the British East Indian Com- Mar Athanasius was supportive to the reformation of Ja[91]
pany to repel the attacks from Tipu Sultan. The states cobite church with evangelistic ideologies. The Syrian
soon became client regimes of the Company: both were faction, under the leadership of Metropolitan Pulikkottil
forced to disband their military. The political order of Joseph Mar Dionysious II, opposed the attempts to do
the states also began to collapse. Saint Thomas Chris- away with age-old traditions of the church, which re[91]
Being invited by
tians were hit hard by the loss of their privileged mili- sulted in a stir in the community.
tary role, their kalari network was dissolved and many this faction, the Antiochene Patriarch Moran Mar Ig[92]
In June 1876, at
families lost their livelihood.[81] The trading class, as natius Peter III arrived in Kerala.
well as the oce bearers, also suered the setback and the synod of Mulanthuruthy, presided over by the Patrimany Europeans who visited the states between 1801 and arch, the Syrian faction formally came under the Antioch[93]
1820 noted the poor and depressed condition of Saint ene Patriarchate. The synod condemned Mathews Mar
Thomas Christians of the Puthiyakoottukar . Some parti- Athanasius for abstaining from it, but his followers stayed
[91]
san fund allocation for the churches by the British ocials rm with him. His successor Thomas Mar Athanasius
triggered a breakdown in the relationship between Saint and the bishops faction lost the lawsuit to the PatriarThomas Christians and prominent Hindu castes, at least chal faction in the Royal Court of Travancore on 12 July
[94]
temporarily.[82] In 1815, the British Resident, Colonel 1889. Nonetheless, the Reform Party continued as an
John Munro, founded a seminary in Kottayam, for the independent, Malankara Church and thereafter a series
theological education of Jacobite Christian priests and in- of suits arose on the rights over churches and associated
vited the Anglican missionaries to teach there. This could properties. Later they chose the name Malankara Mar
[91]
be regarded as the beginning of the relationship between Thoma Syrian Church.
the CMS (Church Mission Society) and the Saint Thomas In 1912, due to attempts by the Antiochean Patriarch
Christians of the Puthiyakoottukar.[83]
to gain temporal powers over the Malankara Church
2.5.1

Further divisions

As a protest against the interference of the Anglican

Church in the aairs of the Puthiyakoottukar faction of
the Malankara Church, the Metropolitan, Cheppad Mar
Dionysius, convened a Synod at Mavelikara on 16 January 1836. There it was declared that Malanakara Church
(Puthencoor faction) would be subject to the Syrian traditions and Patriarch of Antioch.[84] The declaration resulted in the separation of the CMS missionaries from the
communion with the Malankara Church (Puthencoor faction). However a minority from the Church, who were

(Puthencoor faction), there was another split in the

West Syrian community when a section declared itself an autocephalous church and announced the reestablishment of the ancient Catholicate of the East in India. This was not accepted by those who remained loyal
to the Patriarch, and this group, popularly known as Patriarchs Party recognized the temporal power of the Patriarch over the assets of their church, while the other side,
known as Metropolitan Party, accepted the supremacy of
Patriarch only over the spiritual matters. The two sides
led a series of lawsuits in the civil courts and some parallel attempts to reconcile both the parties also took place.
In 1958, bishops of both the parties sealed their recon-

HISTORY

ciliation and signed a treaty which in turn recognized

the autonomy of reunited factions, with its own synod of
bishops under the presidency of the Catholicos.[95] The
verdict of Supreme Court of India in 1959, legitimizing the autonomy of Kerala church, was also instrumental to keep this formal reconciliation between two sides.
Nonetheless, in 1975, both the parties split again with
the decision of Universal Syrian Synod, held in Damascus, to depose the Catholocos in Kerala. Today the East
Syrian community is divided into Malankara Orthodox
Syrian Church (in Oriental Orthodox Communion, autocephalous), Jacobite Syriac Orthodox Church (in Oriental Orthodox Communion, under Antioch).[65]
In 1930 a section of the Malankara Church (Puthencoor
faction) under the leadership of Mar Ivanios and Mar
Theophilus left the Church[96] and came into communion with the Catholic Church. They are known as SyroMalankara Catholic Church.
In 1961, there was a split in the Malankara Mar Thoma
Syrian Church which resulted in the formation of St.
Thomas Evangelical Church.[97][98]
Since the later 20th century, neo-charismatic churches
have attracted some St. Thomas Christians. These are
typically churches with doctrines and practices similar to
traditional Pentecostal or Charismatic churches but without a formal denominational tie. The neo-charismatic
movement can be found both within established St.
Thomas Christian churches, such as the Charismatic and
gospel ministries of Syro-Malabar, Syro Malankara &
Mar Thoma Syrian Church, and in newer independent denominations, including the New Apostolic Church, the
Assemblies of God, the Indian Pentecostal Church of
God (IPC), the New Life Fellowship, and the Manna Full
Gospel Churches.[99]

2.5.2 Involvement in politics

Participation based on caste and community divisions and
sympathies has been a feature of politics in the present
day state of Kerala and its predecessor entities. Until the
mid-20th century the primary cause of the divisions between the various communities was competition for rights
and resources, rather than any dislike of each other, but
in more recent times there has been a rise in violence and
antagonism that has coincided with a promotion of Hindu
politics.[100]
Like other communities, Saint Thomas Christians have
been involved in regional politics on a community basis. In 1888, Travancore became the rst princely state
in India to establish a Legislative Council, which was reformed as the Sree Moolam Popular Assembly in 1904.
A few Saint Thomas Christian leaders were elected to the
Legislative Council but there was resentment that their
share of the available seats was proportionately less than
that of other prominent castes. This resentment led to a
series of campaigns for equal representation both in the
legislature and in government positions.[101] Newspapers
such as Malayala Manorama and Nasrani Deepika disseminated the grievances.[102]
In 1918, Saint Thomas Christians formed the League
for Equal Civic Rights, which sought the opening of all
branches of government service to Christians, Muslims
and avarna Hindus, as well as an end to the practice of
untouchability. Their demands were partially met in 1922

7
when the Revenue Department was separated from the
Devaswom, a semi-government organization that managed the Hindu temples, thus removing the restriction on
non-Hindus and avarnas in the executive service. In the
1920s, Saint Thomas Christian leaders such as George
Joseph were advised by Mahatma Gandhi to detach from
Vaikom Satyagraha, an agitation for the temple entry
rights of avarna Hindus, as he considered the issue to be
one of concern to Hindus alone.[102][103]
With the institution in 1932 of a bicameral legislature in
Travancore, four Saint Thomas Christians found a place
in among the 24 seats of the lower house, but not comparable with other forward castes.[101] The partisan and
oppressive behaviour of Diwan Sir C. P. Ramaswamy
Iyer, especially towards the Saint Thomas Christians, further provoked the community members. Iyer reected
a concern among Hindus that the Christian population
was rising and that there was a consequent danger of
Travancore becoming a Christian state. The 1931 census recorded over 31 per cent of the population as being
Christian, compared to around 4 per cent in 1820.[104]
Some restrictions were imposed on Saint Thomas Christian parishes to start new schools and later on the Diwan attempted to take over the schools owned by the
community.[102] In 1933, some prominent Saint Thomas
Christians, including T. M. Varghese, worked to organize other communities on a common platform called
the Joint Political Congress, which then decided to abstain from participation in the assembly elections, an action that has become known as the Abstention Movement.
There followed a period of erce confrontation between
the Diwan and Saint Thomas Christiansmany leaders were arrested, prominent news papers were banned
and large banks owned by the community members were
liquidated.[102][105] But the agitations continued and to resolve the issue, government appointed a franchise and
delimitation commissioner to solve the problem of representation in the legislator with special reference to backward communities. Though there was no denite assurance to Saint Thomas Christians, Joint Political Congress
decided to withdraw the agitation. According to the recommendations of commissioner, franchise power was extended beyond the caste bars. In 1937, general elections were held and Joint Political Congress played a signicant role to attain much better representation for allied communities.[106] T.M. Varghese was elected as the
Deputy President of the Assembly where Iyer was the ex
ocio President. But in 1938, he was ousted by Iyer
for cooperating with rebels, which led to a worsening of
relation between the Saint Thomas Christians and Iyer.
On the collapse of Joint Political Congress due to internal conicts, Saint Thomas Christian leaders allied with
Nairs in a common platform- Travancore State Congress
where they fought together for responsible government
and also to oust Iyer.[101] Many Saint Thomas Christian bishops like Metropolitans Abraham Mar Thoma,
Yuhanon Marthoma,Mar James Kalaserry supported the
nationalistic movements in 1930s and 1940s.Abraham

Marthoma mobilised Syrian Christians against divans

move not to unite with free India.[107] Following intense
agitations by the Travancore State Congress, the Maharaja of Travancore announced plans to establish a responsible Government. As per the announcement on 4
September 1947, the new Assembly called the Representative Body was formed to function as a Constituent
Assembly. The Assembly held its rst sitting on 20
March 1948 with President A. J. John, Anaparambil,
a Saint Thomas Christian leader in the chair. In the
three-member Cabinet of Travancore formed after the
rst general elections in 1948, Varghese was a Cabinet Minister.[108] However the rst Saint Thomas Christian to become a minister in the central government of
India was Padma Vibhushan John Mathai, who served as
India's rst Railway Minister and subsequently as Indias
Finance Minister,[109] taking oce shortly after the presentation of Indias rst Budget, in 1948. Thevarthundiyil
Titus was the only Christian among the 72 persons whom
Gandhiji selected for Dandi march to break salt law.He
served as the secretory in Sabarmathi ashram for a long
period along with Gulzarilal Nanda. Barrister george
Joseph was the person who mobilised the masses to break
caste laws in Guruvayoor. Later he himself withrawn
from the leadership on wishes of Gandhiji. He was also
instrumental in upliftment of many tribes in madhurai
which were earlier derogated as KALLARS by British
legislation.He was called aectionetly as Rosappu Dorai
by them.
On 1 November 1956, the state of Kerala was formed
and the Communist Party formed the rst government of
the state in 1957 on winning the assembly elections.[110]
Though the government initiated the legislation process
for reforming the land and the education sectors, these
were considered as infringements over the rights by the
school managements and landowners, who were predominantly Saint Thomas Christians and Nairs. The disagreements of the Saint Thomas Christians further widened
and they allied with Nair Service Society to mobilize
against the government, which culminated in a violent
struggle, called the Liberation Struggle, in 1958.[111] The
Communist government was dismissed on 31 July 1959
and the Presidents rule was imposed in the state under
Article 356 of the Constitution of India.

3 Socio-cultural and religious identity

St. Thomas Christians are a distinct community, both in
terms of culture and religion. Though their liturgy and
theology remained that of East-Syrian Christians of Persia, their life-style customs and traditions were basically
Indian. It is oft-quoted: Nazranis are Indian in culture,
Christian in faith and Syrian in liturgy.[112]
Jewish inuence has been observed in Malabar Nas-

Nasranis or Syrian Christians of Kerala in ancient days (from an

old painting). Photo published in the Cochin Government Royal
War Eorts Souvenir in 1938

rani liturgy and traditions.[3] The community maintained

some of the original Jewish rituals, such as covering their
heads while in worship. Their ritual services were and
still are called the Qurbana, which is derived from the
Aramaic term Qurbana (
), meaning sacrice.
Nasrani Qurbana used to be held in Syriac.[3]
Saint Thomas Christians typically followed the social customs of their Hindu neighbors, and the vestiges of Hindu
symbolism could be seen in their devotional practices.[113]
Social sins like Untouchability entered their practices and
the Synod of Diamper abolished it.[114] The rituals related
to birth, Vidyarambham, marriage, pregnancy, death etc.
were also similar in both communities. Now also, tying
Thaali, a Hindu symbol of marriage is the most important
rite in the Christian marriages too. They used to learn
temple arts like Kathakali, Kooth and Thullal and their
own art forms like Margam Kali and Parichamuttukali
have some resemblance to Yathra kali Pattu of Brahmins
in Kerala.[113] In 1519, a Portuguese traveler Duarte Barbosa on his visit to Malabar commented on the practice
of Saint Thomas Christian priests using Kudumi similar to that of Hindus, in his manuscript Book of Duarte
Barbosa.[115]
In the social stratication of medieval Malabar, Saint
Thomas Christians succeeded in relating their social status with that of upper-caste Hindus on account of their
numerical strength and inuence and observance of many
Brahmin and upper caste customs.[114][116] In the 13th
and 14th centuries, many Saint Thomas Christians were
involved in the pepper trade for the local rulers and many
were appointed as port revenue ocers. The local rulers
rewarded them with grants of land and many other privileges. With growing numerical strength, a large number
of Saint Thomas Christians settled in the inland peppergrowing regions.[117] They had the right to recruit and
train soldiers and Christian trainers were given with the
honorary title Panikkar like their Nair counterparts.[118]
They were also entitled with the privilege to collect the
tax, and the tax-collectors were honored with the title
Tharakan. Like Brahmins they had the right to sit be-

CHURCH ARCHITECTURE

fore the Kings and also to ride on horse or elephant, like

the royals.[114] They were protectors of seventeen underprivileged castes and communities and hence they were
called Lords of Seventeen Castes.[114][119] They did not allow the lower-castes to join their community for fear that
it could imperil their upper-caste status.[119][120] Between
the 9th and 15th centuries, Saint Thomas Christians had
a kingdom of their own, Villarvattom,[121] but this regal
period ended when the community fell under the power
of the Rajas of Cochin and Travancore.[122] They owned
a large number of Kalaripayattu training centers and the
Rajas of Travancore and Cochin, including the renowned
Marthanda Varma, recruited trained Christian warriors to
defend their kingdom.[123] The upper-caste Hindus and
Saint Thomas Christians took part in one anothers festival celebrations and in some places in Kerala, the Hindu
Temples and Saint Thomas Christian Churches were built
on adjoining sites by the Hindu Kings. Until the 19th
century, Saint Thomas Christians had the right of access
to Hindu temples and some leading Saint Thomas Christians held the status of sponsors at Hindu shrines and temple festivals.[124] But in the 19th century, Saint Thomas
Christian integration with the Hindu caste system was disrupted: their clean-caste status was questioned in some
localities and they were denied access to many Hindu
temples. They tried to retaliate by denouncing Hindu
festivals as heathen idolatry. Clashes between uppercaste Hindus and Saint Thomas Christians occurred from
the late 1880s, especially when festivals coincided. Internecine violence among various Saint Thomas Christian
denominations aggravated their problems.[125]

4 Church architecture

A Syro-Malabar Catholic Church with its Madbaha veiled by a

red curtain

The earliest documentary evidence is Tharisapally Copper Plate, which refers to the construction of the church
of Tharisapally in Quilon between 823 and 849 AD. Antonio Gouvea, Portuguese envoy to Malabar, mentions

9
in his 16th-century work Jornada that almost all the
churches of Saint Thomas Christians followed the models
of Hindu temples of that period, but were distinguished
by the huge granite cross in the front yard of the church.
Despite the external similarity with temples, the structuring of the interior space of the church always followed
the East Syrian architectural theology. Thus the contemporary style is formed as an amalgamation of Indian
architecture and Chaldean liturgical concepts.[126] The
church is arranged east-to-west, with the interior structured into three levels: the madbaha (sanctuary), the qestroma (choir) and the haykla (nave).
The madbaha, arranged in the topmost platform at the
eastern side of the building, represents Heaven. The primary altar is attached to the eastern wall. To the north of
the madbaha is the diaqonikon (sacristry); to the south
is the baptistery. The madbaha is protected with rails
and is veiled by a red curtain most of the time; this is
opened during the Holy Qurbana (Eucharist). An oil
lamp within the sanctuary is kept glowing at all times
to represent the presence of God. The madbaha is connected to the qestroma and haykla by a low-walled path
called the sqaqona. The qestroma contains seats for the
choir and lower clergy. The haykla contains an elevated
platform or bema, which includes an altar, two lecterns
for reading, and chairs for higher clergy. Worshipers
stand before the altar, with separate seating for men and
women. The main entrance is on the western side of the
building; a vestibule, pillars, pilasters, and other architectural ornaments adorn the front end, and a ag mast
stands in the front yard. One or two bells are installed
in the back yard to signal the timing of ritual services,
the death of a church member, or to inform the public of
calamities.[127][128]

Nasrani symbol

The Latinized faction of the St. Thomas Christians

have accepted the Saint Thomas Cross as their symbol.
They call it the Nasrani Menorah[129] or Mar Thoma
Sliba.[130] There are several interpretations for the latinized St. Thomas Christian Symbol. The interpretation based on Christian Jewish tradition assumes that its
design was based on Jewish menorah, an ancient symbol
of the Hebrews, which consists of seven branched lamp
stand (candelabra).[131]
The interpretation based on local culture states that the
Cross without the gure of Jesus and with owery arms
symbolizing joyfulness points to the resurrection theology of St. Paul, the Holy Spirit on the top represents the
role of Holy Spirit in the resurrection of Jesus Christ. The
lotus symbolizing Buddhism and the Cross over it shows
that Christianity was established in the land of Buddha.
The 3 steps indicate Calvary and the rivulets, channels of
grace owing from the Cross.[132]

Saint Thomas Cross or Mar Thoma Sliva

Note that the Christian cross was not adopted as a symbol

by Mediterranean and European Christianity until several
centuries had passed.

6 Saint Thomas Christians today

Writing in 2010, Devika and Varghese noted that "[The
St. Thomas Christians] are at present a substantial minority, a powerful presence in all elds of life in Kerala.[133]

6.1 Socioeconomic status

Even though the Saint Thomas Christians had to compromise their social and religious privileges in the aftermath of Portuguese subjugation, they started reemerging
as a powerful community from the 19th century onward.
They played a pioneering role in many spheres such as
Banking, Commerce, Cash crops etc.[134] Among Saint
Thomas Christians, 17.4% of the adult population are
self-employed - the highest rate statistically among all
the communities in the state of Kerala.[135] Saint Thomas
Christians lead all others with respect to per capita ownership of land, with many of them owning large estates.
With changing conditions, they have shifted from the
agriculture of rice and coconut to plantation based agriculture and the trading of rubber, spices and cash crops.
They also take a prominent role in the educational institutions of Kerala and throughout India.[136] They were
quick to understand the benets of academic education and in their educational achievements Saint Thomas
Christians stand second to none. The educational accomplishments of the community have helped its members to

10

6 SAINT THOMAS CHRISTIANS TODAY

attain a good proportion of the Central and State Government jobs.[134] With their level of education and limited
employment opportunities within the state of Kerala, they
became the community with the highest rate of migration. Their resultant foreign remittances have also helped
the socioeconomic progress of the community. According to the Kerala Migration Survey (1998) by the Center
for Developmental Studies, Kerala, Saint Thomas Christians top all other communities in Kerala with respect to
the Socioeconomic Development Index which is based on
parameters such as the possession of land,housing & consumer durables, education and employment status.[137]

6.2

Existing traditions, rituals and social

life

Baptism is still known by the Aramaic term Mamodisa

among Saint Thomas Christians and follows many of the
ancient rituals of the ceremony. It is referred to in Malayalam as Njana Snanam (Bath of Wisdom).
Saint Thomas Christians observe Holy Thursday
with high reverence. This day is referred to as Pesaha, a Malayalam word derived from the Aramaic
or Hebrew word for PassoverPasha or Pesah
commemorating the Last Supper of Jesus Christ
during Passover in Jerusalem. The tradition of consuming Pesaha Appam after the church service is
observed by the entire community under the leadership of the head of the family. Special long services
followed by the Holy Qurbana are conducted during
the Pesaha eve in the churches.[139][140]
The community observes Lent, locally called the
fty days fast, from Clean Monday to the day before
Easter, abjuring all meat, sh and egg. They also
traditionally observe the 25 days fast which ends on
the day of Christmas.[141]
Generally, footwear is removed before entering the
church and women cover their heads during worship.
The ritual service (liturgy) is called the Holy Qurbana, which is derived from the Hebrew Korban
(), meaning sacrice.

Crowning during a Nasrani wedding

The Holy Qurbana is mostly conducted and prayers

recited in Malayalam. However, some parts of the
Holy Qurbana are sung in Syriac. During the 20th
century, the 'Qurbana-kramam' i.e. the 'book containing the order of worship', was translated into English, for the benet of worshipers who lived outside
Kerala, and did not know to read or write Malayalam.
Another surviving tradition is the use of muthukoda
(ornamental umbrella) for church celebrations, marriages and other festivals. Traditional drums, arch
decorations and ornamental umbrellas are part of
the church celebrations. Their use has become popular all over Kerala.

Nasrani minnu (pendant) with 21 beads used by Saint Thomas

Christians

Saint Thomas Christians still retain many of their ancient

traditions and rituals, both in their social and religious
life. Saint Thomas Christian services have many unique
characteristics compared to others. Until the 1970s the
Nasrani Qurbana was sung in Syriac. Many of the tunes
of the Saint Thomas Christian worship in Kerala are
remnants of ancient Syriac tunes of antiquity.[138] The

The rituals and ceremonies of Saint Thomas Christians related to house building, astrology, birth and
marriage have close similarity with those of Hindus
in Kerala. Death rituals express Christian canonical themes very distantly and the inuence of Hindu
culture is quite noticeable. Much stress is given to
ideas concerning life after death and the anticipation
of nal judgment.[142]
Saint Thomas Christians do not marry close relatives. The rule is that the bride and groom must not
be related for at least ve generations.
Saint Thomas Christians generally prefer arranged
marriages and the prospective partners see each

11
other in the Pennukanal (Bride Viewing) ceremony
at brides home.[143]
Saint Thomas Christians did not use any iconography or statues of Jesus or the saints in their churches
until after the arrival of the Portuguese, prior to
which time the use of such symbols was deemed
idolatrous.
Saint Thomas Christians widely use Nilavilakku
(a lighted metal lamp) in their houses and
churches.[144]
Saint Thomas Christians use terms like Eeesho
(Jesus name in Aramaic[145] ), Yeshu (Hebrew
name Yeshua) to denote Jesus Christ.
The traditional dress of a Saint Thomas Christian woman is the Chatta and Mundu, a seamless
white garment, which is now limited to older female adherents. Following the general trend, the
Sari and Churidar have become predominant among
the younger generations.[141][146]

6.3

Demographics

Kunniparampil Zachariah notes that the 20th century was period of signicant transition for the Saint
Thomas Christians in terms of its demographic and
socioeconomic status. Around 1900, the community was
concentrated in a few areas, was geographically static and
"... was characterised by very high death rate, very high
birth rate, very early age at marriage, and 10 to 12 children per married woman. The population had increased
eight-fold during the preceding century, from a base gure of about 100,000, and comprised nearly 50 per cent
children. But, the population growth of Saint Thomas
Christians came down drastically after 1960s, with the
lowest birth rate, highest age at marriage, highest family
planning user rate, and lowest fertility rate compared to
other communities in Kerala. The proportion of children
has come down to less than 25%. The absolute and relative size of the community is in a diminishing trend and
is approaching a Zero Population Growth regime.[147]
As of 2001, in Kerala, more than 85 per cent of the Saint
Thomas Christian population live in the six central districts of the state - Pathanamthitta, Alapuzha, Kottayam,
Idukki, Ernakulam and Trissur. They have also migrated
to other cities in India like Ooty, Mangalore, Bangalore,
Chennai, Pune, Delhi, Mumbai, Coimbatore, Hyderabad
and Kolkata.[137] Migration steeply increased in the postindependence period and major destinations were United
States of America, Canada, Western Europe, Australia
and the Middle East. According to a rough estimate, 20
25% of the Saint Thomas Christians live outside the state
of Kerala.[137]

7 Caste status
Despite the sectarian dierences, Saint Thomas Christians share a common social status within the Caste system of Kerala and is considered as Forward Caste.[148]
Saint Thomas Christians historically have claimed a high
caste status on the basis of the tradition that they are
descended from the upper-caste Hindus, particularly
Nambudiri Brahmins. Historically in the Kingdoms of
Cochin and Travancore and other Kingdoms in Kerala,
they were granted caste privileges that put them at least
on the same level as Savarna Hindus, such as the Nairs.
Anthropologist, L.K. Ananthakrishna Iyer, recorded they
were given privileges in addition to those granted to
groups such as Nairs, such as the right to have enclosures
in front of their houses, which was otherwise only granted
to the Brahmins, and were placed almost on par with the
Sovereigns".[149]
Historically, Saint Thomas Christians followed the same
rules of caste and pollution as that of Hindus and
sometimes they were even considered as pollution
neutralizers.[119] Decree II of Action IX of the Synod
of Diamper enforced by the Portuguese Inquisition in
1599 prohibited the practice of untouchability by the
St Thomas Christians except in practical circumstances
when required by law and when it was necessary to ensure social contact with the Savarna Hindus such as Nairs.
The same decree noted that some St Thomas Christians
in the southern regions practiced untouchability against
the Nairs even though this was not required by the law.
This practice was abolished by the decree.[150]
They tend to be endogamous, and tend not to intermarry
even with other Christian groupings.
Internal division of Saint Thomas Christians into Northists and Southists and also into a number of sects based
on the ecclesiastical orientation makes the pattern of segmentation an exceedingly complex one.[148]
Forrester suggests that the Northist-Southist division
forms two groups within the Saint Thomas Christian
community which are closely analogous to sub-castes.[148]
At the same time, dierent Saint Thomas Christian denominations like Catholic, Jacobite, Mar Thomite, etc.
are better regarded as sects, rather than sub-castes, since
the recruitment to these sects cannot be strictly ascribed
to birth.[149] Also, internal mobility is allowed among
these Saint Thomas Christian sects and the caste status
is kept even if the sect allegiance is switched (for example, from Syrian Orthodox to Syrian Catholic).[149]

8 See also
List of Saint Thomas Christians
Suriyani Malayalam

12

9 NOTES

Rock crosses of Kerala

Saint Thomas Christian Churches
Throne of St. Thomas
Marthoma Metrans

Notes

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[11] L.Krishna Ananthakrishna Iyer: Anthropology of Syrian
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[12] Leslie Brown, The Indian Christians of St. Thomas

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978-0-521-89103-5
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pp.38-61

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[33] Nazrani Christians and the Social Processes of Kerala,

800-1500 | Nasranis. Nasrani.net. Retrieved 2015-0906.

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14

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[106] George Mathew Communal Road To A Secular Kerala, [124] Susan Bayly Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslims and
Concept Publishing Company, 1989, ISBN 81-7022-282Christians in South Indian Society, Cambridge University
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[107] PR Saraswati The Impact of Indian Christianity on In- [125] Susan Bayly Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslims and
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[108] "www.keralaassembly.org". www.keralaassembly.org.
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[109] Reections on Finance Education and Society. Motilal Bapp. 4850. ISBN 978-93-8060-701-6. Retrieved 15 May
narsidass Publication. p. 114. ISBN 9788120830752.
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Snow & Co. pp. 241243. Retrieved 15 May 2012.
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nary of Liturgy and Worship. Westminster John Knox. p.
Retrieved 17 August 2012.
160. ISBN 0664226558. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
[112] Amaladass, Anand (1993) [1989 (New York: Orbis [129] Paul M. Collins Christian inculturation in India, pp.119,
Books)]. Dialogue between Hindus and the St. Thomas
Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007, ISBN 0-7546-6076-1
Christians. In Coward, Harold. Hindu-Christian dialogue: perspectives and encounters (Indian ed.). Delhi: [130] NSC NETWORK: Saint Thomas Cross- A Religio CulMotilal Banarsidass. p. 16. ISBN 81-208-1158-5.
tural Logo of Saint Thomas Christians. Nasrani.net. Retrieved 2012-06-16.
[113] Rajendra Prasad: A Historical-developmental study of
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South Indian newspaper article 31 August 2001
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House Delhi.
[137] K.C. Zachariah The Syrian Christians of Kerala: demographic and socio-economic transition in the twentieth
[120] Amaladass, Anand (1993) [1989 (New York: Orbis
century, Orient Longman, 2006
Books)]. Dialogue between Hindus and the St. Thomas
Christians. In Coward, Harold. Hindu-Christian dia- [138] Palackal, Joseph J. Syriac Chant Traditions in South India.
logue: perspectives and encounters (Indian ed.). Delhi:
Ph.d, Ethnomusicology, City University of New York,
Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 1519. ISBN 81-208-1158-5.
2005.
[121] The Travancore State Manual II. Kerala Gazetteers Dept. [139] NSC Network Passover. Nasrani.net. Retrieved
ISBN 9788185499321. |rst1= missing |last1= in Authors
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list (help)
[140] Weil, S. (1982)"Symmetry between Christians and Jews
[122] Census of India, 1961, India. Oce of the Registrar Genin India: The Cananite Christians and Cochin Jews in Kereral, p. 290
ala. in Contributions to Indian Sociology,16.
[123] Susan Bayly Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslims and [141] Syrian Christians in India. Worldmark Encyclopedia
Christians in South Indian Society, Cambridge University
of Cultures and Daily. 2009. via HighBeam Research
(subscription required)
Press, 2004 ISBN 0-521-89103-5, p. 273

16

10 FURTHER READING

[142] Rowena Robinson: Christians of India, p.106, ISBN 07619-9822-5

[143] Anthropologica Vol 46, 2004, Canadian Anthropology
Society, p. 258

Menachery, Professor George(Ed.). (1982) The St.

Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, VOL.I,
Thrissur.

[144] Paul M. Collins Christian inculturation in India, p.120,

Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007, ISBN 0-7546-6076-1

Menachery, Professor George(Ed.). (1973) The St.

Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, VOL.II,
Thrissur.

[145] Eashoa Msheekhah (Aramaic), Jesus the Messiah (English) or the Christ (Greek)". V-a.com. Retrieved 201509-06.

Menachery, Professor George(Ed.). (2010) The St.

Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, VOL.III,
Ollur,Thrissur.

[146] Anthropologica Vol 46, 2004, Canadian Anthropology

Society, p. 262

Menachery, Professor George(Ed.with Ponnumuthan, Aerath). (2006) Indian Christians and

Nation Building, CBCI-KCBC Kochi-Alwaye.

[147] Zachariah, Kunniparampil Curien (November 2001). The

Syrian Christians of Kerala: Demographic and Socioeconomic Transition in the Twentieth Century (PDF). Thiruvananthapuram: Centre for Development Studies. p. 3.
Retrieved 20 December 2012.

Menachery, Professor George(Ed.with Snaitang).

(2011) Indias Christian Heritage, Church History
Assn. of India, Bangalore (DVK).

[148] Forrester, Duncan (1980). Caste and Christianity. Curzon

Press. pp. 98,102.

Menachery George & Chakkalakal Werner (1987)

Kodungallur: City of St. Thomas, Azhikode

[149] L.Krishna Ananthakrishna Iyer: Anthropology of Syrian

Christians, pages 55-56

Miller, J. Innes. (1969). The Spice Trade of The

Roman Empire: 29 B.C. to A.D. 641. Oxford University Press. Special edition for Sandpiper Books.
1998. ISBN 0-19-814264-1.

[150] Geddes, Michael. The History of the Church of Malabar

Together with the Synod of Diamper 1599. Pages 394395. Published in 1694

10

Further reading

Mundadan, A. Mathias. (1984) History of Christianity in India, vol.1, Bangalore, India: Church History Association of India.

Aprem, Mar. (1977) The Chaldaean Syrian Church

in India. Trichur, Kerala, India: Mar Narsai, 1977.

Philip, E.M. (1908) The Indian Christians of St.

Thomas (1908; Changanassery: Mor Adai Study
Center, 2002).

Brown, Leslie (1956) The Indian Christians of St.

Thomas. An Account of the Ancient Syrian Church
of Malabar, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press 1956, 1982 (repr.)

Podipara, Placid J. (1970) The Thomas Christians. London: Darton, Longman and Tidd,
1970. (is a readable and exhaustive study of the St.
Thomas Christians.)

Iyer, K.V. Krishna, Keralas Relations with the Outside World, pp. 70, 71 in The Cochin Synagogue Quatercentenary Celebrations Commemoration Volume, Kerala History Association, Cochin,
1971.

Poomangalam C.A (1998) The Antiquities of the

Knanaya Syrian Christians; Kottayam, Kerala.

Joseph, T. K. The Malabar Christians and Their Ancient Documents. Trivandrum, India, 1929.
Landstrom, Bjorn (1964) The Quest for India,
Double day English Edition, Stockholm.
Mariamma Joseph (1994).Marriage Among Indian
Christians.Jaipur: Rawat Publications
Mathew, N. M. St. Thomas Christians of Malabar
Through Ages. CSS Tiruvalla. 2003.
Menachery, Professor George. (2000) Kodungallur The Cradle of Christianity In India, Thrissur:
Marthoma Pontical Shrine.

Puthur, B. (ed.) (2002): The Life and Nature of

the St Thomas Christian Church in the Pre-Diamper
Period (Cochi, Kerala).
Rawlinson, H. (1926) Intercourse between India and
the Western World from the Earliest Times to the
Fall of Rome
Susan Visvanathan (1993) The Christians of Kerala:
History, Belief and Ritual Among the Yakoba. New
Delhi/Madras/New York: Oxford University Press
Susan Visvanathan (1989) Marriage, Birth and
Death-Property Rights and Domestic Relationships
of the Orthodox Jacobite Syrian Christians of Kerala, Economic and Political Weekly,Vol - XXIV
No. 24, 17 June 1989.

17
Susan Visvanathan (1986) Reconstructions of the
Past among the Syrian Christians of Kerala, Contributions to Indian Sociology (Sage Publishers), July
1986; vol. 20, 2: pp. 241260.
Susan Visvanathan (2010)."The Status of Christian
Women in Kerala,in 'World Christianity:Critical
Concepts in Religious Studies, edited by Elizabeth
Koepping, London: Routledge, 2010.
Susan Visvanathan (2011) The Eucharist in a Syrian Christian Church, in T.N.Madan (edited) 'Indias Religions : Perspectives from Sociology and
History'.New Delhi: Oxford University Press
Tamcke, M. (ed.) (2001) : Orientalische Christen
zwischen Repression und Migration (Studien zur Orientalischen Kirchengeschichte 13; Mnster: LIT).
Thayil, Thomas (2003). The Latin Christians of Kerala: A Study on Their Origin. Kristu Jyoti Publications. ISBN 81-87370-18-1
The Land of the Perumals, or Cochin, Its Past and
Present Madras: Gantz Brothers 1863.
Thomas, P. J; (1932) Roman Trade Centres in Malabar, Kerala Society Papers, II.
Tisserant, E. (1957) Eastern Christianity in India: A
History of the Syro-Malabar Church from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Trans. and ed. by E.
R. Hambye. Westminster, MD: Newman Press.
Vellian Jacob (2001) Knanite community: History
and culture; Syrian church series; vol. XVII; Jyothi
Book House, Kottayam
Veluthat, K. (1978). Brahmin settlements in Kerala: Historical studies. Calicut: Calicut University,
Sandhya Publications.

11

External links

Jacobite Syrian Christian Church

The Syro Malabar Church
Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (Indian Orthodox Church)
Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church
Christians of Kerala
Population of Christians in India and Kerala based
on 2001 report of Indian census
Syrian christians are in a class of their own South
Indian newspaper 31 August 2001
The Nasrani Syrian Christian Network
Project for preserving the manuscripts of the Syrian
Christians of Kerala

18

12

12
12.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Saint Thomas Christians Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Thomas_Christians?oldid=696837285 Contributors: Leandrod,

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Wmahan, Utcursch, Oknazevad, Robin klein, Picapica, Esperant, Rich Farmbrough, Jimj, Pjacobi, EliasAlucard, Eric Shalov, Dbachmann,
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Friend4u, Skinsmoke, Dl2000, Kanatonian, Iridescent, Malabari, Igoldste, Secos5, FairuseBot, Kappen ancil, Eastlaw, Bijoyak, Grammatical error, Maabahuka, Sadalmelik, CmdrObot, Harej bot, NickW557, ShelfSkewed, Kunjethy, Neelix, Kathanar, Vaquero100, Cydebot,
Meno25, Joehoya3, Islander, DumbBOT, Hugozam, Nmj, Barticus88, Biruitorul, Joe21, Kathovo, Astynax, Muaddeeb, Simonchumkat,
Nick Number, QuiteUnusual, Roundhouse0, Rothorpe, Railrulez, Magioladitis, Historicus~enwiki, Hullaballoo Wolfowitz, Tinucherian,
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Flyer22 Reborn, Ptolemy Caesarion, Mikeblew, Kevinjohnsen, Fratrep, Werldwayd, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf,
Spazure, Jacob.jose, Venkat79, Pinkadelica, Sitush, Jobas, Maharshisy, ImageRemovalBot, K X M John, Bjmidas, RegentsPark, Cochinite,
ClueBot, Asarthose, Interlock spiel, Cj josh, WaltBusterkeys, VQuakr, Jonathan Oldenbuck, Hafspajen, Iuhkjhk87y678, Tarijanel, Relata
refero, Tripping Nambiar, Sun Creator, Coinmanj, Jotterbot, Tnxman307, Itty vargese, Neduvelilmathew, Editor2020, Liberal Humanist,
DumZiBoT, A ntv, Jovianeye, Dthomsen8, Jithinsamgeorge, Doubtingtom, SilvonenBot, Good Olfactory, Terispalli, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, CanadianLinuxUser, Download, Tomjay, Guliel, LarryJe, Lightbot, Ret.Prof, Ben Ben, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Jim1138,
Citation bot, Eumolpo, LilHelpa, Alexyalex, Xqbot, Jayarathina, Jeanambr, Gilo1969, TakenakaN, J04n, Omnipaedista, Nikil44, Thehelpfulbot, FrescoBot, Komitsuki, Vilmeenkodi, Jkanthtl, OgreBot, PigFlu Oink, Mtjayaraj, Anthony on Stilts, JNG71886, Jonesey95, ImageTagBot, RedBot, Horace Wheatley, Crusoe8181, TomThomas123, Pamparam, Spiritofyuva, Lotje, Linguisticgeek, Vipin3000, Ivanomi,
Ripchip Bot, In ictu oculi, WildBot, Salvio giuliano, Esoglou, EmausBot, John of Reading, Dewritech, InarZan2, Laurel Lodged, Fyodor7, Zoticus1, Archangelzz, Febycv, Midas02, Thekeralite, Johnchacks, Gavbadger, Eldhoz, Sir Ragamun, InarZan, Sree555, Ubikwit,
Sahimrobot, SuperNasrani, Credit Risk, BunyanTree, SUBEESH BOSE, Zedenstein, Ben135, ClueBot NG, , Gareth GrithJones, Johnmylove, Lolo Sambinho, Wangond, Tharunthankachan, Allentown1988, Reewind, Helpful Pixie Bot, Curb Chain, Gaitherbill,
Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, PhnomPencil, Gabriel Yuji, Thom100, MusikAnimal, Solomon7968, Erasmus Sydney, Joshua Jonathan,
Ashleypt, Harizotoh9, Snowcream, Justinthomaa, RudolfRed, Wheeke, Skepp, Kzymon, Jossyys, A.Yeshuratnam, Monozigote, Cyberbot
II, SD5bot, Ashishjacob07, Prof.Dr.A.Yeshuratnam, TomGeorge55, Jogytmathew, JacobYohannan, Jerinsaq87, Shonejo, Jackninja5, ScitDei, JimmyS900, Achayan, Capt. Mohan Kuruvilla, Kwisha, Tittosunny52, Corinne, Kevin12xd, Bteaja, Tthom48, Epicgenius, Qurbono,
Chacko12345, Ashishjacob007, Tentinator, Batbt, Abrahamic Faiths, I wont quit, 3abos, Roithot, DP Raja, NottNott, Jabpc, YiFeiBot,
Gafeg, Shinilpm, Belgdn, Arunvrparavur, Johnashereport, Monkbot, Rajanranjan, ImpTitus, SaltySeas, Bohemian Baltimore, Vreswiki,
Tymon.r, Gdenzil, Imb0824, Eteethan, Josslined, Stansley, Srednuas Lenoroc, Deva P Raja, Rabt man, Pampakottu, Kuttan thampran,
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Anonymous: 516

12.2

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File:A_Syro_Malabar_Catholic_Church_or_Nasrani_Palli.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/A_

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