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Fluids at Rest:
Pressure and its Effect
1
Lectures 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
D E PA RT M E N T O F C I V I L E N G I N E E R I N G
BITS PILANI, RAJASTHAN
BY
DR. SHIBANI KHANRA JHA
AUGUST 2013
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3
Topics to be covered
2
Pressure at a Point
Manometry
Piezometer Tube
U-Tube Manometer
Inclined Tube Manometer
Hydrostatic force on a Plane
Surface
Buoyancy, Floatation and
Stability
Archimedes Principle
Stability
Pressure Variation in a Fluid
with Rigid-Body Motion
Linear Motion
Rigid-Body Rotation
Field
Pressure Variation in a Fluid
at Rest
Incompressible fluid
Compressible fluid
Standard Atmosphere
Measurement of Pressure
Although there is
considerable motion and
structure to a hurricane, the
pressure variation along
vertical plane is
approximated by pressuredepth relationship for a
static fluid
Fluid Pressure
6
Water flow
shows F
Fluid Pressure
7
directions.
1 pascal 1 N / m
[SI]
1 atmosphere 1.01325 10 Pa
5
1 bar 10 Pa 1 atm
5
Pressure at a Point
9
How the pressure at a point varies with the orientation of the plane
passing through the point?
Forces on arbitrary wedge
shaped element of fluid
Vertical force on DA
Vertical force on
lower boundary
11
Divide through by
1
pn pz Dl sin 0
2
Now reduce the element size to a point such that:
This can be done for any orientation , so that following mathematical statement can be given
12
Where
g=acceleration due to gravity
dm=differential mass
=density of fluid
d =differential volume of fluid element of size dx dy dz
Objective is.
How does the pressure in a fluid in which there are no shearing
stresses vary from point to point?
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3
dFy j dxdydz
y
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3
p
dFx i dxdydz
x
p
dFz k dxdydz
z
p k a
point in a fluid depends only on the specific weight of the fluid at that point
Ain Aout
Aout
Ideal mechanical advantage=
Ain
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3
p2
z2
dp
p2
g dz
ln
p p
p
R
T
1
z1
1
g z2 z1
p2 p1 exp
RT
0
Standard Atmosphere
25
Standard
Standard Atmosphere
26
Standard Atmosphere
27
Measurement of Pressure
28
Measurement of Pressure:
gage pressure and absolute pressure
29
Measurement of Pressure:
how to measure pressure - mercury barometer
30
pressure
The column of mercury will come to an equilibrium position
where its weight plus the force due to the vapor pressure
(which develops in the space above the column) balances the
force due to the atmospheric pressure.
For most practical purposes the contribution of the vapor
Mercury Barometer
E. Torricelli (1608-47)
PC gh Patm
Patm gh
Patm gh h
http://zimp.zju.edu.cn/~xinwan/
31
Patm
g
Manometry
32
Manometry:
Piezometer or Simple Manometer
33
Piezometer Tube
To determine pressure from a manometer, simply
use the fact that the pressure in the liquid columns
will vary hydrostatically
The simplest manometer consists of a vertical tube,
open at the top and attached to the container in
which the pressure is desired
Since manometers involve columns of fluids at rest,
the fundamental equation describing their use is as
follows
p h p0
Manometry:
Piezometer or Simple Manometer
34
Manometry:
U-Tube Manometer
35
U-Tube Manometer
To overcome the difficulties
aroused in the Piezometer,
another type of manometer
consisting of U shaped tube is
widely used
The fluid in the manometer is
called the gage fluid
Better for higher pressures.
Possible to measure pressure in
gases.
Manometry:
U-Tube Manometer
36
Change in p
from 1 to 2
Change in p
from 3 to 4
p in pipe
p p m Dh
Manometry:
U-Tube Manometer
The U-tube manometer is also
37
a
manometer
connected between containers
A and B as is shown in Fig.
The
difference in pressure
between A and B can be found
by again starting at one end of
the system and working around
to the other end.
Manometry:
Differential U-Tube Manometer
38
Differential Manometer is
Used for measuring pressure differences between desired
points along a pipe
Manometry:
Inclined-Tube Manometer
39
Inclined-Tube Manometer
Inclined-Tube manometers can
be used to measure small
pressure variation accurately
p A pB 2l2 sin
p A pB
l2
2 sin
1m
kg
m
m
s
3.28 ft
Pabs ,2
1atm
298.5kPa
2.95atm
101.325kPa
Pgage ,2 Patm 2.95atm 1atm 3.95atm
V1 P2 3.95atm
4
V2 P1
1atm
100 ft
Boyles law
FR pA
Where p is the uniform pressure on the bottom and
A is the area of the bottom
For the open tank ,
p h
C
CP
48
dF hdA
FR dF hdA y sin dA
h y sin
For constant and
Where
FR sin ydA
A
FR Ayc sin
or more simply as
FR hc A
Where hc is the vertical distance from the fluid surface to the centroid of
the area
Note:
The magnitude of the force is independent of angle of inclination and
depends only on the specific weight of the fluid, the total area, and the
depth of the centroid of the area below the surface
The magnitude of the resultant force is the pressure at the centroid
multiplied by the total area
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3
FR Ayc sin
And ,therefore
yR
2
y
dA
A
yc A
xydA
A
I xy
yc A
yc A
and, therefore,
respect to the x and y axes
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3
FR xR sin xydA
A
I xyc
yc A
xc
where I xyc
is the product of inertia with respect to an orthogonal
coordinate system passing through the centroid of the area and formed
by a translation of the x-y coordinate system
The point through which the resultant force acts is called the center of
pressure (CP) (xR, yR)
Archimedes Principle
In the figure, we see that the
difference between the weight in AIR
and the weight in WATER is 3 lbs.
This is the buoyant force that acts
upward to cancel out part of the
force. If you were to weigh the water
displaced; it also would weigh 3 lbs.
FB fluidVg m fluid g
mg objectVg
Archimedes Principle
Buoyancy, Floatation and Stability
Buoyant
force: A
body force that is
when a stationary
completely
or
submerged in a fluid.
resultant
generated
body is
partially
Archimedes
principle: A
body
wholly
or
partly
immersed in a fluid is buoyed
up by a force equal to the
weight of the fluid it displaces.
The buoyant force can be
considered to act vertically
upward through the center of
gravity of the displaced fluid.
FB = buoyant force = weight of
displaced fluid
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3
55
Archimedes Principle
A net upward vertical force results because pressure
increases with depth and the pressure forces acting from
below are larger than the pressure forces acting from
above
Consider the forces F1, F2, F3 and F4 are simply the forces
exerted on the plane surfaces of the parallelepiped, W is
the weight of the shaded fluid volume, and FB is the force
the body is exerting on the fluid.
The forces on the vertical surfaces, such as F3 and F4 are
all equal and cancel, so the equilibrium equation of
interest is in the z direction and can be expressed as
FB F2 F1 W
57
F2 F1 h2 h1 A
Where A is the horizontal area of the upper (or lower) surface of the parallelepiped, can be
written as
FB h2 h1 A h2 h1 A
Where
FB
is the specific weight of the fluid and is the volume of the body.
and the
Archimedes Principle
The location of the line of action of the buoyant force can be
determined by summing moments of the forces shown on the free
body diagram wrt some convenient axis
FB yc F2 y1 F1 y1 Wy2
yc T y1 T y2
Stability
The stability of a body can be determined by considering
what happens when it is displaced from its equilibrium
position
A body is said to be in a stable equilibrium position if when
displaced it returns to its equilibrium position
It is said to be in unstable equilibrium position if when
displaced, even slightly, it moves to a new equilibrium
position
Stability considerations are particularly important for
submerged or floating bodies since the centers of buoyancy
and gravity do not necessarily coincide.
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3
Stability
A small rotation can result in either a restoring or
overturning couple
For the completely submerged body, which has a center of
gravity below the center of buoyancy, a rotation from its
equilibrium position will create a restoring couple formed
by the weight W and the buoyant force FB, which causes
the body to rotate back to its original position
If center of gravity falls below the center of buoyancy, the
body is in stable equilibrium position
If center of gravity falls above the center of buoyancy, the
body is in unstable equilibrium position
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3
Stability
For floating bodies the stability problem is more
complicated, since as the body rotates the location of the
center of buoyancy (which passes through the centroid of the
displaced volume) may change.
p k a
A general class of problems involving
p
a x
x
p
a y
y
p
a z
z
Linear Motion
We first consider an open
container of a liquid that is
translating along a straight path
with a constant acceleration a
Since ax 0 , it follows that the
pressure gradient in the xdirection is zero p / x 0 .
p
a y
y
p
g az
z
Linear acceleration
of a liquid
With free surface
or in terms of acceleration
p
p
dy dz
y
z
dp a y dy g az dz
dp 0 , and therefore
from the above equation it follows that the slope of this line
is given by the relationship
ay
dz
dy
g az
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3
Linear Motion
Along a free surface the pressure is constant, so that for the
accelerating mass, the free surface will be inclined if a y 0
Additionally, all lines of constant pressure will be parallel to
the free surface
For the special circumstances in which a y 0, az 0 , which
corresponds to the mass of fluid accelerating in the vertical
direction
ay
dz
indicates that the fluid surface will be
dy
g az
horizontal
The pressure distribution is not hydrostatic, but is given by
the equation
dp
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3
dz
g az
dp
g az
dz
Linear Motion
For fluids of constant density this equation shows that the
pressure will vary linearly with depth, but the variation is
due to the combined effects of gravity and the externally
induced acceleration
What is the pressure gradient for a freely falling fluid
mass???
Example: the pressure throughout a blob of a juice
floating in an orbiting space shuttle (a free fall) is ???
The only force holding the liquid together is ???
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3
Rigid-Body Rotation of a
liquid in a tank
A fluid contained in a tank that is
a r r 2 e r
a 0
az 0
68
p
r 2
r
p
0
p
z
or
p
p
dr dz
r
z
dp r 2 dr dz
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3
Rigid-Body Rotation
Along a surface of constant pressure, such as the free surface,
dp 0, so that we can write dz 2 r
dr
2
dp
rdr dz
2 r 2
2
z cons tan t
2r 2
2g
cons tan t
This result shows that the pressure varies with the distance from
the axis of rotation, but at a fixed radius, the pressure varies
hydrostatically in the vertical direction
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3
Pascals law
Vacuum pressure
Surface force
Barometer
Body force
Incompressible fluid
Hydrostatic
pressure
distribution
Pressure head
Compressible fluid
U.S standard atmosphere
Absolute pressure
Gage pressure
Manometer
Centre of pressure
Buoyant force
Archimedes principle
Centre of buoyancy
Rigid body motion