The Courthouse A Planning and Design Guide For Court Facilities

THECOURTHOUSE
-,
\\
A Planning and Design Guide for Court Facilities

I
bY
Don Hardenbei-gh
with
Robert Tobin, Si:
Chang-Ming Yeh
The National Center for State Courts

The American Institute of Architects
The Conference of State Court Administrators
The National Center for JuvenileJustice
The American Bar Association
1SJI
Institute
This Project is supported by a grant (No. 88-05X-6-072)

to the National Center for State Courts from the
State JusticeInstitute. Points of view presented by the project
do not represent the official position or policy of the
State JusticeInstitute or the National Center for State Courts.
National Center for State Courts
300 Newport Avenue
Williamsburg, V'r ini 23187-8798
LibFa$
300 Newport Ave.
'Williamsburg, VA 23 1-87-8798
c
Copyright 0 199 1 by
The National Center for State Courts
NCSC Publication No. R- 131
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationData

Hardenbergh, Don.
The courthouse : a planning and design guide for court facilities / by Don Hardenbergh ;
with Robert Tobin, Sr. and Chang-Ming Yeh.
p.
cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
1. Courthouses-United States-Designs and plans. I. Tobin, Robert. 11. Yeh, Chang-Ming. 111.
National Center for State Courts. IV. Title.
NA447 1.H37 1992
725'. 1 5 - d c 2 0
9 1-44823
CIP
The cover rendition of the Orange County, Florida, courthouse was provided by Hansen Lind Meyer.
Introduction
The largest and most expensive program that any court administrator or judge will ever participate in is
the planning, design, and construction of a new courthouse. Decisions made during the planning and design phases will affect the organization and operation of the court and judicial system for many years.
Court facilities should not only be efficient and comfortable, but should also reflect the independence,
dignity, and importance of our judicial system in their design. It is difficult for our citizens to have respect for the courts and the law, and for those who work in the court, if the community houses the court in
facilities that detract from its stature. Court and local government officials, however, frequently do not
have the expertise needed to plan functional court facilities. Similarly, many architects often lack the specialized knowledge of court operations necessary to design courthouses that are efficient and that proclaim the dignity of the law.
Recognizing the need for additional information on court facilities planning and design, the National
Center for State Courts and the American Institute of Architects joined with the American Bar Association, the National Center for Juvenile Justice, and the Conference of State Court Administrators to develop court facility guidelines for state and local courts. The Judicial Facilities Project was funded by a
grant from the State Justice Institute. The Project has seven major components: (1) a bibliography of
court facility planning and design resources; (2) an automated inventory of recent court facility projects
throughout the country; (3) planning and design guidelines for the renovation or construction of state and
local court facilities; (4) a court facilities evaluation checklist to complement the guidelines; (5) a chapter
discussing the advantages and disadvantages of the many different mechanisms for financing court facility projects; (6)guidelines that address the unique features of juvenile and family courts; and (7) case
studies of recently constructed model court facilities.
The project will produce three documents, including the present volume. The other planned volumes
are Juvenile and Family Court Facility Design Guidelines, to be completed by the National Center for Juvenile Justice, and a monograph, tentatively titled Monograph Supplement to The American Courthouse,
to be prepared by the American Bar Association.
The present volume covers both planning and design guidelines. Chapter I is a broad examination of
the many issues that affect the planning process. Included in this discussion are the need to establish a
user committee to oversee the project, selection of consultants and architects, and the five phases of a facilities project: planning, design, bidding, construction, and occupancy. Chapter I1 begins the discussion
on courthouse design. First to be covered are general issues, including the need to maintain flexibility,
site selection and the use of satellite court facilities, internal adjacencies, zoning and internal circulation,
and building efficiency factors. Issues that affect design are covered as well, such as the organization and
administration of the court, the types of cases, courthouse security needs, needs of persons with disabilities, fire and life safety, and the environment. Chapter 111 includes the design guidelines for each area
within the courthouse beginning with the courtroom and progressing through the entire building. Where
appropriate, each space is discussed in terms of nine criteria: design and image, space, environment,
needs of persons with disabilities, adjacency and circulation, accessibility, security, furnishings, and technical considerations. Finally, Chapter IV discusses the many different financial arrangements that are
used to finance courthouse construction. Contained in the Appendix are a facility evaluation checklist
and a bibliography.
xiii
THECOURTHOUSE
Judicial Facilities Project Advisory Panel
Don Cetrulo
State Court Administrator
Frankfort, KY
Sheila Gonzalez
Trial Court Adminstrator
Ventura County, CA
Hon. Philip M. Saeta

Superior Court Judge
Los Angeles, CA
Michael Cohn
American Institute of Architects
Hunter Hurst, Executive Director

National Center for juvenile justice
Pittsburgh, PA
F. Michael Wong, Ph.D., AIA

Space Management Consultants
Seattle, WA
Jeffrey W. Leidinger
New Hampshire
Ernest Zavodnyik
'
American Bar Association
Chicago, IL
Ernesto Garcia
Director of Court Services
Maricopa County, AZ
Hon. Fred A. Geiger
Illinois Appellate Court
Fred Moyer, AIA

Moyer and Associates
Glencoe, IL
Juvenile and Family Court Design

Guidelines Task Group
Albert W. Bode, AIA
Architect, Glover Smith Bode, Inc.
Oklahoma City, OK
Don Hardenbergh
Williamsburg, VA
Hon. Charles B. Schudson

Circuit Court Judge
Milawaukee, WI
Hon. Catherine Stayman Evans

District Court Judge
Dallas, TX
Hunter Hurst, Executive Director

National Center for JuvenileJustice
Pittsburgh, PA
William C. Stephens, President

With CARE, Inc.
Oklahoma City, OK
Ernesto Garcia
Director of Court Services
Maricopa County, AZ
Sylvia Pizzini, Director

Family and Children Services
Santa Clara County, CA
Hon. Richard N. Ware

District Court judge
Coushatta, LA
American Bar Association Jury Panel

JohnA. Clarke
Trial Court Administrator
Essex County, NJ
Rob Lowry, Executive Director

Ministry of Government Services
Toronto, Ontario
Hon. Philip Saeta

Superior Court Judge
Los Angeles, CA
Samuel D. Conti
Court Consultant
Springfield, Illinois
E. Eean McNaughton, AIA

E. Eean McNaughton Architects
Walter H. Sobel, FAlA

Walter H. Sobel, FAlA Associates
Chicago, IL
Don Hardenbergh
W i 11 iamsburg, VA
JamesMurphy
Deputy Clerk
Newark, NJ
Andrea Leers, AIA

Leers, Weinzapfel Associates
Boston, M A
Dale A. Nederhoff, AIA

Hellmuth, Obata & Kassabaum,
Tampa, FL
New Orleans, LA
Ernest Zavodnyik
Staff Representative
Amercian Bar Association
Chicago, IL
...
Ill
Table of
Contents
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Page
ix
...
xi11
JUDICIAL FACILITY RENOVATION AND CONSTRUCTION

A . PREPARING TO DEVELOP JUDICIAL FACILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Project Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.
3.
AdvisoryCommittee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selecting Planners, Architects. and Other
Professional Assistance Firms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B . JUDICIAL FACILITY DEVELOPMENT PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 . Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Bidding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 . Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 . Occupancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. ALTERNATE PROCESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
3
4
5
6
7
13
16
16
17
19
I1. JUDICIAL FACILITY DESIGN ISSUES

A. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Impact of Special Casetypes and Changing Nature of
Litigation on Courthouse Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Accessibility of Justice and Accommodation of the Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Siteselection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Consolidation or Separation of Court Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Consolidation or Separation of Judicial and Detention Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flexibility of Design and Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Adjacencies and Internal Location of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Courthouse Circulation And Zoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grossing and Efficiency Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Renovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.......
B . SPECIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Designandlmage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Court Organization and Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Courthouse Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Needs of Persons with Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fire, Life Safety, and Building Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Environmental Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Future Trends in Court Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Records Management and Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
25
26
26
27
28
29
30
32
34
35
37
37
39
41
43
45
47
51
52
9.
10.
Courthouse Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Signs and Public Address Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
54
I11 SPECIFIC COURTHOUSE DESIGN COMPONENTS

A. COURTROOMS AND COURTROOM ELEMENTS ...................................
1.
2.
3.
General Overview of the Trial Courtroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Specific Courtroom Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Specialized Courtrooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. COURT SUPPORT ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Trial judges Chambers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appellate judges Chambers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Court Reporters Office . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jury Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Security and Prisoner Detention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Court Facility Support Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. COURT ADMINISTRATION AND CLERK OF COURT ...............................

1.
2.
3.
Court Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Clerk of Courts Office . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appellate Court Clerk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. COURT-RELATED AGENCIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.
2.
Prosecuting Attorneys Office . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Public Defenders Office . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...................
3.
4.
5.
Adult Probation, Parole, Pretrial, and Community Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Juvenile Court Services . . . . .
.......................................
Other Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
57
63
74
80
80
82
82
83
87
91
95
95
96
101
101
101
102
1.
2.
Lobby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Elevators and Escalators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
103
104
104
105
105
105
3.
4.
Public Restrooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FoodServices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Giftand NewsShop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Day and Child Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
106
106
106
106
First Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mail Room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
107
107
107
E. BUILDING SUPPORT FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
IV FINANCING COURT FACILITY PROJECTS

A.
B.
C.
D.
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
NATURE OF COURT OCCUPANCY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GOVERNMENTAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR FINANCING COURT FACILITIES. . . . . . . . . . .
TYPES OF FACILITY-FINANCING NEEDS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. DETERMINING FACILITY-FINANCING NEEDS ....................................
111
111
111
112
112
112
112
113
Use of Facility Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Use of Court Facility Master Plans for Capital Budgeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
113
113
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
Maintenance of Existing Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Renovation of Existing Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Construction of a New Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vi
3.
4.
Estimates of Operating Costs for Inclusion in Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Estimates of Capital Expenditures for Budgeting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. VARIOUS GOVERNMENTAL APPROACHES TO FACILITY FINANCING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 . Long-term Financing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 . Short-term Financing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 . State Support for Local Facility Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G . METHODS OF FINANCING COURT FACILITIES .....................................
1 . North Carolina-Collection of Facility Fees to Reimburse Local Governments . . . . .
2 . Utah-State Reimbursement Pursuant to Facilities Master Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 . New York-Use of Public Authorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 . Alabama-Judicial Building Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 . Connecticut-Inclusion in the General State Program of Facility Financing and
Widespread Leasing of Court Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 . Massachusetts-Courthouse Improvement Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7 . Illinois-Special Tax Levies, Public Building Commissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8 . Ohio-Facility Grants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9 . Alaska-Basic State Facility Budgeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10. Rhode Island-Public Building Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 1 . Maine-Building Fund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 2 . Kentucky-Statewide County Reimbursement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13 . California-Courthouse Construction Funds, Special Tax Levies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14. Florida-Facility Fees by Local Ordinance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H . CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
114
114
114
114
115
118
118
118
119
120
120
121
121
122
122
123
123
123
123
124
124
124
NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
125
APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
127
A . COURTHOUSE FACILITY CHECKLIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

B . BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vi i
131
147
Acknowledgments
These guidelines owe their existence to many individuals. While space limits me in expressing my appreciation to everyone, some people merit special attention.
First of all, I would like to express my thanks to the State Justice Institute (SJI) board for believing in
the project and being so understanding of the difficulties encountered. I wish to give a very special
thanks to our grant monitor, Daina Farthing-Capowich, for her insight, patience, and fortitude. Daina has
been a real help throughout the project.
There are a number of other individuals without whom much of this work would not have been completed. First of all, I would like to express my deep appreciation to Michael Griebel for the help he contributed throughout the project. Michaels insights and knowledge of courts have been welcome on many
occasions, and his artful help in organizing and reviewing the report and his assistance in arranging for
the preparation of the graphic presentations have been especially appreciated. I also wish to thank the
firm of Hellmuth, Obata & Kassabaum for their assistance in developing the diagrams and planning concepts illustrated in this report. I would especially like to thank Robert Schwartz of their St. Louis office
for the time he has devoted to their preparation and for his insights into courthouse design and planning.
Mike Cohn, of the American Institute of Architects, has worked on the project as a representative of
the AIAs Committee on Architecture for Justice (CAJ). Mike has been involved with the project from its
inception and has been very supportive in writing and reviewing various sections of the guidelines. The
AIA, providing their mailing list of CAJ members, was very helpful in expanding the facilities inventory
database.
Mike Thomas, president of Justice Planning Associates (JPA), and his staff graciously volunteered
their time and many talents to the report. JPAs research into appropriate courthouse space standards and
design guidelines is embodied in many of the specific design sections. The sections on the planning and
design process and on many of the judicial facility design issues reflect the thoughtful insights that Mikes
firm has brought to the justice facility-planning process.
The materials on acoustics and lighting used in the report were originally drafted by Ken Jandura, of
Carter Goble Associates, and I wish to acknowledge Kens important contribution to this area.
Others that deserve recognition include Erica Wood, of the ABAs Commission on the Elderly, for her
thoughtful review of our guidelines with regard to their effect on the disabled, and AI Bode, AIA, and the
staff of Glover Smith Bode, Inc., in Oklahoma City, for their assistance in drafting sections on HVAC and
electrical systems.
I give special thanks and recognition to the projects advisory panel. They have worked hard and
spent long hours reviewing drafts of the report, at great cost to their own busy schedules. I further express my deep appreciation to Jeff Leidinger, who as New Hampshires state court administrator through
most of the project, was responsible for keeping in touch with COSCA. Jeff also chaired the committee
meetings, and his masterful direction of our meetings allowed us to concentrate on our task. And,
finally a thank-you to Beth Ahntholtz, a student at William and Mary, for her help in researching the
bibliography.
The preparation of planning and design guidelines for court facilities has been a stimulating but humbling experience-stimulating in that courthouse design affects everything that courts do; humbling in
that it has made me painfully aware of how much I didnt know about our courts. It has been a rewarding
exercise.
July 1991
Don Hardenbergh
ix
THECOURTHOUSE
Larry Sipes, President
Sally T. Hillsman, Vice President
Research and Special Services
Charles Ferrell, Vice President
Southeastern Regional Office
judicial Facilities Project Staff

Project Director
Don Hardenbergh, Sr. Staff Associate
Project Staff
Robert Tobin, Sr. Staff Attorney
Chang-Ming Yeh, Staff Associate
Sue Dassel
Project Secretary
Angela Lewis
Project Secretary
Contributors
Michael Cohn
American Institute of Architects
Michael Griebel
Henningson, Durham & Richardson
Robert Schwartz, AIA
Hellmuth, Obata & Kassabaum, Inc.
Michael Thomas, President
justice Planning Associates
Cliff Woodward
justice Planning Associates
Albert W. Bode, AIA
Glover Smith Bode, Inc.
xi
CHAPTER
I
Judicial Facility Renovation and Construction
JUDICIAL FACILITY RENOVATION AND CONSTRUCTION

Thischapter givesstate and local government managers and court officials an overview of the stages
typically involved in the renovation of an existing
court facility or the construction of a new one. The
first section describes the importance of structured
consensus-building and discusses the selection of
planners and architects. The second section describes the five major renovation/construction stepsplanning, design, bidding, construction, and occupancy-with particular emphasis on predesign tasks,
because they are so often neglected. The next section, on the judicial facility development process,
explains in some detail how a jurisdiction may quantify the needed facility improvements, and the process by which appropriate design, construction, and
occupancy strategies are formulated.
Degree of substantial agreement on major philosophical issues involving court operations;

Overall quality of strategic planning and architectural space programming;
Chemistry, expertise, experience, and management methodology of the design team; and
Client project management.
Jurisdictions undertake the improvement of judicial facilities for a variety of reasons, such as a
particular security incident, growth in the judicial
system, or the creation of a new service program.
Whatever the specific trigger, at some point, the
discussions regarding facility improvement become
serious. At that point, a systematic approach to
exploringoptions and improvingfacilities needs to be
developed. The initial preparation, in conjunction
with the activities described in the next section, is
very important for a smooth and effective project.
A. PREPARING TO DEVELOP JUDICIAL

FACILIT1ES
Several factors influence an efficient design process. These include:
1. PROJECTMANAGEMENT. Of special importance during the design process is the clients approach to project management. Some state, county,
or even municipal jurisdictions have full-time staff
Degreeof general project consensus and mechanisms for ensuring communication;
Functions Addressed by a Project Manager

Formulation of the Request for Proposal (RFP) and screening of proposal;
Contract negotiationwith the selected design team;
Project liaison tasks, including control of meetings, communications, and documentation;
Contract maintenance, including review and approval of deliverables and invoices;
Schedule and budget maintenance, including review of all change orders;
Review, release, and coordination of bids; and
Continuity of construction and design implementation.
THECOURTHOUSE:
A Planning and Design Guide
capable of overseeingcomplex design and construction projects. Other jurisdictions hire private- or
public-sector individuals to serve as project managers, or firms to perform as program managers. Regardless of the approach, jurisdictions need to designate
project managers who can perform project liaison
and management functions more or less full-time.
and the local government as a result of the courts

status as a separate but equal branch of government.
A balancing of interests is required to achieve lasting
consensus and to ensure coordinated action. That
balancing and the resulting consensus are obtained
through communication between owners and users.
Once a planning or design project is under way,
a new factor enters the owner-user equation: the
outside professional contractor. In the typical planning, design, or construction process, both owners
and users are important sources of information to the
contractor, and equally important to the decisionmaking, consensus-building process. Owners provide criteria relating to timing, location, funding, and
overall scope of projects, and they make the final
choice. Users provide information on both general
and specific facility operations, such as current and
future operating practices, workflows, and adjacency
and security requirements, and act asa vital sounding
board throughout the facility development process.
Regardlessof personality conflicts or ownerhser tensions, the funding authorities want to get the most for
their money, including appropriate size, acceptable
costs, effective and efficient operations, and reasonable user satisfaction. Again, good communication is
the key to achieving consensus.
Good communication requires effort at several
levels. For the public officials involved, regular faceto-face meetings are important. For the outside
contractors, individual meetings with both owners
and users ensure the appropriate flow of information
in both directions. But for the jurisdiction as a whole,
the development of a review and advisory committee
is critical to the long-term success of planning, design, and construction efforts.
A formal review and advisory committee should
be formed early in the planning process. This committee should meet at regular, frequent intervals,
particularly during the planning and early design
stages of a project. The most successful committees
include representatives from the major components
of the, justice system as well as from the funding
authority. Bar representatives and other general or
special interest groups are frequently included, either
in a voting or a nonvoting capacity. The committee
may or may not be given formal approval powers; it
may, for instance, act only as an advisory panel for the
funding authority. Alternatively, the committee may
be empowered to act as the formal approval body for
2. ADVISORY COMMITTEE. The decision to

improve judicial facilities, or even to study the need
to improve facilities, is rarely made lightly. Jurisdictions typically spend years to arrive at this point.
Frequently, however, piecemeal improvements are
made without a larger strategy. Depending on the
size and growth-rate of the locality, periodic minor
adjustments of the facility may be sufficient. But
where significant improvements are necessary, a
review and advisory committee is critical to the longterm success of planning, design, and construction
efforts.
Discussions regarding judicial facility improvement generally commence with the judiciary or the
local bar association. In some instances, a particular
incident of violence may generate a wave of public
concern, or the discovery of free asbestos or some
other physical liability may provoke concerns among
funding authorities. But security concerns, overcrowding, and operational liabilities are generally
noticed first and most strongly by judges, judicial
system staff, and other frequent courthouse users.
Because funding authorities, such as county boards,
councils, or commissions, have diverse demands for
their limited financial resources, there may be initial
reluctance to be sympathetic with the specific improvement concerns of judicial facility users. Even
where shared concerns are immediately apparent,
there is still competition for scarce resources. One of
the first steps most jurisdictions must face is developing a consensus regarding facility shortfalls, improvement options, and funding strategies.
The difficulty of developing consensus is exacerbated by relationships between the owner and users,
which are frequently compounded by individual
personalitiesand perceptions. Even among people of
complete goodwill, an inherent tension exists between the owners interests in overall public policy
and the users interests in promoting the specific
operations of the justice system. A further complication is the tension that often exists between the court
JUDICIALFACILITY
RENOVATION
AND CONSTRUCTION
court do the initial feasibility planning on its own and
then retain consultants and architects to perform
programming and design tasks, or should consultants
be hired to perform formal master planning in advance of architectural design? These questions are
usually among the first to be addressed by a review
and advisory committee.
Unless a jurisdiction has unusually strong internal planning resources, it is advisable to seek outside
assistance for early strategic planning. Even with
strong internal-planning resources, considerations of
experience, time, and perceived objectivity also may
influence the decision to seek early consulting advice. Groups such as the National Center for State
Courts and the Committee on Architecture for Justice
of the American Institute of Architects can provide
lists of consultants.
Regardless of whether consultants are retained to
perform planning services or such tasks are performed by local staff, at some point space programming and design assistance will be required. In the
the jurisdiction. In any case, it is very important that

the committee contain policymakers: elected officials, chief judges, chief prosecutingattorneys, and so
on. Alternates (staff members) may also attend, or
may be appointed to a subcommittee, but the committee of policymakers is the ongoing source of
policy-directed decision making and consensus
building.
Planning, design, and construction projects take
several years to complete. Circumstances change,
and staff members and elected officials change jobs
or leave office during such projects. Without a
diverse and representativegroup of policymakers on
a formal review and advisory committee, effective
coordinated act ion becomes ext remely d iff icuI t .
3. SELECTING PLANNERS, ARCHITECTS, A N D
OTHER PROFESSIONAL ASSISTANCE FIRMS. One
of the first decisions to be made is when and how to
retain outside consultants-planners, architects, engineers, and others. Should the local government or
Project
Manager
Cour'tS
PlarI ners
.
Funding
Authority
Architec:ts
Engineers
~~
Association
Citizens
Advisory Committee Relationships

Courtesy of
HOK
THECOURTHOUSE: A Planning and Design Guide

wide range of available professional services, there
are court consultants who specialize in strategic
planning; space programmingarchitecturalfirms who
specialize in thedesign ofjusticefacilities; and a large
variety of general practice architectural and engineering firms.
It is difficult to determine the best way to structure
a design team. A strong local architectural firm, if
teamed with a specialist in court planning, can produce excellent results, while a combination of local
and national design teams also can be effective.
Some local governing bodies are committed to supporting local businesses and deliberately seek to
ensure that the major portions of a design project will
be performed by (and fees paid to) a local architect.
In such cases, specialized expertise is used only to
augment the local firm. Other jurisdictions advertise
nationally, wishing to attract large, or high-profile,
out-of-town firms. In combining with local firms on
a joint-venture design team, high-profile firms may
either take a subordinate role or perform as dominant
partners, depending on circumstances.
Whichever preference prevails, it is important
that the selection process promotes an informed
choice among competing teams. Firms wishing to
compete for a court design project might be judged on
the basis of:
competing teams should have the overall organizational and design strength necessary to perform effectively. In choosing among several competing firms or
teams(choosingamongatleast three is recommended)
jurisdictions may need to select on the basis of the
specific expertise and experience of the individuals
assigned to the project, as demonstrated by previous
projects and references, and on the basis of the
particular work approach and management methodology that seem to suit the jurisdiction and the project
best. Team chemistry also should be considered.
Planning, design, and construction projects take several years to complete-particularly for complex
facilities such as courthouses. Long working relationships should be comfortable ones to promote maximum results with minimum strain. For further information on selection of an architect, please refer to
You and Your Architect, by the American Instituteof
Architects.
B. JUDICIAL FACILITY DEVELOPMENT
PROCESS
The planning and design process described here
generally relates to the most common or typical
construction process, that of design-bid-build, where
a community hires an architect to plan and design a
courthouse, construction documents are prepared by
the architect, construction bids are received from
contractors, a contractor is selected, and the courthouse is built. There are, however, several other
methods, or construction models, available that may
shorten the length of the project slightly. These will
be discussed briefly at the conclusion of this section.
In the traditional judicial facility development
process, each project has five distinct phases:
(1) planning, (2) design, (3) bidding, (4)construction,
and (5) occupancy. The areas, however, that generally receive the most attention are design and construction. Often communities view predesign or
planning activities as being unnecessary, or duplicative of the work done by the architect during design.
The predesign phases, however, are just as important
as design.
It i s difficult to overemphasize the importance of
all five phases, and particularly that of predesign
planning. During this phase goals are defined; essential problems are identified and solutions sought; the
building's occupancies, total size, and project bud-
Design strength for institutional or private-sector

buildings with comparable character
Organizational strength with respect to projects
of comparable size and complexity
Firm or team strength-specific experience of
particular individuals to be assigned to the project
In-house subcontractor and consultant disciplines and qualifications
References-specifically related to individuals
assigned to the project
Schedule and cost control mechanisms and
history
Specific technical expertise, use of computerassisted design, work approach, and management methodology
Overall team chemistry and "fit" with project
staff
There are many good architectural firms in the
United States. On a large project, nearly all of the
JUDICIALFACILITY
RENOVATION
AND CONSTRUCTION
Needs Assessment
Resource Evaluation
Implementation Plan
Architech ral
Programming
Schematic Design
Design Development
Construction
Documents
Pre-Bid Conferences
Bid Evaluation
&Award
Construction
Administration
Change Orders
Project Close-Out
Staff Assignments
Operation Policies
Special Training
Project Phases and Tasks

Courresy of HOK.
Once the magnitude of future need is estimated

(with a planning horizon of 15 to 20 years, for
instance) for judges, court and support staff, and for
the space to house them, long-term need can be
compared with existing facilities. One ofthe primary
objectives of the evaluation of existing resources
should be todistinguish between physical overcrowding and operational obsolescence. A facility that
funqtions effectively by modern standards of circulation, security, space utilization, paper flow, and so
on, is almost certain to be retained as a judicial
facility. Iftheconsequencesofjudicial system growth
have simply caused the facility to become overcrowded, then supplemental facilities, with or without renovation of the current courthouse, may address long-term needs. But ifa facility isoperationally
obsolete, as well as overcrowded, then even significant internal renovation may not enhance its longterm effectiveness. In some cases, particularly where
older historic facilities are concerned, it is not possible to provide separate public, staff, and prisoner
circulation patterns, achieve effective courtroom configurations, or provide appropriatefacilitysecurity. In
those cases, alternative facility uses should beconsidered.
A thorough evaluation of existing facilitiesshould
consider both the quantity and quality of space. It
should address such questions as: Are there sufficient
courtrooms?; Are they configured properly?; Do they
have appropriate support spaces?; Can the facility
appropriately house the other court elements required for efficient operation, or can those elements
be placed in close proximity?;Can appropriate public
and private circulation and facility security be
achieved?; Is the building structurally sound?;Are the
building's mechanical, plumbing, lighting, and elec-
gets are established; and facility planning and design

standards are set. Because it is the least expensive,
and often least understood, phase i t is frequently
tempting to shortcut predesign activities in either time
oreffort. Butthis phase laysthe foundation fordesign,
and it is during this phase that changes in direction
can most readily and least expensively be accompl is hed.
1. PLANNING
a. Evaluation of Existing Resources.

Most projects commence with a recognition that
existing facilities are inadequate. Early in the longterm planning process, deficiencies in the current
facility should be quantified. (The facilitlies Evaluation Checklist in Appendix C is designed to aid in this
process.)
Maximum
Opportunity
for
Savings
0
Planning
Design
Bidding
Construcfion
Project Phase
Cost Control Opportunities

Courtesy of HOK.

bring current facilities up to satisfactory levels of
operation is underestimated, or the rate of growth is
underestimated. In many cases, jurisdictions find
themselves confronting new bond referenda or facility development projects within a decade of the last
major effort, or they find themselves living with
severely compromised facilities. A good needs assessment may not create additional revenue sources,
but it does minimize unpleasant surprises.
The needs assessment may be done by the local
government staff or the user committee and can be
accomplished by analyzing current and future
caseloads, relating caseloads and other factors to
current and future staff requirements, and relating
staff requirements to current and future space needs.
A good forecasting process, extending 15 to 20 years
into the future (all that is practical), should enable a
jurisdiction to improve existing facilities, or to develop new ones, with some confidence in their longevity. The forecasting process is very briefly described below.
A necessary step in the planning for a new court
facility is estimating future judicial and nonjudicial
staffing needs. Because most of the courts work
involves processing individual cases, the most readily
available and most frequently used workload measure is the number of case filings or dispositions. To
project future staff needs, it is first necessary to
estimate future caseloads. There are two major
methods of estimating future case filings or disposi-
trical systems efficient and effective?; And does it

meet modern safety and handicapped-access standards?
None of the questions posed above, or any other
that a thorough evaluation should address, assumes a
single appropriate standard that all court facilities
must meet. Many jurisdictions operate facilities that
represent compromises in some areas. But once an
evaluation of physical, spatial, and operational characteristics has been conducted, then the use of existing resources, in the context of the short- and longterm identified needs, can be considered objectively.
b. Projections of Future Needs.

An assessment of needs establishes a foundation
for the facility planning and design process. It determines the amount of space required and estimates the
magnitude of need in the future. By focusing on
current needs, and projecting needs into the future, a
jurisdiction can commence a renovation or new
construction process with a clear understanding of
how immediate physical solutions and funding strategies fit into an overall plan for long-term space
needs.
Occasionally, jurisdictions shortcut the needs
assessment process by making rough estimates of
their future needs based upon some percentage of
their current space. Unfortunately, all too often this
type of estimation does not solve the problem for
long, because either the additional space required to
Methods of Estimating and Projecting Future Needs

Actual Number Increase Per Year
Average Percentage Change Per Year
Linear Regression Analysis
Multiple Regression Analysis
Methods Based on
Historical Caseload Trends
BodJenkinsARIMA method
Ratio of Filings to Population
Projection of Other Variables
Low
Average
High
Economic Indicators
System Indicators
Reported Offenses
Arrests
JUDICIAL FACILITYRENOVATIONAND CONSTRUCTION
I
I
I
I
i
I
I
I
ILt
I
i-iI
+
I
I
I
I
I
I
11
0
tions in a court: (1) projections based on historical

case filings and (2) projections based on relationships
to other variables, such as population.
In the historical approach, case filings are projected
according to past filing trends. One such method is
to calculate the average percentage change for several years and to extend this rate (uncompounded)
into the future. Another method is to examine the
actual number increase for filings and to extend this
increase or decrease into the future. Historical techniques generally assume that filings change at a fairly
constant rate, and both methods are most effective
when year-to-year changes are relatively stable.
Another technique, also using historical data, is
regression analysis. One method uses data from
previous years to produce a line that best represents
the overall trend in historical case filings. The line
reflects the minimum deviation from the actual data
points. This line is then projected into the future. As
with any prediction, the farther into the future one
predicts, the less reliable the estimate. As a general
rule, the more observations one has the better the
reliability of the prediction. But, even with historical
data going back many years, projections of more than
15 to 20 years will have very limited utility.
One method of obtaining additional data points,
or observations, on which to make projections is to
use quarterly, or even monthly, caseload data. A
technique that uses monthly or quarterly historical
data is the ARIMA method developed by Box and
Jenkins. This technique analyzes and forecasts
univariate time series data using an autoregressive
integrated moving average model. Because of the
presenceof seasonal and monthly fluctuations, however, it is necessary to make seasonal adjustments to
the data by using moving averages to smooth out the
monthly highs and lows. The adjusted data are then
used to make future caseload projections similar to
the regression method described above. (See SAS
System for Forecasting Time Series, 1986 ed., SAS
Institute, Cary, NC; and Richard McCleary and Richard Hay, Jr., Applied Time Series Analysis for the
Social Sciences, Sage Publications.)
The use of other variables, such as population,
crime rates, per capita income, or unemployment
rates, to predict future caseloadsmayenableforecasters to relatecase filings to someother measure, which
can also be projected. A study by the National Center
for State Courts (Flango and Elsner, Estimating
10
20
Year
Caseload Projections
Courtesy of HOK.
Caseloads: Two Methods Tested in Tulsa, State

Court journal, spring 1983) tested the forecasting
value of a number of variables and found that their
values as predictors varied by casetype. For example,
historically, unemployment rates wereextremely useful for predicting civil tort cases over $5,000, while
population was more useful for predicting small
claims and guardianship cases. The problem with
most such variables is the difficulty in projecting
factors such as per capita income or unemployment
rates far enough into the future to be helpful.
Because population is theonly variable for which
viable future estimates are likeiy to exist in most
communities, an analysis of population and case
filings is usually the most reliable indicator. Because
nearly all available forecasting methods assume that
the future will mirror the past, assumptions regarding
future population levels, statutoryand policychanges,
and staffing levels should be clearly stated and discussed at the beginning of the project. Typically,
forecasting with a combination of historical trend
analysis, regressionanalysis, and factor analysis (such
as population) will present the greatest opportunity
for obtaining realistic projections.
Throughout the forecasting effort, taking great
care ensures that historical definitions of casetypes
are consistent. Ultimately, the thoroughness and
judgment of the forecaster determines the efficacy of
the forecasts. As staff projections will be used to
define futurespace needs, and those needs will in turn
generate budgets for capital improvements, it is im-
10
JUDICIAL FACILITY
RENOVATIONAND CONSTRUCTION
portant to emphasize the practical nature of the
forecasting process.
Even though i t is not possibleto predict caseloads
accuratelyfor more than 10 to 15 years into the future,
it is possible to develop facility master plans that will
be valid for as long as 50 years through such techniques as phased construction or shelling-in unused
spaces for future use.
Oncecaseload projectionsare made, they can be
used to develop staffing estimates for the various
offices and agencies to be included in the facility.
Current and future judgeship needs can be estimated
on the basis of filings or dispositions per judge.
Because of the varying amounts of time spent by
judges on different casetypes, different ratios should
be developed for each of the major casetypes, such as
civil, small claims, misdemeanors, felonies, delinquency, probate, and domestic relations. For further
information on the various methods of determining
judgeship needs, see Assessing the Need for Judicial
Resources, National Center for State Courts, 1983.
Because many nonjudicial positions in the court
depend on the number of judges, once the number of
future judgeships isestimated it is possibletoestimate
the number of nonjudicial personnel. For example, in
many courts each judge is assigned a court clerk,
secretary, law clerk, and bailiff. Depending upon the
state, community, and level of court, the number and
type of positions may vary. In this example, adding
another judge will require four more nonjudicial
employees. In addition to these positions, other
offices are affected by changes in judicial staffing.
The prosecutor and public defender will need staff to
cover the new court, and staffing in the clerks office
will be affected.
Staff not associated with judges in the clerks
office may be projected on the same basis as judges
by developing appropriate filings-to-staff ratios that
would be applied to estimates of court filings.
Once staff projections are developed and agreed
upon, appropriate ratios of staff to space may be
generated and applied to determine current and
future space needs. A brief example of such a ratio i s
given in the subsection, Architectural Programming.
ing facilities. In communities with relatively static

growth, for example, where gradual overcrowding
and some operational obsolescence have finally
reached a critical point, the 15- or 20-year plan may
consist of only renovating a single facility, or perhaps
adding a nearby office building. In a larger or faster
growing area, however, a whole series of activities
may need to take place in conjunction with a 15- or
20-year plan. For instance, the plan might include the
immediate renovation of an existing facility, the subsequent development of a new stand-alone facility to
be built on a new site, and the development of a
supporting office building, perhaps to be connected
to the new courthouse within 10 or 15 years.
The process by which a very large or rapidly
growing jurisdiction resolves its space needs may be
complex. Detailed planning should be performed
over a period of years-as existing facilities are renovated and new ones are developed, more specific
attention should be directed to other facilities down
the line. But from an overall strategic planning
standpoint, the basic road map for improvements
should be developed before any major design activity
and before the commitment of significant capital
dollars.
By examining long-term needs and evaluating
existing resources, facility reuse, renovation, and
expansion can be considered in the context of overall
strategic planning. As strategic planning takes substantive shape, short- and long-term budgets, funding
options, public referenda, and specific schedules for
implementation can be planned accordingly.
d. Architectural Programming.
Development of an architectural space program
is a major predesign planningeffort. Master planning
has a general focus: the emphasis i s on existing space
deficiencies, future requirements, broad policies, and
general strategies for improvement. Architectural
space programming, on the other hand, has a very
specific focus. It identifies individual spaces to be
designed in a renovation or new construction project
by name, function, size, and relationship to other
component spaces. It makes specific assumptions
regarding various preferred methods of operation,
and defines specific space standards, design guidelines, and interrelationships.
Although there are many ways to combine master planning and architectural programming, they are
c. Development of Implementation Plans.

Master planning compares space needs with
space shortfalls and develops both short- and longterm strategies for upgrading or supplementing exist-
11
Present
Future
Caseload
Judicial
Posit ions
& Staff
Caseload Growth Relationship

to Personnel and Space Needs
Coiirrcs). of
distinct planning efforts even if performed by the

same planning team within a single project. The
objectives of master planning are strategic. Detailed
forecasts, detailed facility evaluations, detailed site
selection, and other planning efforts are performed,
but only to develop broad solutions. The objectives
of architectural programming are very specific-to
define the operations and spaces of a proposed facility in a manner permitting an effective and efficient
use of the facility.
An example of the difference between the two
predesign planning efforts may help to create a distinction. In strategic planning, detailed forecasts are
prepared and current deficiencies are examined to
HOK.
project future space needs. A typical projection for a

clerk of court:
In the year 2005, the office will have approximately 100 employees. The average square footage required per employee (including shared
counter space, records storage areas, viewing
rooms, work stations, conference rooms, and so
on) i s approximately 160 square feet. Therefore,
100 x 160 = approximately 16,000 square feet
required by the clerk of court in 2005.
In this example, the standard of 160 square feet
would be derived from an analysis of the use of
existing space, space standards recommended by
12
JUDICIALFACILITY
RENOVATION
AND CONSTRUCTION
architects or other consultants, and some broad assumptions about future operational policies affecting
the work environment. The various functional components of the building would be treated in similar
fashion, with broad assumptions made as to loading
docks, holding areas, cafeterias, other building support functions, and grossing factors. Thus, an occupancy scenario for a potential building of a particular
size could be developed and considered in the light
of various strategic issues-location, schedule, funding, and so on.
An architectural program treats the various large
components, and many small ones, with far greater
specificity. For instance, for the same clerks office,
broad forecasts projecting 100 people were sufficient
and appropriate for strategic planning. Now, however, it would be necessary to define each of those
100 projected employees by position (cashier, filing
clerk, data entry clerk), studying paper flow, equipment needs, and other detailed operational issues, in
order to describe individual space requirements for
every employee and for every supporting space in
that office. The same sort of analysis would be
applied to all major and minor components, including building support elements, with more specific
grossingfactors, and interrelationships alsodescribed,
to characterize the proposed facility specifically and
to promote an appropriate design process.
Strategic planning and architectural programming are sometimes combined in a continuous sequence by the same team. The early part of the
process defines funding expectations and develops
strategies. The latter part of the process develops the
specific information necessary to design a building.
Regardless of how the predesign planning is performed, sufficient time has to be allocated to ensure
a thorough and dependable product. Frequently,
jurisdictions define their broad needs and implementation plans in an early strategic plan and then build
consensus and seek funding before proceeding with
architectural space programming. When this isdone,
programming is frequently performed by the selected
design team as an early component of the design
process. There are some practical advantages and
disadvantages to virtually any approach. Whether
separation or a combination of predesign and design
is employed, the keys to successful projects include
the acquisition of appropriate team expertise and
thorough planning as a precursor to design.
Courtroom model for the DuPdge County, Illinois, .lustice and

Oflice Facility.
Courroy of
HOK
2. DESIGN. The design phase of a judicial

facility may bequite lengthy and complex depending
on the nature of the project. Designing for the
renovation of a single floor of an otherwise workable
building might be a relatively brief process. Designing for the renovation of a large and complex building
or designing a new facility can take as long as a year.
Complex building projects provide numerous opportunities for omissions in communication, disagreements or changes with regard to proposed operations,
and delays. Delay often affects project construction
budgets. Good project management ensures proper
communication to achieve consensus and facilitates
an effective and efficient design process.
There are three major phases to the design process: (1) schematic design, (2) design development,
and (3) construction documents. Because there can
be a good deal of overlap among these phases depending on the project and the design team, the three
phases are discussed below in fairly general terms.
a. Schematic Design.
An early element of this phase is sometimes

referred to as conceptual design. Irrespective of
terminology, this phase generates a general concept
13
Bench mock-up for new Kane County, Illinois, Courthouse.
for the building. The process starts with blocking and

stacking exercises-establishing the basic footprints
of individual floors and stacking the floors vertically.
Typically, large blocks of space with relatively little
interior detail are shown in this phase. Some interior
detail probably would be shown for courtrooms and
specific courtroom support elements, as the arrangement of courtroom suites typically determines the
footprint and structure of a courtfloor, and, to some
extent, the overall concept ofthe building. Schematic
design emphasizessite orientation and general building elevations, traffic and pedestrian access, links to
other functions and facilities, internal circulation,
structural considerations, and location of and general
approach to major mechanical systems.
In this phase a solid concept of the building first
begins to emerge. O n a new construction project, the
architectural team might generate several alternative
concepts, each characterizing a different vision of the
building. Each would respond to the program in
terms of general space allocations, but might locate
and configure the spaces in very different ways. There
are three general options for a program: a low-rise
facility with very large floor plates, a mid-rise facility
with smaller floor plates, and a high-rise facility with
minimal floor areas on any given floor. Building

profiles range from very low and massive to very high
and slender, and the amount of building articulation
varies in an equally dramatic fashion. The selected
concept could represent a clear choice among the
three, or could contain characteristics of more than
one alternative. The overall design image (discussed
in some detail in the next chapter) and issuessuch
as orientation, compatibility, facade, articulation,
and projected costs would be weighed against
operational considerations in arriving at a preferred
concept.
That concept, along with some preliminary analyses of exterior material options and structural, mechanical, electrical, and plumbingsystems, would be
documented, typically in one-eighth-inch scaledrawings, at the conclusion of the schematic design phase.
In many instances, it is desirable to use both scale
models and full-scale mock-ups of various aspects of
the facility to achieve proper relationships and to
view the design better. This is particularly the case
with the design of the courtroom, where the use of
full-scale mock-ups has become common and is
generally recommended.
14
JUDICIAL FACILITY
RENOVATIONAND CONSTRUCTION
and modified. Although the precise product of design
development will vary somewhat from project to
project, the report documentation will typically include one-quarter-inch scale drawings of all design
elements with fairly comprehensiveoutlinesof specifications sufficient to permit the development of
construction documents and bid packages.
Final design decisions should be completed by
this point, as major changes after this point are very
costly. Later, as actual construction commences,
significant changes will involve not only redesign
costs but duplicate construction costs as well. Typically, the only design changes considered after this
phase involve final coordination of design elements.
As stated earlier, the specific amount of detail

included in a schematic design package varies with
the particular project and design approach. Too much
specificity, too soon, could be costly. Design processes are dynamic. Operational approaches sometime change as individuals leave or as more time is
devoted to issues. Changes that occur early in the
design process are relatively easy to manage; substantial changes later in the process inevitably involve
additional redesign and expense. Sufficient time
should be devoted to the schematic design phase to
ensure substantial agreement on key issues and specific design solutions.
b. Design Development.
This phase develops and refines the schematic
design concepts. More detailed exploration of the
preliminary design elements is provided, and additional design elements are analyzed in this phase.
Design development includes detailed analysis of:
c. Construction Documents.
The construction documents phase places all of
the planning and design decisions into a single set of
detailed drawings and specifications. Detailed drawings, sometimes still referred to as blueprints, are
accompanied by equally detailed narratives specifying exact structures, systems, materials, finishes, and
so on. For example, the carpet described in general
terms during design development is now described in
detail with respect to yarn weight, backing, thickness,
color, and density. This extensive package ofdetailed
drawings and detailed specifications is made available to contractors and specialty subcontractors who
want to bid on the building project. The construction
documents describe all parts of the project and provide the legal documentation with which thecontractor must comply. Thedocuments, perhaps with some
modification during the bidding process, thus become the basis for setting final construction costs and
for implementing actual construction.
Design documentation coordination involvesthe
integration of drawings and specificationswithin and
among the various disciplines. For instance, the
structural framing, mechanical duct work, plumbing,
lights, electrical conduit, fire sprinklers, and other
systems must properly interrelate. Many construction
problems result from location conflicts among pipes,
ducts, and beams.
Compliance with applicable codes should be
reviewed throughout this phase. Ideally, compliance
with all building codes and local ordinances should
be verified throughout the design phases. If sufficient
review by building officials has occurred during
schematic design and design development, review
Foundation and structural components

Roofing systems and waterproofing elements
Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems
Exterior articulation and fenestration
Exterior material and color selections
Exterior site and landscaping elements
Interior floor plans, including:
Circulation and core elements, (lobbies, elevators, stairs, toilets)
Service elements, (telephone and equipment
rooms, janitor closets)
Individual component design, (courtrooms,
holding units, offices, work stations)
Interior furniture systems
Interior finishes, furnishings, and materials
Special security, communication, and information management equipment
Although not exhaustive, this list illustrates the
details of the design effort. Major design and operating choices give way to detailed examinations. Exterior elements, floor plans, systems, materials, and
finishes begin to interrelate.
The design development phase typically takes
several months. As in planning and schematic design, a good deal of interaction takes place among the
design team, the advisory committee, and the facility
users, as ideas are analyzed, refined, communicated,
15

during this phase can be relatively routine. If this
early compliance review has not been conducted,
extensive review at this late stage may compel significant redesign as detailed plans and specifications are
reviewed and understood.
As thedesign documents near completion, a final
cost estimate should be prepared based on final
building areas, detailed drawings, and detailed specifications. Any projected costs in excess of the project
budget should beaddressed before bidding. Depending on the final budget estimates, bid alternates may
bedeveloped to stay within or fully utilize the project
budget.
A final important aspect of this phase is the
development ofgeneral and supplemental conditions
(including special insurance provisions) to the general contract, and the development of the bidding
process and written instructions to the bidders. The
design team will typically workclosely with theclient
and project manager in preparing for the bidding
process.
are interdependent, careful management i s absolutely critical.

Construction management, whether provided by
a general contractor (GC)or a construction manager
(CM)hired by theclient, coordinates materials, equipment, personnel, subcontractors, inspections, schedule, and budget to complete the building in accordance with the construction documents. The GC or
CM also obtains all permits and ensures compliance
with all regulatory agency requirements.
The design team and the client both have essential roles during the construction phase. The contractor will prepare submittals and shop drawings for
review and approval by the design team and the
client. Timely review of these submittals and drawings is important, because actual rnaterials being
supplied are compared with those specified in the
design documents.
Change orders are part of this phase even though
every effort is made to minimize them. Unforeseeable conditions, such as unusual soil conditions, may
be discovered during excavation or construction.
Functional elements, such as jurisdiction or staff, may
change, and changes may develop from ambiguity in
the documents. Change order requests are reviewed
by the design team and, if approved by the client,
prepared and issued as design changes. The cost and
schedule are adjusted accordingly. It is important to
fix responsibility for initiating and approving change
orders, as they can result in considerable costs to the
project. While many change orders are likely to be
initiated by the court or other users of the facility, the
owner (state, county, or city) and the user committee
should be involved to ensure that changes do not
threaten the project budget or jeopardize other areas
of the design.
At completion of construction, the project is
inspected by the design team, the advisory committee, and theclient for compliancewith thedesign and
for substantial completion. A punch list of items the
contractor must complete is developed. Project
closeout requirements are monitored. If desired,
record drawings (as-built drawings) are prepared by
the design team. These drawings are based on
information provided by the contractor and provide a
record of how the building was actually constructed.
Theowner will usuallyoccupy the building upon
determination that the project is substantially complete; that is, when the building is complete to the
3. BIDDING. The bidding and contract award

phase is an important extension of the prior phases
and a necessary prelude to construction. Typically,
many questions are formed as contractors prepare
construction bids based on the design team's document package. As questions and requests for clarification of the documents are routinely raised by
contractors, it is very important that the design team
be available to answer questions and provide clarification. The design team often prepares addenda to
respond to specific questions or to clarify particular
specifications.
A pre-bid conference often is used to clarify
procedures and special circumstances for interested
bidders. The design team can help resolve any
confusion of the bidders at this conference. After bids
are received, they are reviewed for compliance with
the documents. At this point, project budget negotiation may occur, bid alternates may be selected, and
a construction contract is awarded.
4. CONSTRUCTION. The construction process
enables all ofthe planninganddesign documentation
to be realized in an actual building. Assembling
diverse materials into a final product is quite complicated. Because so many things happen simultaneously, and as so many of the construction elements
16
JUDICIALFACILITY
RENOVATION
AND CONSTRUCTION
needs. But court facilities, which also have very
complex operations, frequently open without such
detailed activation plans. Such activation or occupancy planscan helpstaff todevelop realisticexpectations regardingfacilityoperationsandto meet those
expectations within a reasonable period of time.
The actual construction of a courthouse is based
on any number of planning and design assumptions.
Those assumptions proceed from the very general to
the very specific, forming a logical chain reaching all
the way back to the earliest strategic planning. For
instance, the general decision to provide secure parking and courtfloor access to judges may generate a
whole series of specific design and construction
features relating to private vehicle access, remote
surveillance elements, and private access to judicial
elevators. Assumptions restricting on-site records
storage for clerks offices could generate additional
assumptions relating to special record retrieval systems or to the use of couriers to and from remote
locations. Assumptions related to holding facilities
could influence the location and nature of contact
between defendants in custody and public defenders
or private defense attorneys.
point of being usable. Substantial completion certificates and occupancy permits are often issued with
some itemsoutstanding. At final completion, all such
items should be finished, and final payments should
be made to the contractor only after the contractors
surety has given consent.
5. OCCUPANCY. The planning, design, and
construction of a new court facility (or the significant
renovation of an existing one) can take several years;
to expect three to five years from initiation of the
project to actual occupancy is realistic. After so
much careful planning and design is completed,
usersoften find that the new facilitydoes not function
in accordance with their expectations. Sometimes
expectations are unrealistic; in other cases, new
facility operations are not thoroughly understood by
facility users. There is necessarily a period of learning
how to use the new facility. Operating policies and
practices developed for the prior facility may need to
be revised.
New detention facilities, for example, rarelyopen
without detailed activation plans, which describe
staffing assignments, operating policies, special security and technology features, and special training
Construction of the Virginia Beach, Virginia, Courthouse, 1991.
Courresy of Williams Tozwell Assorioles
17
THECOURTHOUSE: A Plaiining andDesign Guide
Dedication of the DuPage County Justice and Oflice Facility, Wheaton, Illinois
Typically, a jurisdiction makes general operating

assumptions, which lead to very specific design,
construction, and technology choices, which in turn
lead to very specific operating policies. During the
design process, both the users and the design team
concentrate on developing a physical facility. Operating policy i s a consideration only as it influences the
design of specific areas and the selection of specific
technology to support the area designs. After design
is completed, however, during the fairly lengthy
hiatus before construction is finished, users can consider operating policies in the context of the specific
choices they made during design. As construction i s
completed, and as users can actually walk the spaces
and visualizethe facility operations, occupancy planning should accelerate.
In many cases, individual components will develop some internal operating plans as a matter of
course during design and construction. Frequently,
however, as the users and the design team complete
the construction documents, their attention shifts to
normal daily operating concerns. Knowing that occupancy is 12 to 18 months away, facility users may
Coirrrcsy of
HOK.
delay the development of detailed operating plans

until occupancy is imminent. But at that point, the
physical logistics of the move also compete for time,
leaving users unprepared to deal with the daily functions and operating problems of the new facility.
Unless jurisdictions deliberately concentrate on
the postconstruction aspects of a new facility, just as
they did on the predesign aspects, they will frequently
fail to use the new facility to its full potential. An
occupancy plan should combine immediate operating assumptions with long-term assumptions regarding flexibility and expansion opportunities. The plan
should integrate physical facility maintenance with
specific security and staff considerations. As an
example, the manner in which defendants in custody
areto betransported tothefacility, housed inacentral
holding unit, staged to the individual courtfloor, and
then to the courtroom, should bedetailed. Questions
relating to custody staff, contact and noncontact
interaction with defense attorneys, and court recess
and meal policies should all be addressed. Some of
these questions can be answered during architectural
space programming and early design, but many of the
18
JUDICIALFACILITY
RENOVATION
AND CONSTRUCTION
will be addressed, to a degree, during the planning
and design processes. But many specific policies
regarding the use of the new facility will be decided
during planning and design. As with predesign
planning, good postdesign and construction planning
represent an investment in time and effort that can
significantly enhance effective and efficient operations
details requiring policy and training will depend on

the final combination of space design and technology.
Some trial-and-error is inevitable and appropriate, because not all consequences of a particular
strategy or of a finished facility can be foreseen. But
a thorough occupancy plan, completed toward the
end of the construction process, can provide a framework for testing and modifying specific operating
practices. Such a plan should address the following
elements:
C. ALTERNATE PROCESSES
The preceding discussion outlined basic steps
and issues in the traditional design-bid-build process.
Several other approaches may be used.
One variation, called fast track construction,
allows construction to begin before the design is
completed. The engineers and architects stay one
step ahead of the builder, condensing the time required to complete the project. This process usually
includes a professional construction manager (CM) to
coordinate the work of the designers and builders.
Accurate and complete preliminary planning, however, i s necessary to reduce the likelihood of expensive changes during the process.
A construction manager may also be employed
in any variation of traditional or fast track scheduling. The C M acts as a construction consultant during
the design phase, providing expertise on construction, scheduling, and costs. The CM may continue as
Physical operations of facility.

Heatinglcooling, lighting, plumbing, telephone systems with published activation/
deactivation sequences, maintenance
schedules, and service contract provisions
Routine maintenance of materials and
finishes, including appropriate schedules
and products
Special operations of facility.
Security policies and features:
Public entrances and exits
Restricted entrances and exits
General and specific parking provisions
Perimeter security
Special monitoring provisions
Internal access and circulation for public,
judges and court staff, juries, defendants
in custody, attorneys, victims, and witnesses
Duress alarms and quick-response policies
and teams
Courtfloors and courtrooms
Central holding
Firearms policy
Records storage and retrieval systems
Mail distribution
Cafeteridsnack bar operation
Loading dock, building storage
Special technology, such as computerassisted legal research or video recording
of testimony
Evidence storage
Visual aid and evidence exhibits
Traditional Approach
Single Bid Package
Planning
Design
Bid/
Award
Consfrucfion
Completion
Fast-Track Approach
Planning
Multiple
Bid
Packages
.!b-1
Construction
Completion
Project Schedule Comparison
There are many subjects that a jurisdiction may

address through an occupancy plan. Some subjects
Courresj of HOK.
19

a consultant to the owner during the construction
phase, or may become the contractor.
Oneobjective forusingnontraditional approaches
to construction is to establish a fixed cost earlier in the
project. This may be accomplished by moving up the
time when the CM becomes a contractor. The design/
build approach moves the contract to the front end of
the project, where the contractor takes responsibility
for all phases of the project for a fixed fee.
The complex process and the myriad contractual
relationshipsin theconstruction ofa courthouse have
seemingly infinitevariations. Each owner must determine which project organization is best forthe project
at hand. Knowledgeable staff and consultants, economic constraints, and scheduling requirements are
all important in determining the best process. Most
important, the owner needs to have clearly stated
goals and to understand how the chosen process will
help achieve those goals.
Courthouses are unique and complex buildings
and, as such, require greater than normal attention to
General
Contractor
Sub-Contractors
Project Management Approach

Courfcsy of HOK.
General
Contractor
Sub-Contractors
Traditional Management Approach

Coirrrrsy of
HOK.
20
planning and design. They have special characteristics, which differentiate them from other building
types, such as commercial office buildings or government administration buildings. Among thecharacteristics that should be analyzed during planning, design, and construction are functional considerations,
appropriate image and design, site selection, special
access needs of the physically impaired, security, and
the effect of technology. The appropriate analysis
and integration of these characteristics will greatly
enhance court operations and enable the court to
function both as a symbol and as a practical resource
for the community.
This chapter highlights some of the key issues in
courthouse design and provides practical guidance
for the design process. The discussions are specificallyaimed at court managersandjudgeswhoarenot
familiar with facility planning and county/city building officials and architects who are not familiar with
court facilities. This information will help court
officials work effectively with architects and other
facility consultants as well as with the local funding
authority.
JUDICIALFACILITY
RENOVATION
AND CONSTRUCTION
7
Owne
Consultant
SuW o n t ractors
Sub-Contractors
Construction Management Approaches

Courtesy of IiOK.
Construction
Manager
Sub-Contractors
Design/Build Approach
Courtesy of HOK.
21
CHAPTER
11
Judicial Facility Design Issues
Chapter
JUDICIAL FACILITY DESIGN ISSUES

A. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
rooms with larger evidence display areas, videodisplay terminals, and evidence storage space to
handle the technical nature of the testimony and
exhibits.
Changing demographics also affect the design of
our courts. As the population in many communities
becomes older, the courts may be subjected to an
increase in cases relating to theelderly. in civil cases,
the use of the courts to settle estates will increase;
intergenerational conflict over the control of family
assets may be more frequently resolved in the courts.
Requests for the appointment of guardians ad litem
may grow along with cases of age discrimination,
retirement disputes, and conflicts involving elderly
persons. Specific legal problems associated with the
young, such as automobile torts and violent criminal
activity, may decline. The aging of our general
population may be accompanied by complex legal
questions surrounding life-sustaining technologies
and right-to-die issues, the ethics of biotechnology,
and other medical advancements, such as organ
transplants.
Another trend is the growing use of alternative
dispute resolution (ADR)programsto reduce backlogs
and provide court services in the face of increasing
caseloads. ADR programs use mediation, arbitration,
and other processes to resolve disputes. Such programs have added a new dimension to court services
and have altered the design of new courthouses.
Space needs include offices for an administrative
staff, several conference rooms where mediation
sessions or arbitration hearings may take place, and
waiting areas for parties and their counsel.
Another area that is changing is the jurisdiction of
traffic courts. There is a movement in larger metropolitan areas to remove parking violations from the
Once a courthouse is constructed, its operation

reflects the c h o i c e s 4 e l iberateor inadvertent-made
during planning and design. Every design represents
a compromise among conflicting choices. ideally, a
courthouse should convey an appropriate sense of
decorum, accommodate both short- and long-term
space needs, and contribute to the effective administration of justice by providing physical facilities that
are appropriate for current practices and that can
flexibly accommodate changes in procedures. The
discussion which follows should help to sensitize
users to some of the important general considerations.
1. IMPACT OF SPECIAL CASETYPES A N D
CHANGING NATURE OF LITIGATION ON COURTHOUSE DESIGN. The changing nature of litigation
and the different mix of casetypes profoundly'affects
the requirements of court facilities. For example,
today there are an increasing number of multi-party
cases involving many attorneys. Because attorneys
are spending more time on discovery and depositions, the amount of paper involved in court cases has
mushroomed during the past decade. The use of
computers, word processors, photocopy machines,
facsimile machines, and other electronic devices has
made it easier to produce and reproduce documents.
Case files have become larger, requiring more storage
space and more staff time to file and retrieve documents. This explosion of paper has prompted many
states to adopt record retention and destruction programs.
increases in the number and complexity of malpractice and civil liability cases have resulted in the
greater use of expert witnesses. This requires court-
25

locations. (National Center for State Courts and the
Bureau of JusticeAssistance, TrialCourtPerformance
Standards, p. 8 ) .
traffic or municipal court's jurisdiction and place

them under an administrative agency responsible for
collecting fines. Only if someone wishes to contest
the ticket is the case transferred to the court for trial.
These and other trends need to be watched
closely when planning a new court facility, and every
effort should be made to develop an understandingof
what the future is likely to hold.
3. SITE SELECTION. The location of the courthouse says a lot about the value society places upon
the building and the work that is done there. It is
important, however, that people living near a potential courthouse site be allowed to participate in the
decision in order to head off possible public confrontations later. There are, however, many issues and
criteria that enter into the equation:
2. ACCESSIBILITY O F JUSTICE A N D ACCOMM O D A T I O N OFTHE PUBLIC. Trial courts should be

open and freely accessible to the public. Access is
important not just to those directly involved in court
cases, but also to many others, such as people involved in probate or juvenile and domestic relations
cases, persons investigating public records, relatives
of litigants, and members of the general public.
Recently, the Commission on Trial Court Performancestandards issued standardsdealingwith safety,
accessibility, and convenience; Standard 1.2 states
that "Court facilities are safe, accessible, and convenient to use." This standard urges courts to be
concerned about thecentrality of their location in the
community, the adequacy of their parking facilities,
the availability of public transportation, the court's
security, and the internal layout of the buildings,
including the signs used to guide visitors to important
Availability of public transportation and parking

Proximity of other governmental buildings
Prominence of the site in terms of image and
identity
Architectural com pat ibi Iity with surrounding
bu i Idings
Availability and cost of the site
Potential for expansion
Site amenities such as views, vistas, and landscaping potential
Physical constraints such as topography, soil
conditions, and uti Iities
Use restrictions by codes, easements, and ordi nances
Cmrtcsy of Ifansen Lind Mcycr.
Palm Beach County Courthouse
26
JUDICIALFACILITY
DESIGNISSUES
efficient use of judges and support staff may be made
in consolidated operations.
At the limited jurisdiction and traffic court level,
the balance between public convenience and overall
public policy frequently leads to some separation of
judicial functions. Off-site payment booths for the
payment of uncontested parking and traffic violations
is sometimes used as an alternative to or in conjunction with satellite facilities. At the general jurisdiction
level, where there are more serious and frequently
morespecialized cases, thecost may begreater. With
some limited jurisdiction court functions, such as
traffic or small claims civil cases, judges can operate
easily with minimal support staff in satellite facilities.
As the range of cases heard in a satellite facility
expands, so does the demand for clerical and other
staff support. A general jurisdiction criminal case, for
instance, may involve a jury panel of40 to 60 people,
prosecuting attorneys, public defenders or private
defense attorneys, probation officers, prisoner custody personnel, and others. These are in addition to
the clerical staff and the trial staff. The trial staff may
consist of some combination of courtroom clerks,
bailiffs, law clerks, and court reporters. Neither
transporting the participants on an occasional basis
nor permanently housing the functions at a satellite
facility may represent a particularly desirable solution.
Assembling jurors at or transporting jurors to
multiple locations presents severe logistical difficulties and is typically avoided by all but the largest
jurisdictions. And dividinggeneral jurisdiction judges
among separate locations can interfere with the efficient operation of both specialized trial divisions and
centralized calendaring systems. Further, specialized clerical and support staff time may not be efficiently used at satellite locations, unless caseloads
are unusually uniform and predictable.
Two facility considerations make consolidation
versus separation a difficult issue, particularly for fullservicefacilities. First, spaceforfunctionssuch as law
libraries, central prisoner-holding units, and jury assembly areas is inevitably duplicated at multiple
general jurisdiction facilities, and duplication offunctions has implications for both initial capital and
ongoing operating costs. Second, specialized
caseloads grow unpredictably, particularly within
specific geographical locations of a city or county.
Given some overall consistency in systemwidegrowth,
Two issues that have a great impact on the

location of judicial services are the. use of satellite
court locations for specialized judicial functions and
the location of criminal court functions close to
detention facilities; these two issues are discussed in
greater detail below.
'
4. CONSOLIDATION OR SEPARATION OF
COURT FACILITIES. Local governments frequently
face the problem of deciding whether to maintain
consolidated judicial facilities or to separate functions among several locations. Many large municipalities and counties maintain multiple locations as a
matter of necessity. Conversely, very small jurisdictions may never need to consider separating judicial
functions among multiple facilities. Most city and
county governments, however, fall somewhere between the two extremes and must confront this issue.
Arguments in favor of decentralization typically
focus on public convenience. Particularly at the
limited jurisdiction court level (criminal misdemeanors and minor civil cases, for instance)and the traffic
court level, many jurisdictions try to provide court
services within about 20 minutes' driving time as a
convenience for the public. Arguments in favor of
centralization typically focuson economyandoperational efficiency. It generally is more expensive to
build and maintain multiple facilities than to consolidate operations within a single facility, and more
- .
L
Centralized
Central Courthouse
with Satellile Facilities
Two or More Full-SeNlce

Courthouses
Several Full-Service
Courthouw with
Satellite Facilities
Consolidation vs. Separation

of Court Facilities
Courresy o/ HOK
27
COLLOCATED
courts
Same
St r ucture
SEPARATED
Building
Connection
Ve hicles
Adjacent
Sites
Separate
Sites
Consolidation vs. Separation of Judicial

and Detention Facilities
Cortrrcsy of IiOK
as through a connecting tunnel) lessens the threat of

escape during transport from jail to court. Such
escapes are rare, but the threat exists. More important, direct access reduces operational costs of transportation, particularly vehicular costs. Staff costs
frequently are off set regardless of consolidation or
separation, depending on the distances involved, as
a similar number of custody personnel may be employed to move groups of defendants either through
tunnels or in vehicles. Security personnel will typically move prisoners in fairly small and controllable
groups whether on foot or in vans. Excessive travel
time may help determine relative staffing costs, but
where long travel distances-1 0 to 15 miles-are not
involved, amortized operating costs of vehicles may
give the truest picture of relative economies of operation.
The rapid and convenient access to defendants in
custody by attorneys, public defenders, and other
court personnel is sometimes cited as an additional
advantage of collocation. The typical modern courthouse, however, often has internal holding capabilities to enable convenient court access to detainees
throughout the court day. Defendants in custody are
transported in groups from the detention facility
(whether it i s physically linked or not) to a central
holding and staging area inside the courthouse and
thendispersed tothe individual courtroomsasneeded.
The real access issue involves those special instances
when individual detainees must be brought from the
a single facility can flexibly respond to ebbs and flows

in civil and criminal cases, or to demographic shifts
within the jurisdiction. Multiple facilities may experience too much growth in one area and too little in
another. Not having the right amount of space in the
right place and at the right time is frustrating, especially for jurisdictions with multiple facilities.
Most jurisdictions fa1Ii ng within the two ext remes
of size have addressed the consolidation/separation
issue by Iimitingthefunctionsofsatellitefacilitiesand
maximizing centralized functions. Issues such as
effective and efficient judicial use; staff utilization
and supervision; juror pooling and summonsing;
uniformity of process and procedure; and differential
growth within the jurisdiction have led most communities to maximize the consolidation of general trial
court functions, and of as many limited court functions as possible, depending on overall size and
geographical makeup. In planning new and renovated facilities, great careshould be taken toconsider
the long-term advantages and disadvantages of consolidation and separation.
5. CONSOLIDATION OR SEPARATION OF
JUDICIALAND DETENTION FACILITIES. Another
controversial issue relates to the location of judicial

and detention facilities. Arguments in favor of collocating facilities relate to the secure and economical
transportation of defendants in custody. Direct access between correctional and judicial facilities (such
28
JUDICIAL
FACILITY
DESIGNISSUES
6. FLEXIBILITY O F DESIGN AND USE. Courthouse needs change over time. A good forecasting
process and a thorough analysis of potential operating policies can help jurisdictions design long-term
facilities. But some variable growth in caseload or
casetypes is certain to occur during a 15- or 20-year
period. Not all policy or procedural changes can be
anticipated, no matter how thorough and insightful
the analysis. Several measures can prolong the
operational life of the facility.
First, thecfloor-to-floor heights and bay sizes can
bestandardized throughout the building to permit the
future conversion of any noncourtroom space to
courtrooms.
jail on very short notice. Distance and frequency of

occurrence must be evaluated in assessing the relative importance of this issue.
Arguments against collocation of judicial and
detention facilities fall into two categories: philosophical and facility related. The philosophical viewpoint is that detention facilities compromise the image of justice and the general presumption of innocence.
Facility-related objections are twofold. First, the
space and location needs of court and detention
facilities are generally different. Efficiently operating
courthouses tend to be vertical. Functions are stacked
with multiple vertical circulation systems serving the
various floors. Efficient detention facilities, on the
other hand, tend to be much more horizontal than
vertical. The need for outdoor recreation and the
desirability of establishing a perimeter make a detention facility a good candidate for a nonurban setting.
Thesecond facility-related difficulty involves predictable growth and expansion. Generally speaking,
judicial facilities grow in response to increasing demands for judicial services, which are quantifiable in
terms of increasing caseloads. The growth in the
demand for detention facilities, however, i s less predictable, because there are typically so many potential detainees that all available bed spaces will be
filled regardless of how quickly new detention facilities are built. Consequently, while jurisdictions may
be able to use centralized judicial facilities for many
decades, detention facilities may exert expansion
pressuresevery few years, especially in high-crime or
fast-gowing areas. As jurisdictionsconsider collocation, they should weigh the difficulty of having two
facilities, with different physical requirements, growing at different rates and for different reasons, side-byside and physically connected. As with the consolidation of judicial facilities, particular circumstances
may militate toward particular solutions, but careful
consideration of both short- and long-term advantages and disadvantages should precede a final decision. One way communities have found to get
around this problem i s to install remote video equipment for conducting arraignments and other preliminary hearings without having to transport prisoners
from the jail to the courthouse. With video arraignment, fewer prisoners need to be transported to the
courthouse each day.
Conversion of Adjacent
Space to Courtrooms
Finishing of Shell Space
'lanned Addition
Provisions for Future

Horizontal Expansion
Courrcsy of HOK
Second, functions can be located to provide for

internal expansion. Historically, older court facilities
typically weredesigned tocontain avariety ofgeneral
government and court-related functions. As thecourthouses are used over the course of decades, internal
29

court functions expand first through the removal of
general governmental functions, and later through
the removal of some of the court-related functions,
such as probation or public defender services.
In considering the strategic location of general
governmental and court-related offices within a new
or renovated courthouse, it is advisable to recognize
the eventual need for phased removal of functions
from the new facility. Some hierarchical assessment
of functions should be developed to permit the strategic location of functions for the 15-20 year forecast
period with gradual displacement occurring at some
point thereafter. One such strategy is to locate lowto-medium volume office functions on middle floors
of a courthouse. As those offices outgrow their space,
they can be removed to adjacent or proximate buildings, allowing integral court functions to expand
upward from the high-volumepublicfloorsanddownward from the low-volume trial courtroom floors.
Stackingstrategiessuchas thiscan greatly prolongthe
functional life of a consolidated court facility. Related to the phased removal of noncourt offices is the
construction of extra space that i s temporarily shelled
in until it is needed. This is typically done with future
courtrooms, which may be used as storage areas or
even for other offices until an additional courtroom is
required.
Third, courtroom specialization can be minimized. While some specialization in courtroom
design among litigation types is often appropriate, the
degree to which differentiations are made in courtroom sizes and capabilities requires very careful
consideration. Over 15-20 years, a jurisdiction may
be fairly successful in predicting its total number of
judges, but much less so in correctly predicting the
growth of individual calendars, such as criminal,
civil, probate, family, and juvenile. Courtrooms that
are sized to accommodate a broad range of litigation
types provide extra insurance for long-term usefulness regardless of 'unexpected growth or jurisdictional changes. (See the discussion of specialized
courtrooms, at p. 41 .)
Finally, jurisdictions may wish to assess carefully
the ratio of (1) judges to courtrooms, (2)jury deliberation rooms to courtrooms, and (3) holding areas to
courtrooms. Some jurisdictions with highly centralized and carefully controlled calendaring and scheduling can operate with more judges than courtrooms,
but most jurisdictions will face potential operating
Low Volume
Courtrooms
<. - -
Court-Related
I
Agencies
.
-)
Potential
Expansion
. \
support
Provision for Future Vertical Expansion

Courrcsy of
HOK.
drawbacks in such a situation. Careful consideration

of actual operating practices should precede any
reduction in the usual one-to-one ratio.
Jurisdictions operating very large or very small
facilities may choose to assess the appropriate ratioof
courtrooms to jury deliberation rooms. Depending
on actual operating practices, and on the total number of courtrooms per floor, some reduction in the
typical one-to-one ratio may be possible in large
facilities. Alternatively, in verysmall facilities, having
more than one jury deliberation room per courtroom
may increase flexibility. (For further discussion see
the section on the ratio of jury deliberation rooms to
courtrooms, at p. 41 .)
Limiting holding capabilities (especiallycustody
elevators and courtfloor holding cells) to only those
portionsofthecourthouse intended for criminal court
usecan impose real constraintson flexibility. In view
of the difficulty of accurately predicting differentiated
growth of casetypes, jurisdictions may be wise to
maximize future operating flexibility with the use of
appropriately located custody elevators throughout
the facility. Such a design would permit holding
capabilities in proximity to all, or nearly all, courtrooms in a facility. Given flexible courtroom design
as well, the facility could respond to a broad range of
growth, jurisdiction, or policy changes.
7. ADJACENCIESAND INTERNAL LOCATION

OF FUNCTIONS. Courthouses attract fairly large
volumes of public and employee traffic. Particularly
30
JUDICIAL
FACILITY
DESIGNISSUES
in a dense urban setting, a large courthouse may
accommodate thousands of people during an average day. The location of functions within the facility
has a lot to do with how well it operates and how it is
perceived by courthouse occupants and members of
the community. Issues of public and special access,
basic functionalism, security, and image all influence
the location of functions within the facility. Although
the particular occupants, operating practices, and
special needs of jurisdictions vary, and should ultimately control functional locations, there are some
general rules.
First, high-volume functions should be located
on the lower floors of the facility. As was noted
earlier, large courthouses tend to have vertical circulation patterns. Elevators (and in high-volume facilities, escalators) move the public, court officials, employees, jurors, and defendants in custody throughout the facility. But during peak times (8:30-9:30
a.m., 12:OO-1:00 p.m., and 4:OO-5:00 p.m., for instance) the demand on the public conveyance systems can be overwhelming. Members of the general
public transacting noncourtroom business, litigants,
witnesses, family members, attorneys, jurors, and
court employees may all be competing for elevators
at the same time. Locating high-volume service
functions, such as clerk of court offices, on lower
floors reduces demands on the elevators-and frustration levels as well.
ludger Chambers.
C o u n Staff mcn
Erlow Cmdc Lcvcl
TvDical Courthouse Stacking

Courfesyof HOK
31
One of the most difficult transitions that a growing court makes is from the placement of all court
functions (judge, jury, clerk of court) on a single floor
to the physical separation ofcourt functions on different floors. Even in a very small facility (two floors, for
instance) it may be advisable to place higher-volume
functions on the first floor and courtroom-related
functions on the second floor. This minimizes stair or
elevator traffic, reduces noise near the courtrooms,
enhances security, and permits in-place expansion of
individual functions.
In addition to clerk of court offices, other highvolume functions that beneficially could be placed
on lower floors include public cafeterias or snack
bars, probation offices, and jury assembly, as well as
high-volume governmental functions, high-volume
courtrooms such as traffic courts, and law libraries.
Most of the functions on this list are self-explanatory,
but the last two may require clarification.
Traffic and arraignment courtrooms may handle
very heavy volumes of people, for relatively short
periods, at the beginning of the court day .and again
after lunch. The convenience of quick-and-easy access to thecourtrooms, without tying up theelevators,
makes these functions good candidates for a lower
floor.
Law libraries are not typically high-volume func- .
tions. They do, however, have the potential for afterhours access, as do traffic and arraignment
courtrooms, probation offices, and court-run education
programs, depending on the individual court. Locating a law library on the first floor of a courthouse
permits the easy development of after-hours entry
without compromising security for the remainder of
the building. The same is true for probation offices
that might haveclientsvisitingduringtheevenings, or
a court-sponsoredtraffic safety program that might be
required for traffic offenders. As with any location
issue, the particular needs and design constraints of
the jurisdiction should dictate the actual location.
High-volume activities generally operate best in
proximity to a lobby, or at least on the lower floors of
a facility. Trial courtrooms generally work best on the
upper floors, above the noise and traffic associated
with public entrances, lobbies, escalators, and highvolume, short-duration transactions. Placing courtrooms above functions involving transactional contacts promotes a quieter, more businesslike environment for litigation. It also ensures that only those
Courthouse Ad-jacency Matrix

Courrcsy of ffanscn Lind Mrycr.
individuals with specific court-related business reach

the courtfloors. This expedites elevator traffic and
minimizes extraneous security concerns. Segregating courtrooms on higher floors also permits security
screening by courtfloor without interfering with normal transactions.
Functions that should be close to courtrooms on
individual courtfloors are jury deliberation rooms,
courtroom holding facilities, public waiting areas,
attorney/client conference rooms, special sequestration rooms, judges chambers, and direct judicial
support functions, such as judicial assistants or secretaries, law clerks, and court reporters.
Some courthouses contain only dedicated court

functions, such as courtrooms, judicial suites, jury
facilities, clerk of court operations, and so on. Those
dedicated court functions are the ones that the jurisdiction considers essential. Other elements, such as
prosecutor and public defender offices, probation
services, and other court-related functions might be
located in adjacent or proximate buildings.
8. COURTHOUSE CIRCULATION AND ZONING. Modern courthouses are designed with distinct
types of circulation. Special circulation patterns are

a major characteristicdistinguishingcourthousesfrom
32
JUDICIALFACILITY
DESIGNISSUES
house users has both a security and a privacy component. Nontrial-related contact may taint either the
perception or the reality of neutral and objective
adjudication. Access to judges' chambers by attorneys, litigants, or others would typically be controlled. Private circulation is frequently expanded to
include judicial access from secure or private parking
facilities to private elevators, linking with private
corridors leading to courtrooms and chambers.
Securezone. Secure circulation provides for the
movement of defendants in custody. Access to the
building ideally is through a secure vehicular or
pedestriansally port. Defendants in custody might be
taken to a secure central holding and staging area and
then escorted to individual courtrooms as needed.
Circulation from the central holding area to the
individual courtrooms typically is by secureelevators
to small holding units directly adjacent to the courtrooms. The only quasi-public interface that might
occur would involve meetings with defense attorneys
in holding areas. This interfaceoften isaddressed best
in the individual holding facilities located adjacent to
the courtrooms.
Separatinghigh-volume court functions from trial
courtroom functions is the norm in modern American
courthouse design. The need for private and secure
circulation patterns in courthouses also supports ver-
more generic building types, such as office buildings.

To achieve the needed circulation patterns, a modern
courthouse is typically organized into areas that are
similar in function, operational needs, physical characteristics, or access requirements. There are five
distinct zones.
Public Zone. The public circulation provides
access from main building entrances to the various
functional areas of the building. This includes all
areas of the building used by the general public,
attorneys, clients, witnesses, and jurors (before sequestration), such as the main lobby, corridors, public elevators and escalators, public restrooms, law
library, waiting areas, snack bars, clerk of court
counters, and reception areas. Any member of the
community with business at the courthouse would
use the public circulation pattern.
Private Zone. Private circulation provides controlled access to particular courthouse users. Private
circulation i s not easily or routinely usecby the
general public. It is intended to permit the movement
of judges and other trial-related court personnel between chambers and courtrooms, and the movement
of sequestered jurors between courtrooms and jury
deliberation rooms, without uncontrolled interaction
with other courthouse users. The need to separate
judges and other court personnel from other court-
Public
Private
Interface
Public
Elevator
Elevator
Jury Deliberation Rooms,
Judges'Chambers,
Court Staff Offices

Court Level 2
Jury Deliberation Rooms,

Judges'Chambers,
Court Staff Offices
Court Level 1
Public
Grade Level
-,
!-
Entry
Below Grade Level
Courthouse Section
Courtesy of
33
HOK.

tical design. A secure prisoner elevator serving
holding units between two courtrooms is one of the
easiest methods of obtaining direct prisoner access to
courtrooms without crossing private judicial/juror
corridors.
building areas will be miscalculated and that courthouse project budgets will be underestimated.
Some definition of terms is necessary to provide
perspective to the discussion of space efficiency.
Various planners and architects define terms such as
net square feet (NSF) and gross square feet (GSF) in
different ways, making building comparisons difficult.
For the purposes of these guidelines, net square
feet (NSF) is the amount of space required for a
particular function, exclusive of interior walls or
circulation space around the functional area. For
instance, an individual clerical work station might be
a partitioned cubicle requiring only 64 NSF; a private
office might have interior wall dimensions of 10' x
12', or 120 NSF; and a courtroom might have a clear
interior space of 1,200 NSF (30' x 40'). The net square
feet in each case is the assignable, or functional,
space. During the programming phase, specific
space standards are developed for each assignable
space in the courthouse based on functional requirements.
To make functional spaces work in conjunction
with each other, such as a cluster of offices and work
stations, a circulation factor is added to the assignable
space. The circulation factor adds space for interior
walls and partitions, internal corridors, and circulation among functional components. This additional
circulation space can be referred to as the departmental gross square feet (DCSF). A practical example of
the relationship of NSF to DGSF is in order: a hypothetical court department consists of ten assignable
spaces, such as a reception area, clerical work stations, and private offices. Both the nature of the
spaces and the nature of the design bear on the
additional area required, but typically about 1.3 to
1.4 times the net square feet would be appropriate.
To operate ten functional spaces of 100 NSF each, a
total of 1,300or 1,400 square feet would be required.
The departmental gross square feet needed for
administrativepurposes in a courthouse is reasonably
consistent with similar requirements in commercial
officeorgovernment administrationbuildings. Highly
specialized areas within a courthouse, such as courtrooms and holding facilities, however, typically require considerably more internal circulation.
The major factor influencing space efficiency in
courthouses, however, is the building gross square
feet (BCSF) requirement. To link various functional
Court Floor Zoning

Courtesy of HOK.
Interface Zone. This includes spaces where the

public, private, and secure zones interact, such as the
courtroom. The three previous zones converge in the
courtrooms during a variety of court proceedingsand
activities.
Servicezone. Included are all those spaces that
serve as support areas for the courthouse, such as the
loading docks, storage areas, mechanical spaces, and
building maintenance areas.
A good zoning plan' is based on a thorough
understanding of the court's particular operational
needsand will ensurean effectiveandefficient design
for maintaining public, private, and secure circulation.
9. GROSSING A N D EFFICIENCY FACTORS.
Several references have been made to the functional
and physical uniqueness of courthouses. One way in
which a courthouse is different from most other
building types is amount of space required. Functional courthouses are relatively inefficient buildings,
and ifthis is notclearlyunderstoodduringthepredesign
and early design processes, it i s likely that total
34
JUDICIALFACILITYDESIGNISSUES
The following comparison illustrates the relative
net to gross efficiency of the two building types. With
respect to courthouses, an efficiency ratio of approximately 58 to 62 percent of NSF to total building area
(BGSF) i s typical; this is expressed as a ratio of NSF to
BGSF. Thus, a courthouse requiring 100,000 NSF of
assignable space would probably have a total facility
size of approximately 160,000 to 170,000 square
feet. By comparison, a good high-rise commercial
office building might have a net to gross efficiency of
about 66 to 70 percent. Lacking the special volume,
circulation, and security needs of a courthouse, such
an office building might require only 140,000 to
150,000 gross square feet of space to accommodate
100,000 NSF of assignable space.
The importance of the discussion lies in the usual
tendency to underestimate the total area required for
a new courthouse. Net assignable areas can be
programmed according to appropriate space standards and with some functional precision. But if
strategic planning, programming, and conceptual
design do not consider the unique space efficiencies
of courthousesandthe highergrossingfactors needed,
then total area and total budget requirements are
likely to be underestimated.
An understanding of relative space efficiency
factors i s also helpful in assessing the viability of
retrofitting other buildings into court facilities. It is
generally recognized that office buildings, for instance, are very difficult to convert into courthouses
because of the courtrooms special needs: most office
buildings do not have the floor-to-floor elevations
required to obtain the higher ceilings and elevated
judges benches needed in courtrooms, nor do they
typically have the column spacing required to develop column-free courtrooms of appropriate length
and width. What i s sometimes not as well understood
is the inherent limitation imposed by a typical office
buildings lobbies, vertical circulation systems, and
public corridor systems. Buildings designed for generic office functions cannot readily be converted to
address the special circulation and security needs of
courthouses.
Typical Courthouse Efficiency Factors

Courtesy of HOK.
departments within a courthouse, and to transport

people among floors in compliance with building
codes, additional space has to be added to the DGSF.
Basic core functions, beyond net assignable square
feet, and beyond departmental gross square feet, are
required in any building. Fora courthouse, this might
include major public corridors linking departments;
private corridors linking courtrooms, judges chambers, jury deliberation rooms, and other dedicated
courtroom-support spaces; secure corridors linking
courtrooms with prisoner detention facilities; public
elevators and elevator lobbies; private and secure
elevators; stairs; mechanical, electrical, and plumbing chases; public toilet facilities; and the exterior
walls of the building. Main lobbies, bulk storage
areas, and major mechanical systems might be treated
as net assignable spaces.
Because courthouses have unique security and
circulation requirements, more total space is needed
to make individual functional areas work than in an
office building. Most modern courthouses require
additional private corridors and private and secure
elevator cores. And if judicial facilities are to handle
potentially high volumes of people with efficiency
and a sense of decorum, main lobbies, elevator cores
and elevator lobbies, and public corridors must be
larger than in a typical office building. An appropriate
BCSF multiplier for courthouses is typically 1.18 to
1.25 of the DGSF.
10. RENOVATION. Many court facility projects

involve some amount of renovation or upgrading of
existing facilities. The decision of whether to renovate the current courthouse or to build a new facility
is often the first critical point in the facility-planning
35

)
process. This decision depends upon: (1) the historical or architectural significance of the building; (2)
the functionality of the current courthouse; (3) the
ability to upgrade the existing structure to comply
with modern code requirements; (4) the potential for
future expansion; (5) needs of persons with disabilities; (6) cost; (7) security; ( 8 ) operational efficiency;
and (9) the potential for other uses for the facility.
Renovation projects can take on different forms,
depending upon the degree to which the historical or
architectural significance of the building is considered when changes are made. Restoration is the most
restrictive in its treatment of the building. When
restoring a facility, the purpose is to return each
portion of the building to the same date or era, often
to the original condition. This may involve removing
construction that is not of the restoration period.
Rehabilitation attempts to bring the building up to
modern functional standards through minor alter-
ations without changing the original fabric of the

building. Conservation i s the restoration of the
exterior of the building to a stable condition and
adding contemporary environmental systems while
being sensitive to their integration with the original
concept of the building. Remodeling makes functional changes to the building while ignoring important historical or architectural features, removing or
replacing these features without eva h a t ing their significance or contribution to the building. Preservation stabilizes the building as found and prevents
further deterioration. Reconstruction creates rep1icas of buildings or parts of buildings that may have
been lost with time. Reconstructionmay be based on
historical records, written descriptions, drawings, or
photographs; or it may be conjectural, based on a
style of the period.
The historical value of the facility is critical in
determining whether to restore, renovate, or replace
Cortrrcsy oj Colonial Wil/ium.thtrr~

Foundarton.
Restored Courtroom, Colonial Williamsburg, Virginia.
36
JUDICIAL FACILITY
DESIGNISSUES
Over the years a number of commercial interests,
such as restaurants, have developed and grown to
depend upon the courthouse. Frequently, however,
as county government functions expand, more and
more services move from the town center to the fringe
of the community. Removing the courthouse from
the town center to a suburban location would further
weaken the central focus of the community and
support for local business.
An excellent reference to follow when trying to
decide which approach to take is A Courthouse
Conservation Handbook published by the Preservation Press, National Trust for Historic Preservation, in
cooperation with the National Clearinghouse for
Criminal JusticePlanning and Architecture, 1976.
the existing structure. Because the building is often

the site of important historical events in the community, a prominent architectural element in a community, ora building on the National Register of Historic
Places, there i s often a need to consider some amount
of historical preservation in any project. The process
starts with the use of qualified historical consultants
and archaeologistsand may include technical analysis of the finishes and fabric of the building.
An active courthouse is a living building that
cannot be frozen in time. Many projects result in a
combination of historic treatments and new construction. Thiscombination ofapproachesshould bedone
honestly so that the true historical fabric can be
distinguished from new construction while using
designs and materialsthat arecompatible and sympathetic.
When working with existing structures, there are
often unknown conditions that cannot be evaluated
until the work is under way. There should be a plan
to deal with these contingencies when they occur.
For example, it is often not known what will be found
underneath dropped ceilings, plaster board or wood
paneling, and other modern improvements.
In most projects, the existing fabric of the building will be changed. When working with historic
buildings it is important that all changes be documented. Documentation preserves the historical
record of the building and its changes over the years.
Architectural decisions made in the current project
may not be appropriate later. Doccumentation allows the process to be reversed.
Another facet of the renovation project is the
complicated set of organizations and interests that
want to be involved in the project. In addition to the
normal governmental, professional, and civic organizations, local and state historic preservation groups,
and even local garden clubs, will want to be involved.
Severe restrictions may be placed on changes to the
building and its uses that will compromise theoperation of the court or even make the facility
nonfunctional.
Most court facilities built before the 1940s were
never designed to house the modern court with its
special circulation patterns and security needs. Often
it becomes a matter of which compromises to accept
and which values to emphasize.
Older courthouses are usually built upon a central site in the community, such as a town square.
B. SPECIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

1. DESIGN AND IMAGE. Societies have historically used architecture to express values and concepts about their place in the world. Historically, the
American courthouse has achieved identity through
its size, siting, and specific architectural elements,
such as columns, domes, clock towers, and grand
entrances. Thisspecial identity has remained remarkably consistent in the United States since colonial
times, regardless of architectural idiom.
The early American courthouse was a dominant
institution within the community. Architecturally,
the Palladian influence can be seen in many courthouses: symmetry, order, and central location within
the town square were all important. Classical Greek
pedimentswere common, and the use ofthe rotundas
and domes attempted to create a central place. The
courthouse became not only a powerful place within
the community but also a visual reference to people
approaching the town, often dominating the towns
skyline. The building became more than the hall of
justice; it was the anchor of the commercial activities
that brought people together. The most important
days were the days in which the court was in session.
The design of a courthouse is the underlying
scheme that governs its function. The image is how
that scheme is perceivedand the behavior it provokes
in the people that use the courthouse. The ways that
the design and image of the courthouse relate to both
the objective and the subjective evaluation of a
facility development project must be understood for
the project to be successful.
37
Williamsburg Courthouse, Williamsburg, Virginia.
Courresy of Colonial WillianrshrrrfiForrndorion.
Goals for the design and image of the courthouse

should be developed by the architect, users, and
owner. They should be stated at the beginning of the
project and evaluated throughout the development of
the project and should address both the objective and
subjective qualities of the facility.
Excellence from a judges point of view will be
different from that of an administrator, lawyer, defendant, or spectator, yet within this broad range of
perceived excellence there are common factors that
can be evaluated. For a project to be successful, the
needs and views of all participants must be considered and somehow accommodated.
The following i s a checklist for creating and
evaluating design goals:
0
clearly respond to and promote the intended

uses?
Is the circulation clearly defined reflecting a
sense of entry, the hierarchy of spaces, zoning
of uses, and security?
Are there a sense of place and a reflection of the
importance of the judicial process?
Does the image reflect the values of thecommunity and judicial system?
Is the quality of space expressed consistently
through form and mass and at all levels of
detai I ?
Have problems been solved in a creative yet
rational manner?
Are building technology and systems integrated
with the overall design?
Are space and materials used efficiently so that
the project is cost-effective?
Does the design have the flexibility to change
with the changing needs of the courts?
Does the design fit the site and the setting? Is

the context appropriately addressed?
Are the programmatic requirements addressed?
Does the organization of spaces and functions
38
JUDICIAL
FACILITY
DESIGNlSSUES
Individual Calendar
Cases
Filed
Master Calendar
Cases
Filed
Court Calendaring Systems

Cortrresy of
HOK.
dar, cases are assigned to a judge at the time of filing,

usually in rotation or by some random method. The
judges then manage their own caseload and are
responsible for the case until its disposition; all casescheduling activities are generally handled by the
judges staff. Under a master calendar, as cases are
filed they are placed into a common pool to await
further action, and judges rotate among duties. As
motionsarefiled in acase, the judgecurrentlyserving
as the motions judge receives the case; at the conclusion of the motion hearing, the case is reassigned to
the pool toawait the next action. O n the trial date, the
case is assigned to the next available judge.
Master calendar courts generally require one or
more large courtrooms for holding calendar calls
where all the cases scheduled for the court term are
scheduled to appear. If judges are permanently
assigned a courtroom and the assignment of calling
the calendar rotates among the judges, then each
judges courtroom will have to be large enough to
accommodate the calendar call. Courts that operate
on the individual calendar generally do not need
In the evaluation of design and image, it is

important to be aware of the values imposed by style
and fashion. Fashion reflects a passing fancy, and
style provides a reference. But design excellence
transcends both through the evaluation of the basic
criteria of proportion, balance and rhythm of form,
and the color and texture of materials, as well as the
images and meaning they evoke.
2. COURT ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION. A number of issues relating to the operation and organization of courts directly affect their
design requirements, the number of courtrooms, the
types of specialized courtrooms, and the location of
the judges chambers.
a. Judicial Assignments and Calendaring Systems.

The way in which a court distributes work load
affects thecourts needs. There are two ways in which
courts assign cases to judges: individual calendars
and master calendars. Between these two poles exist
a number of hybrid systems. In the individual calen-
39

courtrooms as large, but more activity may take place
in the judges chambers. Most courts, however, do
not operate under one system exclusively. Often
courts will change from one system to another over
the course of years. Many courts will process some
cases, such as criminal matters, under one system but
use another for other casetypes. It is necessary for
courts to be flexible enough to handle either system.
Another organizational factor is the use of court
divisions. In smaller courts, it i s common for each
judge to hear all types of cases. As courts become
larger, they often assign each casetype to a particular
division where judges hear only those cases. Typical
divisions include civil, criminal, juvenile, domestic
relations, small claims, and traffic. In very large
courts there may be even further differentiation, such
as between delinquency and dependency matters.
These divisions may in some cases be housed in
separate buildings, and frequently judges rotateamong
divisions over a period of time; in other cases, judges
may be assigned permanently to a single division.
In courts that are large enough to house a single
division in one building, considerable specialization
in that facility is possible. Typically, traffic courts or
misdemeanor courts are housed in their own facilities, allowing the development of specialized traffic
courts and greater standardization of the internal
design. In courts where judges sit in divisions and
rotateduties, courtrooms must bedesigned to accommodate all types of cases, including civil, criminal,
jury, and nonjury. If judges are not assigned their own
courtrooms, then more specialized courtrooms may
be designed to fit the type of case to be heard.
While there is considerable complexity in the
ways in which courts may organize and assign cases,
it is necessary that the planning and design teams be
aware of the courts operation and of the possibility
for change.
Decentralized Chambers
Clustered Judicial Suite
Courtroom to Chamber Relationships

Courrcsyof
HOK
it is feasible to have fewer courtrooms than judges.
Judges are absent from their courtrooms for many

different reasons, such as administrative work in their
chambers, meetings, judicial education programs,
illness, and personal leave.
Some courts have adopted a ratio of one courtroom per judge until the court reaches eight or ten
judges; above that number, the court needs only three
courtroomsfor every four judges. Thiscan occur only
where the practice is to share courtrooms or where
judges chambers are clustered so that sharing courtrooms is practical. One drawback with this approach
is that thecourt has little room for expansion. Another
drawback to having fewer courtrooms than judges is
that most courts use retired and visiting judges to help
address their caseload. Unless there are sufficient
courtrooms for these judges to use, the court will not
be able to take full advantage of their presence.
One approach is to have alternative types of
hearing spaces, such as conference rooms or hearing
rooms, available. Not every hearing or proceeding
has to take place in a courtroom; many can be held in
chambersor in a smaller hearing or conference room.
Another consideration is the growth potential of the
courts caseload. Where there has been little change
in caseload over the past ten years, courts do not need
b. Ratio of Courtrooms to Judges.

One courtroom per judge is generally desirable.
This has been the traditional pattern in most courthouses throughout the United States. In less populated areas, some rural communities have found it
acceptable for judges to sit only one or two days per
week, or even per month, and so one courtroom may
be shared by several divisions, or judges, of the same
court. In large (over 20 judges) courts, where not
every judge will be available every day to sit in court,
40
JUDICIAL FACILITY
DESIGN
ISSUES
type of calendaring system used by the court, the type
of case (e.g. civil, criminal, traffic), the judges practice of conducting hearings in chambers or conference rooms, and the past percentage of cases that go
to jury trial. It is also important to consider the
number of floors in the courthouse and the number of
courtrooms per floor. It is generally important to
locate jury deliberation rooms on the same floor as
the courtroom.
If each floor has fewer than five or six courtrooms
it may not be feasible to have fewer than one jury
room per courtroom. Some rules of thumb may be
used as a general guide for preliminary planning.
Large, multi-judge courts (;.e., more than ten judges)
do not need one jury deliberation room for every
courtroom. Some experts use a rule of one jury
deliberation room per courtroom until the court expands to over four or five courtrooms. After that a
ratio of 75 percent may be applied. Criminal courts
may require a higher ratio of deliberation rooms per
courtroom than civil, municipal, and traffic courts.
Some courts have used a ratio of six or seven deliberation rooms per ten jury courtrooms, as long as deliberation rooms are accessible to all courtrooms so that
they may be shared.
to build with expansion in mind, but where the

caseload has grown rapidly, the court should be wary
of building less than one courtroom per judge.
c. Specialized Courtrooms.
It is not necessary that all courtrooms in a large
multi-judge court be the same size and design. The
size and interior configuration of each courtroom
may be based on the specific requirements of the
types of hearings and trials to be held in that courtroom, i.e. criminal, juvenile, or small claims. While
there has been a general trend during the past two
decades toward smaller and more-specialized hearing rooms and courtrooms, the disadvantage is that
these courtrooms cannot adapt to growth or changes
in the courts caseload. In jurisdictions where judges
rotate among divisions, specialized courtrooms encourage the sharing of courtrooms and the clustering
of judicial suites.
In spite of this trend toward greater specialization, large jury courtrooms remain much more flexible by being adaptable to a wider range of functions
and needs. In a multi-courtroom facility, however, at
least onk courtroom that i s larger than the others
usually is required for calendar calls, arraignments,
ceremonies, or large trials.
Another trend has been the useof smaller hearing
rooms, suitable for arbitration and mediation, and as
the use of these methods of dispute resolution increases, many more court facilities will need to
include such spaces.
f. Ratio of Jury to Nonjury Courtrooms.

The ratio of jury to nonjury courtrooms depends
upon several factors, but the primary factor is the local
percentage of cases in which a jury trial is requested.
Courts should plan to have a jury courtroom always
available to hear a jury trial; no case should ever be
continued for lack of a jury courtroom. The most
flexible situation is for each courtroom to have a jury
box or space for a jury box. A jury courtroom can be
used for any type of hearing or trial, while a small
nonjury courtroom is limited in how it may be used.
As a general rule, unless jury trials are extremely
rare, the court should plan to make all, or nearly all,
courtrooms jury-accessible. This is particularly true
where the court adheres to a strict policy of assigning
judges permanentlytoasinglecourtroom, and judges
do not share courtrooms. In this situation, even if
there are few jury trials, each courtroom should
probably have a jury box.
d. Adjacency of Courtrooms to Chambers and Use of

Clustered Judicial Suites.
As a general rule, courtrooms should be as close
to the judges chambers as possible, although this
does not require that they be immediately adjacent to
the courtrooms. It is often more convenient and
flexible for future organizational changes to have
judges chambers organized into judicial suites apart
from the courtrooms, perhaps even on a separate
floor. The clustering of judicial chambers permits the
pooling of resources and staff and may enhance
security.
e. Ratio of Jury Deliberation Rooms to Courtrooms.

The precise ratio of jury deliberation rooms to
courtrooms should be determined on a court-bycourt basis. Among the factors to consider are the
3. COURTHOUSE SECURITY. Courthouse security is a catch-all term encompassing a number of

different functions. The general facility element
41

relates to the threat of theft or vandalism. The
c irc u Iat io n/seg regat io n e Iement m in im izes u n intended contact outside the courtroom among judges,
jurors, trial participants, defendants in custody, and
others. Finally, there is the personal safety element,
which is actually two distinct security issues-minimizing the threat or potential for incidents of violence, and appropriately responding to specific threats
or actual incidents of violence.
The first two security elements, circulation/segregation (addressed in the preceding section) and general facility security, are fairly routinely addressed in
a modern courthouse. General facility security is
achieved by locking, and sometimes by patrolling,
the building after regular operating hours; by maintaining theft/vandalism awareness and procedures
during regular operating hours; and by maintaining
private office areas where employees may keep personal valuables. Separating courthouse participants
from unintended or inadvertent contact is a basic
prerequisite in modern courthouse design and has as
much to do with the integrity and decorum of the
judicial process as it does with personal safety.
The personal safety issue receives the most concentrated attention in the modern court facility. The
periodic occurrence and continued threat of courthouse violence has focused attention on the need to
provide adequate protection for judges, litigants,
court employees, and other users of the courthouse.
Some measure of effective courthouse security is
achieved through a combination of structural elements, traffic pattern control, security devices, specific security policies, and security staff assignments.
The volume of public traffic, the nature and volume
of case activity, and the individual jurisdiction's
attitude regardingappropriate levels of security are all
factors in determining the desired degree of security
and the means and available funding to achieve it.
It is important to recognize that incidents of
premeditated or spontaneous violence can never be
entirely prevented. Even the most stringent security
measures cannot predict or entirely prevent threats to
personal safety, although vigilant entrance security
can minimize the introduction of weapons into a
courthouse.
From the philosophical perspective, most jurisdictions understand that effective security cannot be
entirely unobtrusive. Minimizing threats of violence,
particularly of armed violence, requires controlled
courthouse access. Walk-through magnetometers

(metal detectors) and x-ray devices at courthouse
entrances are generally accepted means of prohibiting the introduction of weapons into the courthouse.
But the very nature of the deterrent and access control
renders it highly obtrusive. The image of a justice
system's need to protect itself against its own citizens
is troubling. The argument is sometimes offered that
stringently controlled access should be limited to
facilities dealing with particular casetypes-such as
serious criminal cases or family/domestic. Unfortunately, however, from a practical standpoint, incidents of random or spontaneousviolence seem to be
about as common in civil cases as in criminal cases,
and probably most prevalent of all in domestic cases,
where emotions run especially high. The essential
conflict between the image of justice and free access
on the one hand and preventive security and controlled accesson theother is an issue that jurisdictions
need to confront squarely.
Paralleling this philosophical issue is the practical issue of cost. Effective security, particularly
preventive security, carries a price tag. The equipment costs necessary to maintain an airport-type
queuing system may be a one-time capital expense,
but operating costs may represent a significant additional investment. Meaningful control of a magnetometer/x-ray system checkpoint requires a minimum
of two trained staff positions during regular operating
hours. If a significant number of people pass through
the checkpoint, three trained staff may be required to
ensure effective control. In very large facilities serving high volumes of public traffic, more than one
checkpoint may be required, even with a single
entrance, to expedite entry during peak times. If so,
duplicate magnetometer and x-ray equipment and
additional trained staff are needed.
Philosophical choices and practical funding realities should be analyzed in determining the degree
to which preventive and responsive security will be
provided. As both attitudes and funding policies may
change over time, the minimum that a jurisdiction
should do in constructing a new facility or renovating
an existingone isto provide thearchitectural capability for a high degree of preventive and responsive
security. That architectural capability will enable
broad flexibility in implementing both current and
future philosophical and funding decisions. The
number of public entrances should be strategically
42
JUDICIAL FACILITY
DESIGNISSUES
cashier windows with duress alarms should be considered wherever significant money transactionstake
place, and accountingldeposit practices should rninimize the opportunity for theft.
Finally, a jurisdiction should provide measures to
deal with violent incidents or other security emergencies. If courthouse staff are available for security
functions, special response teams, specific policies,
and reaction training should be linked to the use of
duress alarms and closed-circuit television. Similarly, response by noncourthouse security personnel
(such as sheriff or police department staff) should be
planned to minimize the threat to personal safety in
the event that an incident does occur. Regular
training, along with emergency preparedness rehearsals and scheduled equipment testing and maintenance, will help a jurisdiction to respond effectively.
The combination of architecture, well-planned
technology, strategic policies and procedures, and
carefully trained staff can provide a flexible level of
security sufficient to meet both present needs and
future contingencies.
limited, and lobbies should be sized and configured

topermitappropriatequeuingthrough securitycheckpoints. Separate circulation with controlled access
should be provided as discussed in the previous
section on circulation to preclude undesired contact,
which might lead to spontaneous violent incidents.
Technology, policies, staff assignments, and training
should reflect deliberate strategic choices.
As symbols of the judicial process and practical
arbiters of trial issues, judges can be particularly
vulnerable to incidents of violence. Some jurisdictions provide private and secure parking for judges in
unmarked spaces. Secure circulation through separate elevators is frequently provided from private
parking areas, along with private entrances to the
limited-access circulation corridors of the individual
courtfloors. General courtfloor security may be provided through a bailiff station in the public area, with
access to the private corridor restricted through a
controlled cardhey system. Closed-circuit television
and intercom systems may regulate access to private
circulation corridors housing judges chambers, judicial staff, and jury deliberation rooms. Security
within the private corridor is achieved by locking jury
room doors when juries are deliberating and by
providing reception area entrances to judges chambers and duress alarms within the chambers.
Courtroom security may be achieved through the
use of portable magnetometer and x-ray equipment
for special circumstances and through a combination
of design and technology for routine daily application. As discussed in the later detailed section on
courtroom design, good sightlines are vital to effective control; bullet-resistantmaterials should be provided for the judges bench; and duress alarms (ideally linked to a closed-circuit television system) may
be provided for rapid emergency response. Where
feasible, full-time bailiffs should be assigned to individual courtrooms for both deterrent and control
capability.
Additional special security considerations include holding areas and theft-prevention in the fine/
fee payment areas. Prisoner security should be enhanced through either secureconnectors to detention
facilities or secure sally ports. Jurisdictionsmay wish
to provide defense attorneys an opportunity to confer
with their detained clients within central or courtfloor
holding units. Fine and fee payment should be
performed only in a protected setting. Bank-type
4. NEEDS OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES.

Having ones day in court can be a struggle for
persons with disabilities. It can mean confronting a
flight of stairs, heavy doors, or a witness stand that is
too small. Essential to free and open access to justice
are courthouses and courtrooms that are free of such
barriers. Litigants who are mobility impaired, physically weak, or with sight, hearing, manipulation, or
other disabilities must be able to navigate freely from
the outside through the courthouse entrance and to
each public space within the building. In addition to
litigants, accessibility must be ensured for jurors,
victims, attorneys, judges, witnesses, beneficiaries in
probate proceedings, volunteers, social service workers, and all court personnel who have physical limitations.
The law on accessibility in public buildings was
significantly strengthened by the enactment of the
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. Section 202
of the act concerns public services and broadly
prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities by state and local government. The act will
fill in gaps left uncovered by thecriss-cross schema of
previous federal, state, and local laws, regulations,
and guidelines, extending a requirement for program accessibility to all existing state courts.
43

Private Corridor
The Architectural BarriersAct of 1968 mandated

the removal of barriers in buildings and facilities
constructed or altered by the federal government or
with federal funds after 1969 (or after 1977 in the case
of leased facilities). To irnplement the act, the General ServicesAdministration, Department of Defense,
Department of Housing and Urban Development,
and the U.S. Postal Service issued the Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards in 1984.
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973
prohibits recipients of federal financial assistance
from discriminating on the basis of handicap. This
legislation also required program accessibility in
existing buildings. A program or activity when
viewed in its entirety must be readily accessible to
handicapped persons . . . through such means as
redesign of equipment or reassignment of classes or
other services. It mandated accessibility to governmental services, but did not require the physical
removal of barriers. Recipients of federal aid were
permitted to reschedule their services to make them
accessible to the handicapped. Amendments in 1978
extended the mandate to programs conducted by
federal agencies, as well as to recipients of federal
funds.
Some architectural barrier laws exist in all states
and the District of Columbia, but their scope and
enforcement and the availability of waivers varies
greatly. State laws include or reference a variety of
standards, including the federal standards, but the
standards most frequently used are thoseofthe American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
Courts, however, present a special problem of
access for the impaired individual. Courthouses have
been designed and built with an imageof strengthand
dignity. Reverence for the law is often reflected in
large columns, heavy doors, grand staircases, and
other features that impede accessibility.
Barriers restricting free passage may be different
for people with different disabilities: Persons with
sensory disabilities are blind, deaf, or have partial
impairment of sight or hearing. Persons with manipulatory disabilities have difficulty using one or
both hands or arms. Those with locomotor disabilities may be either ambulatory (perhaps using a cane,
brace, or walker) or in wheelchairs. The following are
some of the areas in which improvements can enhance accessibility to courthouses for persons with
manipulatory or locomotor disabilities:
4-
Secure
Holding
P
6
p
b
1. Exterior steps. Steps should have hand rails,

and their slope should permit grading for a ramp.
2. Accessible entrance. Impaired individuals
should not have to use the courthouses service
entrance.
3. Doors. Heavy, narrow doors are often a
problem for the handicapped; revolving doors and
turnstiles are particularly difficult. At least one entrance should have a wide door that is easily opened,
and door handles should be easy to grip.
4.Securitygate. Thesecurity station in the lobby
entrance should be wide enough to accommodate a
wheelchair, or alternative provisions should be made
for persons with disabilities at the main entrance.
5. Interior stairs. Some older courthouses may
need to add elevators, making offices accessible to
wheelchair-bound personsor persons with a mobility
impairment.
6. Elevators. Existing elevators may be too
small or lack proper controls and safety devices that
are within reach of the wheelchair-bound person.
Elevator controls should be labelled with Braille
letters and an audio signal should announce different
f Ioors.
44
JUDICIALFACILITY
DESIGNISSUES
Needs o f the Elderly and Persons with Disabilities, a
Blueprint for the Future. (Washington, D.C.: The
American Bar Association 19911.
7. Floor finishes. Nonslippery materials should

be used. Floors should be level, and carpeting flush
with adjoining surfaces.
8. Restrooms. Restrooms that are accessible to
persons with disabilities should be placed on all
floors. Restrooms should not have interior steps and
should be sized for wheelchair use. All restroom
facilities should have grab bars available.
9. Counters. At least one area of the public
counter in the clerks'offices should be at a height that
is accessible to a wheelchair-bound person.
10. Corridors. Interior corridors should be
brightly lit and freeoffilingcabinets, boxes, and other
clutter. Grab bars should be placed at strategic
locations.
11. Waiting rooms. Seating in waiting rooms
should be comfortable for older persons or the physically frail, who may have to wait for several hours.
12. Law library. The law library should be
placed on a floor that is accessible to persons with
disabilities. The space between the stacks should be
brightly lit and wide enough for a wheelchair, and
carrels or tables should accommodate wheelchairs.
Heavy law books should be placed on low shelves or
tables, and reference counters should be low enough
for a wheelchair-bound person to use.
13. Judge's bench. The court should determine
how judges' benches should be made accessible to
persons with a disability; this may require a ramp or
lift.
14. Jury box. Chairs should be supportive and
comfortable for older or physically frail jurors. The
entrance to the jury box should permit a wheelchair
to enter, and the jury box should allow room for a
wheelchairto be placed withinthebox. lfthe jury box
is raised above the floor level, a ramp or lift should be
installed.
15. Courtroom spaces. The witness stand,
counsel tables, court reporter's work station, and
clerk's stations should be large enough to accommodate wheelchairs.
16. Public seating in the courtroom. Space for
at least one wheelchair should be available in the
public seating area.
For a more detailed discussion of the Americans
with Disabilities Act of 1990 and barrier-free access
to our courts, please refer to Erica Wood, "Toward a
Barrier-Free Courthouse: Equal Access to Justicefor
Persons with Physical Disabilities," Court-related
Private Corridor
h r e
Holding
Wheelchair Accessible Courtroom 2

5. FIRE, LIFE SAFETY, A N D BUILDING CODES.
Fire and life safety issues are critical to evaluating
existing faci Iit ies as we1I as to designing new faci Iities.
Codes and standards are part of a dynamic process,
and their application involves a series of tradeoffs and
interpretations by architects and local code officials.
Codes and standards assure a minimum level of
safety. Factors that affect the level of safety include
the activity planned, the number of occupants, the
type of construction, the presence or absence of
equipment such as sprinklers and smoke detectors,
and the configuration of spaces in the building. Often
security considerations are at variance with life safety
requirements. Prisoner-holding facilities, particularly, have unique requirements, because of the limited mobility of prisoners and the need to maintain
control during an emergency.
a. Building Codes.
Codes and regulations evolved from the need to

provide a level of safety for users of a facility. Building
45

ing standards are prepared by engineering labs and
professional associations specializing in a particular
area. The American Society for Testing Materials
(ASTM), for example, is a national leader in developing criteria for testing and recommending products.
Statutory Building Laws. These are regulations
formulated by jurisdictions on an as-needed basis
without a thorough study of the end result. Since
these laws are approved based on legislative action,
they tend to be out-of-date quickly and difficult to
amend.
Building codes specify minimum types of construction allowable based on occupancy, height, and
area limits, area separators, and provision of automatic fire suppression systems. A brief overview
follows of some of the regulations and their effect on
courthouse design.
regulationsexpresslegally acceptable minimum stan-
dards of construction forthe public health, safety, and

welfare. It is essential that design professionals address these regulations in the early stages of planning
and design.
Building codes vary across the country. Furthermore, many professionaland special industry groups,
such as building officials and insurance agencies,
have developed their own regulations that have been
adopted by various jurisdictions. Todays building
regulations and codes are divided into five major
categories:
Modelcodes. Most jurisdictions across thecountry have adopted one of three model codes. The
BOCA National Building Code is used mainly in the
East and Midwest, the Uniform Building Code in the
West, and the Standard Building Code in the South.
Model codes are amended each year by supplements
and republished every three to four years to incorporate all revisions.
National Association Codes. These codes are
promulgated by organizations with limited interests
but are used nationally. The National Fire Protection
Association, for example, has developed a series of
codes ranging from standards for electrical work and
fire protection systems to life safety standards. Furthermore, in municipalities that have not adopted a
model code, the NFPA is a model guide. Types of
association codes include the Life Safety Code, National Electrical Code, and the National Fire Code
(NFPA); the National Plumbing Code (PHCC); and the
Fire Prevention Code.
Municipal, State, and Federal Regulations.
Though most jurisdictions across the country have
adopted one of the model codes supplemented with
the National Association Codes, some municipalities
have enacted codes tailored to their own particular
needs. Furthermore, a number of federal bureaus,
including the General Services Administration (GSA),
which typically controls the development of federal
courthouses, have enacted their own regulations.
Building Standards. The rapid proliferation of
new products and materials on the market has
prompted the development of standards that meet
specified engineering performance tests. In addition,
the need in the past decade to assure that a facility i s
accessible and usable by all, including the physically
disabled, has led to the development of acceptable
handicapped standards. Most of the national build-
b. Use GroupslSpeciul Uses.

Different uses have been categorized to determine their degree of fire hazard to one another. The
classification of use groups becomes a factor in how
they are to be separated from one another, the type of
construction used, and area and height allowable for
a building. Depending on the area or use group and
whether a fire suppression system is provided, mixed
use may be allowable. Some of the use groups found
in a courthouse:
Assembly. Courtrooms and jury assembly rooms.
A space typically is typed as an assembly space if a
room has 50 or more occupants.
Business. Clerks administrative offices,
prosecutors office, or public defenders office.
Institutional, Temporary holding cells and prisoner sally port.
Storage. Records storage areas, records vaults,
and parking garages.
Exiting. The number of people a courthouse
handles necessitates the need for carefully determining and locating exits.
Public seating in a courtroom allowsa maximum
of seven people in a single-access aisle. Seating
capacity on a pew is based on one occupant per 18
inches. Some codes (e.g., BOCA) grant an exception
to seven-person single-access seating by stating that
the aisle must be increased 0.6 inches for each
occupant over seven. Each code must be reviewed
carefully to determine allowable seatingcapacity and
aisle widths.
46
JUDICIAL FACILITY
DESIGNISSUES
design approach, in which the performance of the
lighting system governs the selection of a system.
A certain amount of contrast is both physically
and psychologically required if seeing is to be comfortable and effective. Normal contrast (black letters
on white paper) is easily perceived by theeye, but low
contrast (such as black letters on a dark gray surface)
becomes more difficult, tending to strain the eyes.
When planning the lighting system, three zones
of contrast are important.
firsf Zone: The task itself. A piece of paper on a
desk or an exhibit on view are examples of this task.
Second Zone: Surfaces surrounding the task,
such as the desk or wall surface. It is suggested that
the second zone be slightly darker when the primary
task is placed immediately adjacent to this zone.
Third Zone: The distant surfaces, such as the
floor, walls, and ceiling.
Whenever the contrast between two surfaces
becomes too great, glare develops. Direct glare is
caused by direct sunlight, bright windows, or an
exposed light source. Reflected glare occurs from
light sources that are reflected off highly specular
finishes, such as polished marble. The latter type of
glare is more common in courtrooms and can be
controlled by reducing the specular quality of the
task, as well as relocating the light source out of the
distracting zone.
When planning courtroom lighting, the following considerations should be made:
Humanconsiderations: Lightingthat istoo bright
or too low will create certain physiological and
emotional reactions among participants that will affect the proceedings and the court's efficiency. Participants must be able to see one another and the
evidence clearly without having to strain. Proper
lighting also contributes to the security of the room.
Inferior finishing: The type, color, and texture of
finishes used for the floor, walls, ceiling, and fixed
and movable furniture can adversely affect the lighting system's effectiveness in the courtroom. The
interior finishes must be judged on their value of
reflecting light as well as their aesthetics.
Aesthetics: The lighting system must respect the
dignity of the courtroom and not become an eyecatching design feature. Attention should not be
drawn away from the testimony orthe evidence being
presented; the lighting system should enhance the
subject.
Rooms with an occupant load of 50 or more, or

where travel distance exceeds 75 feet, are to have a
minimum of two exits.
c. Fire Restrictive Construction.

The use of synthetic and wood finishes in courthouses is regulated by codes according to their flame
spread. All materials used for interior finish and trim
must be tested in accordance with ASTM E84-Surface
Burning Characteristics of Building Materials.
fire Protection Systems. Model codes specify
where and what types of fire protection systems are
required. The premise for these systems is based on
the use groups, height, and whether the structure is
classified as a high-rise building (over 75 feet tall).
Various types of systems that may be employed:
Automatic sprinkler systems
Smoke and heat detection systems
Fire extinguishers
Dry chemicals
Halon 1301 and Halon 121 1
Halon 1301 and 121 1, used predominantly in
computer rooms and records storage areas, have
come under scrutiny because they have the potential
to deplete the ozone layer three to nine times more
than chlorofluorocarbons. Presently, five different
gases are being tested to replace Halon.
d. Existing Buildings.
The recent popularity of renovation and rehabilitation projects has resulted in regulations pertaining
to these projects. Depending upon the percentage of
an existing building that is undergoing renovation,
the building may or may not have to be brought up to
full compliance with the code.
6. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES.
a. Lighting.
Designing a lighting system for a courtroom is a
mixture of art and science. The system must provide
an appropriate level of lighting for the various occupants but must also complement the dignity of the
courtroom. Energy conservation is an equally important criterion in selecting a lighting system. What
used to be known as a "quantitative"design approach
years ago has been replaced by the "qualitative"
47

direct lighting, even over a long time, and proper
levels of light can be provided once the task is
defined.
Indirect lighting, on the other hand, is light reflected from another surface, such as a wall or ceiling.
Indirect lighting provides a more shadow-free environment, similar to an overcast day. Visual clarity is
generally greater than with direct lighting, but objects
such as desks or walls lose their definition due to the
lack of contrast. Indirect I ighting poses two concerns:
First, the emphasis i s placed away from the judge,
diminishing the judges importance. Second, over a
period of time, the ceiling or wall, particularly if it is
made of acoustical tile, will discolor and lose its
ability to reflect. Painting these surfaces, particularly
acoustical tiles, will ruin their sound-absorption properties.
A courtroom lighting system must respond to
several operational and physical issues, and a combination of direct and indirect lighting fixtures might be
considered. It must ensure that an adequate level of
Performance characteristics: The system must

provide the level of lighting required for the specific
task, the comfort that must be afforded, and the
efficiency of the layout.
Energy consumption: Fixtures should be energy
efficient-low wattage and low heat producing-so
as not to affect adversely the air conditioning and
comfort level within the space. The operation of the
lighting system should be cost-efficient.
Maintenance: Fixtures must be easily serviceable and as maintenance-free as possible.
ControlFlexibility: Some functions performed in
a courtroom require dimming controls. Their exact
placement is critical, and consideration should be
given to who operates the lighting controls and what
happens if a disturbance begins when the lights are
dimmed. A single control station for all lighting,
audio, video, and security operations in the courtroom should beconsidered. Consideration should be
given to the use of preset or preprogrammed lighting settings that can be activated by the push of a
button. Manual slidedimmersshould be discouraged
when multiple banks of dimmers would become
complicated to manually set during court proceedings.
Security: Coordination of lighting levels with
security-camera sensitivity to light levels should be
addressed early on in the project.
A light sourceshould make people lookattractive
in their surroundings. Furthermore, expensive interior finishes may be jeopardized if the lightingdistorts
the color. Incandescent lamps and warm white
deluxe fluorescent lamps enhance a persons complexion, while cool white deluxe fluorescent lighting
provides only fair performance, and deluxe white
fluorescent lights offer poor performance. Careful
consideration must be given to those materials that
may receive both sources of light; finishes should be
selected under the primary lamp under which they
will be installed.
The mounting of the luminaire affects the way
light is distributed. The effect can be subtle or can
make a dramatic architectural appearance. Both
direct and indirect lighting are commonly used in
courtrooms, while taskjambient lighting is usually
found in an office environment.
With direct lighting, the light comes from the
source to the work space without being reflected.
Control over the distribution of light is easier with
70 Footcandles
S 30 Footcandles
Minimum Courtroom Lighting Levels

Cnirrresy of
48
HOK.
JUDICIAL FACILITY
DESIGN
ISSUES
Reflective Surface
lighting be provided for the task performed, be sensitivetotheoccupantsofthe room, not beaneconomic
burden to operate and service, and afford the dignity
required in the space. By addressing these issues, a
designer can provide a courtroom that will operate
effectively and efficiently. For further information on
courthouse lighting needs, please refer to the IES
Lighting Handbook, published by the IIIurninat i ng
Engineering Society of North America.
b. Acoustics.
Much of the researchon acoustics has focused on
auditoriums and concert halls. Courtrooms, however, provide a challenge, because they deal with
many complicated design issues. The need to amplify
and diffuse sound throughout the room, limit the
reverberation of sound, and control external noise are
the three essential criteria in addressing courtroom
acoustical design. Acceptable acoustics can be obtained only through the appropriate balance of materials to reflect, absorb, or diffuse sound and the proper
floorpl an.
Amplification/Diffusion of Sound. Without an
electronic amplification system, speech traveling directlyfrom an average person tothe listener will begin
to fade at a distance of 30 to 40 feet, so the use of hard
reflective surfaces to strengthen the sound becomes
essential. In a courtroom, however, sounds are
generated from several different directions. If an
attorney is talking directly to the jurors, then the
judge, court reporter, witness, opposing counselors,
and public are not in the direct path of the speech.
Most sounds radiate in all directions, but high-frequency sound, which is narrower and more directional, requires assistance to be diverted to other
areas.
Reverberation Time. The need to limit the short
reverberation time in a courtroom is critical to preserve speech intelligibility. A common standard for
courtrooms is one occupant per 80 to 150 cubic feet
(cf). Courtrooms, however, generally exceed this
occupancy level, and it is necessary to'treat the
courtroom acoustically to provide a short reverberation time. Following are some suggestions.
The area behind the judge's bench and the two
side walls should be balanced with sound-reflecting
and sound-absorbing surfaces. The wall surfaces
should reNect signals toward the clerk, jurors, and
court reporter whenever an attorney speaks in that
LAbsorptive Surface
High Sound Absorption Area
Accoustal Characterisitcs
Courtesy of HOK
direction; but the ceiling should absorb sound to

reduce reflected sound, which can restrict the judge's
ability to hear.
The rear of the courtroom in the spectator area
should be treated as acoustically "dead," with highly
absorptive materials on the floors, walls, and ceiling.
This will eliminate serious reverberation in the back,
where a majority ofthesound signalswill bedirected.
Additionally, this will reduce the noise level generated by the spectators and witnesses seated in the
public area. Furthermore, because most courtrooms
have hard benches, inclined at an angle, the seats
might be upholstered to prevent uncontrollable reverberations in the room.
Additionally, ceiling design in the courtroom
should be carefully studied. If the acoustical treatment is poor, barrel-vaulted and coffered ceilings can
cause a fluttering echo or elongation of sound since
there are more surfaces for waves to bounce off.
Finally, floors in courtrooms should be carpeted
to prevent transmission of sound to the courtroom
49
THECOURTHOUSE: A P lanning and Design Guide

below as well as to absorb unwanted reflected sounds
from the walls and ceilings.
Noise Control. Sounds generated and transmitted from outside the courtroom affect the acoustics in
the courtroom. People talking in a corridor or an
adjoining room, footsteps on hard surfaces above,
traffic from the street, and loud air-conditioning systems can impair the rooms acoustics and should be
eliminated. On the other hand, some low-level
background noise can mask irritating noises, such as
pages turning, feet tapping, or even a person breathing heavily. Such noises can disrupt concentration.
Many materials that muffle sound are available
for partitions, floors and ceilings. These materials
have been tested and rated for sound transmission by
laboratories approved by the American Society for
Testing Materials. The quality of their performance is
based not only on the porosity of the material but also
on its assembly and installation. Sound Transmission
Class (STC) ratings for materials and assemblies provide architects with a reliable rating for walls, floors,
and ceilings. In the STC classification, the higher the
rating, the more privacy is provided in the adjoining
space. In considering the need toeliminate intruding
sounds in the courtroom, a high STC rating should be
used for partitions. As an example, partitions around
courtrooms should be rated with an STC of 50 and
above. This is equivalent to an 8-inch concrete block
wall with one-half-inch furred gypsum board, which
has an STC rating of 50. (A wood stud wall with fiveeighths-inch gypsum board and two-inch isolation
blanket has an STC rating of 39.) Other areas of the
courthouse where a high STC rating should be considered are judicial chambers and jury deliberation
rooms. It is also important that these walls be constructed to go from floor to floor (avoiding dropped
ceilings), so that sound is not transmitted from adjacent rooms.
Electronic Sound System Electronic sound systems amplify sound. In courtrooms that are well
designed for reflection and diffusion of sound, an
electronic sound system typically is not required.
However, if a sound system is required, a specialized
acoustical/audiovisualconsultant should assist in the
layout and design of the speakers and help determine
the amount of amplification. A courtroom with a
poorly designed system can have worse acoustics
than a courtroom with none at all.
c. Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning (HVAC).

Courtrooms and their ancillary spaces should
have a heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning system with individual temperature controls for each
major room or area. HVAC systems should be designed with consideration for their users, video display terminals and computer equipment, and other
sources of heat in the occupied rooms. Adequate
introduction of fresh air and exhaust ventilation is
most important for courtrooms, jury rooms, food
service areas, and other areas subject to dense occupation or strongodors. For new or larger installations,
a computerized energy monitoring and management
system should be considered to reduce energy consumption for those areas not subject to continual use.
This system also would allow for the adjustment of
temperature in all areas from a single remote location,
even during hourswhen portionsofthefacilityare not
occupied. Because a sunny day in the winter might
call for cooling of the south rooms and heating of the
north rooms, the HVAC components must provide
zones of heating and cooling simultaneously. On
mild days the system should take full advantage of
favorable outdoor air temperatures. Provisionsshould
be made for humidity control where necessary.
Sound transmission and isolation features for
HVAC equipment and air distribution systems should
be included to reduce disruptive or annoying noises
in all areas; special provisions should be considered
for courtrooms. Ductwork should incorporateacoustical lining and sound traps between rooms that
require quiet for conversations or deliberations (i.e.,
jury rooms to corridor, judges chambers to reception, etc.). Air distribution devices (grilles and diffusers) should be constructed in low-noise configurations. For further information, please refer to the
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air
Conditioning Engineers, Handbook and Standards;
and Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors
National Association, Inc.
d. Electrical.
Providingan adequateelectricalsystem isclosely
related to the design needs of all areas of a courthouse. The system should provide electrical power to
serve all major building systems, such as HVAC,
security, communications, lighting, television carneras and monitors, computer equipment, emergency
lighting and power, special equipment or systems,
50
JUDICIAL FACILITY
DESIGNISSUES
puter terminals, keyboards, or optical-scanning devices in the courtroom for immediate entry of court
minutes; interactive TV monitors in the lobby or
elsewhere to help the public find courtrooms and
court offices or to research case information; and
microfilm, optical disks, and other media to store
information.
Thevery natureofthecourtroom could changeas
it becomes possible to hold hearings and trials using
interactivetelecommunications, video, or videotape.
Although live testimony will most likely remain the
preferred method of offering testimony, changes in
video and telecommunications technology will make
it possible to conduct a trial without having to bring
the witnesses, jurors, and judge together in one
courtroom. The day may come when video testimony could supplant the appearance of witnesses at
the courthouse. Even jurors may participate from
their homes and offices, perhaps by viewing an edited
video record rather than the live proceedings. A
video trial could be cheaper, safer, less time-consuming, and easier to schedule; make more efficient use
of judges and attorneys time; reduce pressures on
courtroom facilities; and be more considerate of and
more convenient for victims and witnesses. (Virginia
Futures Report.) Even today, taped depositions may
be entered as evidence in some cases, children may
offer testimony via remote closed-circuit television in
certain stressful situations, and judges conduct arraignments and hold preliminary hearings by remote
video hookups.
Records storage and information management is
another area of dramatic change that will affect the
design and space requirements of the courthouse.
Computers have changed the look of the courthouse
and court offices. In many urban courts, computer
terminals and video-display screens are commonplace. Clerks place terminals on the public counter
so that clients may look up information themselves.
The use of microfilm, microfiche, and optical laser
disks to store images reduces the amount of space
required to hold court documents and allows greater
access to documents. Entire record series may be
copied and placed in several locations for easier
access by the public. The future may bring the
elimination of large court record rooms and record
storage vaults as more information is automated and
electronically stored. The space needed for public
access to this information, such as work carrels or
and convenience electrical outlets. As with all building systems, power must be provided at a properly
located point to be effective. Building and electrical
codes contain provisions for general placement of
convenience electrical outlets, based on the particular use of each area. While these provisions are
adequate for general use spaces, special attention
should be given to the planning and design of courthouses where specific use requirements must be
included. Switching, electrical panels, and controls
should be located for ease of access and to allow for
future electrical systems expansion. Electrical systems should be designed for total connected load
requirements, plus a 25-30 percent allowance for
expansion.
Courthouse facilities are experiencing dramatic
changes in their useof electronic technology, and the
proper planning of electrical systems must be included in design considerations to provide for new
systems requiring power without sacrificing original
design objectives. Emergency power distribution
systems are important in the proper operation of
advanced, sophisticated electronic systems. For example, a special electrical power distribution system
should be provided for emergency lighting, computer
systems (networked and free-standing), and security
systems. Other systems that require an uninterrupted
power source or special filtering may also be included. These requirements may be satisfied with an
emergency generator, battery inverter, special computer power center, an uninterrupted power supply
system, or a combination of these alternative systems.
For further information on this topic, please refer to
National Electrical Code NFPA 70, and Illuminating
Engineering Society, Lighting Handbook, Application and Reference.
7. FUTURE TRENDS IN COURT TECHNOLOGY. The most dramatic changes in the operation of
courts haveoccurred in automation and communications. These changes include computer monitors in
the courtrooms and chambers to view case records, to
access legal research databases, and to view depositions, videotaped crime scenes, and other evidence;
computers and facsimile machines to file documents
electronically and transmit information between the
court and attorneys offices; closed-circuit television
hookups in courtrooms or judges chambers for video
arraignments and other preliminary hearings; com-
51

computer work stations, may increase; these spaces,
however, may be located anywhere, even outside the
courthouse, thus reducing the number of people that
need to be accommodated in the courthouse.
In designing a new court facility, serious thought
should be given to the state of technology and to areas
of technology that might become important. While
the court may not now be ready to automate its
courtrooms fully, the courtroom should provide conduits for television and computer cables so that
automation can be easily installed. It is much harder
to anticipate the future in other areas, such as the use
of optical laser disk storage. While the potential i s
significant, experience with micrographics technology suggests that it may take a long time for courts to
realize its full potential. One trend is, however, clear:
courts will become automated to the point where the
computer becomes the main repository of the courts
records. The unknown nature of future technological
development and adoption makes it important that
courts be designed to be easily adaptable to changing
environments.
type of case and the courts technology level. The

introduction of computers into the courts during the
past two decades brought the promise of the
paperless court. Often, however, computers only
create more paper, because in many instancescourts
maintain paper copies of court files even after all of
the key information has been automated.
Another technology that has been with courts for
many years is microfilm, or micrographics. There are
a number of microforms and micrographics applications, including updatable microfiche for the storage
of active case files and roll microfilm for long-term
storage of closed cases. In many cases the microfilming of court records does not result in the destruction
of hard copy files, and some courts microfilm cases
merely as a safety precaution in case the paper file
cannot be located. If the introduction of microforms
is followed by the destruction or removal of hardcopy files, considerable space can be saved.
Optical disk technology promises to store vast
amounts of information in very small spaces. This
technology is still maturing, however, and standards
have not yet been developed for the use of optical
disks for records storage. In planning a court facility
it will be necessary to consider all of the possible
records storage media and their potential for future
installation.
There are four basic considerations for the filing
system for each type of record maintained: (1) the
type of record; (2) the filing arrangement; (3)the filing
equipment; and (4) the filing supplies.
Each type of record has different space needs
because of the difference in the numbers and types of
documents that wili be filed and the different time
requirementsfor retention. For example, traffic cases
generallyconsistofonlythetrafficcitation and oneor
two other pieces of paper and are often stored in
narrow shelves or drawers. A criminal felony or civil
file, on the other hand, can be very bulky, taking up
several inches of space in a filing cabinet or on an
open shelf. More complex cases may even take up
several feet of open shelf space. In response to the
filing of more motions, and as computers have become available to produce long documents with
ease, a trend in recent years has been for the average
size of court case files to grow.
Court case files are broken down into active and
inactive files. Becauseof the limited amount of space
courts usually have in the active storage area, there
8. RECORDS MANAGEMENT AND STORAGE.

Standard 3.6 of the Trial Court Performance Sfandards requires that records of all relevant court decisions and actions be accurateand properly preserved.
Fairness, equality, and integrity depend in substantial measure upon the accuracy, availability, and
accessibility of records. Every step in the processing
of court cases results in a recordkeeping activityeither thecreation ofa record or file, the maintenance
or updatingof an existing record, or thedisposition of
a record. Not only are courts required to store active
case files, but also to store case files and court records
after disposition. In addition to the courts records,
many clerks file and maintain city or county records
such as deeds, land transfers, court judgments and
liens, marriage licenses, business licenses, and voting
records. Storage space requirements have grown
substantially over the years despite the introduction
of records retention and destruction programs designed to limit the records that need to be stored or the
transfer of older records to state or local archives.
Court cases progress through four stages: (1) case
initiation; (2) active status; (3) case disposition or
closing; and (4) postdisposition activity. The space
needs for the storage of records of both activeand
inactive cases vary considerably depending upon the
52
JUDICIAL FACILITY
DESIGNISSUES
I
files first requires the documentation of the current
are several different ways to arrange the files. In some

instances, all case files from a given year will be
moved from the active storage area to the inactive
storage area regardless of whether all cases have been
closed. One system is to move a year's files when 90
to 95 percent of the cases for that year are closed;
another system is to move only closed cases, as they
are disposed, to the inactive storage area.
The choice of filing equipment is probably the
most critical decision in determining the amount of
file storage space. This decision also will affect
personnel and spacecostsfor many years. Equipment
should match the court application; files should not
be forced into outdated filing equipment. The use of
shuck or bucket files is false economy and wasteful of
personnel and facility resources when conversion to
flat filing would improveefficiency. Filing equipment
can be categorized as fixed lateral shelving, hanging
open-box files, movable lateral shelving, vertical
drawer filing, mechanized filing, and other specialized filing equipment such as card filing equipment,
top or open reference files, large document files,
computer-product filing equipment for printouts,
tapes, disks, and platter, and microfilm-filing equipment. Adequate filing system supplies, such as file
folders, file guides, file supports, and out-folders,
make the equipment work more efficiently.
Planningfor a new court facility should prompt a
review of current records management practices.
Courts often have traditional recordkeeping procedures and practices that should be changed. If the
court seems to have accumulated large amounts of
records it may not have been complying with authorized records retention and destruction schedules.
Determining the amount of space needed for case
Type of Equipment
filing system and then an objective analysis of the

appropriateness of current practices, including the
type of records; the number of years, case files, filing
inches, cubic feet of space; and the type of equipment. The following table shows the approximate
amount of files that can be stored in different filing
systems and the required floor space in NSF.Open
shelf lateral filing with cull color coded side tabs is
approximately 40-60 percent more efficient than the
standard vertical file cabinets.
9. COURTHOUSE AUTOMATION. Court automation covers a broad range of court functions and
activities and touches nearly every aspect of the
court's work. Not too long ago court automation
referred almost exclusively to the collection, analysis,
and generation of caseload statistics. Data on the
court's caseload, e.g. number of cases filed, number
of cases disposed, and manner of disposition, were
captured manually, entered into a mainframe computer in batches, analyzed, and reported monthly.
Today, courts are often fully automated with on-line
interactive computer systems that capture data at the
source. Among the many functions likely to be
automated are case-tracking and caseflow management systems, case scheduling, calendar preparation,
case docketing and register of actions, notice generation, warrant generation, preparation of subpoenas
and court orders, fine and court cost payments,
revenue accounting, bail, restitution payments, exhibit management, records management, and child
support enforcement and payments.
Where computer data entry terminals used to be
found only in a computer center or data entry room,
Filing Inches
Floor Space
per Unit
- Drawer Vertical (letter)
125
8 NSF
5 - Drawer Vertical (legal)
125
9 NSF
5 - Drawer Lateral (36")
160
12 NSF
5 - Drawer Lateral (42")
190
14 NSF
7- Tier Lateral (36")
224
11 NSF
7- Tier Lateral (48")
308
14 NSF
53
THE COURTHOUSE: A P lunning and Design Guide
they are now located at nearlyevery work station and

public counter. Data input is recorded at the point of
transaction. As cases or pleadings are filed at the
counter, the clerk enters the information directly into
the case record. Video display and information
terminals are now located throughout the courthouse, and even off-site, where the public can make
inquiries about case status and the courts calendar.
Larger law firms now have direct on-line access to the
courts automated records and may file cases electronically. Another trend has been to integrate the
courts information system with those of other agencies, such as the sheriff, police, prosecutors, and
probation so that information that was once transmitted by paper and reentered at each stage of the case
is now transmitted electronically, saving reentry of
the same information several times.
One of the most dramatic changes in automation
technology is the way in which people interact with
the computer. Data entry used to be in the form of
keypunch machines and computer cards or magnetic
tape. Today, keyboards are used for on-line data
entry; there are interactive video screens or touchscreen technology that allows one to select from a
menu by touching the screen; voice recognition is
beginning to be feasible in a limited number of
applications; several types of scanning devices are
being used extensively, including UPC (or bar-coding), image, and OCR (optical character recognition);
and electronic data interchange is being used.
All this means drastic changes in the planning
and design of facilites to support the changing nature
of the processingof information. The following items
are listed for consideration when planning for the
construction of an automated court.
Wide doors should be selected to allow the

movement of equipment.
While the need for large computer rooms may be
less, larger courts should still plan on dedicated
computer facilities and may also need to plan on
smaller satellite computer rooms on each floor.
Computer rooms require fire detection and suppression systems. Avoid the use of water sprinkler systems in computer rooms. If they are
accidentally activated, the equipment will be
destroyed. Instead, choose Halon or some substitute.
Each work station in the building, including the
courtrooms, should have a phone and data jack.
The computer rooms should be located in the
secure areas.
A staging area should be planned near the loading dock where equipment being sent for repair
can be unpacked and packed.
The use of wireless equipment in the courtroom
or courts should be carefully considered until
such time as such equipment is fully secure.
10. SIGNS AND PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEMS.
Well-designed signs answer questions before they are
asked and promote goodwill with the public. They
also save staff time and help speed up service to the
public. Information may be presented in a number of
different ways. Most common is a building directory
located near each major entrance to the courthouse;
this may be a list of offices and room numbers, a map
or floor plan of the building showing office or court
locations, or even an interactive video terminal with
touch-screentechnology. Other signs arealso important, such as identifying signs, restricted access warnings, directional signs, signsdesignatingspecial handicapped services, and procedural guides. An effort
should be made to ensure the consistencyof the signs
in the courthouse. Hand-lettered signs should be
avoided.
In larger courthouses, where litigants and attorneys may not be waiting immediately in or outside the
courtroom, it is important that a public address system be installed. It may be used to announcechanges
in courtroom assignments, the beginning of hearings
and trials, and to make emergency announcements.
In busy courthouses, a staffed information desk should
be located in a highly visible location near the main
entrance.
Raised floors may need to be used to provide

space for conduits and cabling.
Conduit spaces under the floors may need to be
air conditioned.
Computer equipment may require its own power
supply, and the installation of an uninterruptable
power supply is essential.
Fiber optic cables will eventually replace the
coax cables now used because they are much
smaller.
Water and moisture detectors should be placed
under the floor.
54
CHAPTER
111
Specijic Courthouse Design Components
Chapter
SPECIFIC COURTHOUSE DESIGN COMPONENTS

A. COURTROOMS AND COURTROOM
ELEMENTS
The courtroom is the focal point of courthouse
activity and provides an impartial settingforconducting most legal proceedings. Trial courtrooms are
used for many different types of hearings, formal and
informal, includingarraignments, preliminary or bond
hearings in felony cases, motion hearings, pretrial or
status hearings, docket or calendar calls, trials,
sentencings, and probation violation hearings. Appellate courtrooms are generally used for oral arguments and ceremonial purposes, such as the swearing-in of new attorneys.
Courtroom spaces are generally needed for the
judge, referee, master, or hearing officer; court reporter, clerk, and bailiff; prosecutor or plaintiff and
attorney; defendant and attorney; witnesses and jury;
and spectators. Other participants may include social
workers, probation officers, guardians ad litem, interpreters, police officers, and the press.
The narrative which follows is presented in three
sections. The first section provides a general overview of the general jurisdiction trial courtroom. The
second section further specifies the components of
the trial courtroom and provides some guidelines for
their design and location. The third section discusses
specialized courtrooms, including appellate courtrooms, which vary in some regard from the general
jurisdiction trial courtroom.
Typical Courtroom with Witness

Opposite Jury
Courtesy of
HOK.
the participantsand furniture reflectssociety'sviewof

the appropriate relationships between the defendant
and judicial authority, or in a civil case, of the
relationship between the parties. In evaluating any
courtroom layout, the communication of social and
judicial values requires serious thought.
The appearance and ambience of the courtroom
should be restrained and dignified. Finishes should
express the solemnity of the proceedings, yet not be
1. CENERALOVERVIEWOFTHETRIALCOURTROOM.
a. Design and Image.
In the design of a courtroom, symbolism and
function are important. The formal arrangement of
57
THECOURTHOUSE: A Planning andDesign Guide

too dark and overbearing. The use of light and dark
woods, along with fabric in the rear of the courtroom,
has been found appropriate in many instances.
In general, courtrooms should accommodate
generalized types of litigation rather than specialized
types of litigation. Providing courtrooms with jury
capabilities and prisoner security arrangements increases their flexibility in meeting courtroom requirements based on scheduling, as well as future courtroom requirements based on unanticipated growth or
changes in operational practices. Predictability in
courtroom design makes the facility more accessible
for the public and may also help save costs.
they have to turn to view others. Distance can affect

acoustics and the ability to observe changes in facial
expression or demeanor. Wide sight angles interfere
with concentration and cause physical fatigue as
participants must look back and forth. The litigation
area of the courtroom should be designed to allow all
participants involved in the proceedings to see and
hear each other clearly.
Functionally, courtrooms are divided into two
zones: the litigation (well) area and the public (spectator) areas. These areas are generally separated by a
bar or low railing. The litigation area is typically
rectangular with the bench, located along the front
wall. Many newer courtrooms, however, are designed with a corner bench, which allows a better
view of the courtroom and does not require as much
space. Circular courtrooms became popular during
the 1970s and sometimes are considered appropriate
for hearings where the adversarial nature of the
proceeding needs to be de-emphasized, such as in
custody and support cases.
The width of the courtroom is important when
consideringtheneedsofthe litigation area. Thewidth
Typical Courtroom with Witness

Adjacent to Jury
Spectator
Area
Corirresj of HOK.
b. Space.
The traditional courtroom is rectangular and
deeper than it is wide, although modern courtrooms
also include round and square shapes. The shape of
the courtroom must account for the need for all
participants to have clear lines of sight, including the
distances between the participants and the angle that
Vestibule
Courtroom Zoning
CourrrJy of
58
HOK
SPECIFIC COURTHOUSE DESIGN

COMPONENTS
Recommended Dimensions for the Litigation Area in General Trial Courtrooms
Type of Courtroom
Width
Depth
Total Area
Formal Nonjury Hearing Room

Jury Courtroom (1 -Tier jury box)
Jury Courtroom (2-Tier jury box)
Jury Courtroom (3-Tier jury box)
CeremoniaVLarge Courtroom
28 ft.
32 ft.
36 ft.
38 ft.
40 ft.
30 ft.
32 ft.
32 ft.
32 ft.
34 ft.
840 SF
1,024 SF
1,152 SF
1,216 SF
1,360 SF
for a second row of seating behind the attorney tables.

There are likely to be exceptions to these general
dimensions given the wide range of trial court procedures throughout the country.
The size of the spectator seating area is often
determined by the size of the jury panel. For a 14person jury, this would usually be 40 to 60 persons,
while for a 7-person jury, the panel may consist of20
to 30 persons. In addition, 10 to 15 seats should be
provided for the general public. Thus, total capacity
in a 14-person jury courtroom will be typically 55 to
70, and in a 7-person jury courtroom, 20 to 35. A
useful ratio i s four seats for every juror in 14-person
of the litigation area permits isolation of individuals

from improper influence. Even small hearing rooms
need sufficient space to separate feuding parties. The
depth of the litigation area is determined partly by
whether a jury box is included and partly by the need
to separate the judge's bench and attorneys' tables.
This separation is necessary both to provide adequate
circulation within the litigation area and to give
prominence to the judge and his or her role in the
proceedings.
The dimensions shown in the following table
offer general guidance for planning the size ofcourtrooms. The courtroom depths presented here provide
Typical Courtroom (1 700 sf or less)
Large Courtroom
Courtroom Ceiling Heights
Coiirresy of HOK.
59

jury courtrooms, and five to one in 7-person jury
courtrooms. A typical planning average is eight to ten
square feet per person, with the lower figure used for
larger courtrooms and the higher figure used for
smaller courtrooms and hearing rooms. For example,
if a courtroom is planned to hold 70 spectators, 560
square feetshould beallowed (8 ft. x 70ft.). lfvoirdire
is not conducted in the courtroom, spectator seating
can be reduced.
Many courthouses will require at least one large
courtroom, capable of holding up to 150 spectators,
to accommodate ceremonial functions, motions, calendars, docket calls, celebrated cases, or public
meetings. Additional courtrooms may be smaller,
depending upon their projected use, the size of the
courts caseload, the types of cases, and the courts
scheduling practices. A major consideration in determining courtroom size is flexibility. It is often advantageous to include jury trial capabilities in all courtrooms in case the practice and procedures of nonjury
courts change in the future.
The height of the courtroom should be proportional to the rooms size for symbolic and environmental reasons, and it should provide appropriate
distance from the ceiling for a judge standing at the
bench. The head of a six-foot judge standing on a
raised dais of approximately 21 to 24 inches would be
eight feet above floor level. Ceiling heights of 11 feet
or less would make the judge appear too close to the
cei I i ng, but excessively high cei Iings can create acoustical problems. In courtrooms of 1,700 square feet or
less, ceiling heights should be 12-1 4 feet. In larger
courtrooms, ceiling heights should be 14-18 feet.
Another way of handling courtroom ceiling heights is
to have a higher ceiling over the litigation area than
over the spectator seating area, if this variance in
ceiling height does not adversely affect the rooms
acoustics.
pants to observe the proceedings within a 60-degree

cone of vision.
Courtroom participants should be able to hear
the proceedings clearly. Acoustics should be clear,
with no reverberations or echoes, and should be
enhanced in the litigation area. Features such as
soundproofing between courtrooms and surrounding
spaces (particularly holding cells), double-door vestibules from public corridors and holding areas, and
carpeting reduce the extraneous noise reaching the
courtroom. To protect the privacy of bench conferences in courtrooms with well-designed acoustics,
white noise devices may be installed in the jury
area. When activated, these devices produce sound
patterns that prevent other courtroom sounds from
reaching the jury.
Surfaces frequently are used to control sound that
originates in the well area and absorb sound from the
spectator areas. Generally, the front wall of the
courtroom may be constructed with reflective materials to enhance the sound from the well area, while
the back wall is covered with sound absorptive materials to reduce noise and echo. The side walls should.
be treated as needed, either to increase or reduce
sound in the well area. The floor should be finished
with carpet or padded vinyl to reduce noise.
The area behind the judges bench and the two
side walls should be balanced with sound-reflecting
and sound-absorbing surfaces. The wall surface
should reflect sound toward the clerk, jurors, or the
public whenever an attorney speaks in that direction,
but the ceiling must absorb reflected sound, which
can mask sounds a judge should hear.
The public seating area should be treated as
acoustically dead, with highly absorptive materials
for the floors, walls, and ceiling. This eliminates
serious reverberation in the back, where most sound
will be directed. In addition, this reduces the noise
generated by spectators and witnesses. Furthermore,
since most courtrooms use hard benches inclined at
an angle, the seats should be upholstered to prevent
uncontrollable reverberations in the room.
The standard courtroom is approximately 47-50
feet long, including the spectator area. Sounds comingfrom the judges bench will begin todiminish near
the public seating. A reflective ceiling will reinforce
the intelligibility of the sound if the distance between
the direct and reflected path does not exceed 45 feet.
c. Environment.
The courtroom should be dignified, comfortable,

and businesslike. In addition, consideration must be
given to proper sight lines, acoustics, lighting, and
heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning systems.
Courtroom elements must allow participants to see
other participants during the proceedings. Careful
attention should be paid to establishing appropriate
sight lines. Distances between speakers should be
short, and sight lines should allow primary partici-
60
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSE
DESIGNCOMPONENTS
address the clerk in order to file papers, address the
jury, or question witnesses; witnesses need totake the
stand easily; and jurors need to be brought into and
out of the courtroom with ease without coming into
close contact with spectators. Once seated, jurors
may be asked to leave the courtroom while certain
motions or objections are heard. In criminal trials,
prisoners need to be brought in through secure entrances so that they do not pass through the public
seating or near the jury or witnesses.
Entrances should be carefully located near the
appropriate areas for each courtroom participant.
The public should enter through a single public
vestibule to provide sight and sound separation from
courtroom activities, as well as for security purposes.
Prisoners should enter from the holding area through
a passageway located near the defendants attorney
table. Jurors, the bailiff, the clerk, and the court
reporter may have an entrance at the end of the jury
box on the opposite side of spectator seating. The
judge should have an entrance behind the bench.
While natural lighting is often desirable for psychological reasons, courtrooms containing exterior
windows can suffer from sunlight shadowing and
dappling effects, heating and cooling complications,
reduced security, exterior noise, and visual distractions. Courtrooms should not be located along an
exterior wall. In cases where courtrooms are lined up
on both sides of a corridor, entrances should be
staggered to prevent noise in one courtroom from
traveling across the corridor into another courtroom.
To further insulate the courtroom from noise, vestibules or sound locks and conference rooms can be
placed between the courtroom and public area as a
buffer zone. Door seals are also highly recommended.
If exterior or natural lighting is desired, skylights
or other devices, rather than regular windows, can be
used. Adequate lighting should be provided, with
greater intensification in the litigation area. Changes
in lighting are needed for displaying evidence, showing films, and using overhead projectors. Court
personnel should be able to make the necessary
adjustments from their stations with a minimum of
movement. A combination of fluorescent and incandescent lighting should be used in the litigation area,
with spot illumination over key participants. Dimmer
illumination can be used in the spectator area, but the
judge should still be able to view all visitors clearly.
Courtrooms should have adequate ventilation,
heating, and cooling systems, with independent thermostatic controls for each courtroom, and controls
should be easy to adjust. Maintaining suitable environmental conditions within the courtroom is important. A courtroom that is too warm or too cool can
have adverse effects upon the participants. Noise
from ceiling diffusers and mechanical equipment
should not be audible in the courtroom.
Staff
Judge
Vi ct irns/
Witness
Prisoners
Attorneys
Witnes
Parties
spectator
Area
A
d. Needs of Persons With Disabilities.

All courtrooms should be accessible to persons
with disabilities. Specific recommendations for provisions for disabled individuals are outlined in the
following sections on specific courtroom elements.
Vestibule
Public
Courtroom Access
Courrecy of HOK
e. Adjacency and Circulation.
f. Accessibility.
Proceedings will progress more smoothly if participants have sufficient work space and are able to
move about the courtroom without disturbing others.
Attorneys need to be free to approach the bench,
Courtrooms should be clustered on a courtfloor

in groups of two, four, six, or eight. In multi-story
buildings, courtrooms should be located on upper
floors, which providequieter and moresecurespaces;
61
THECOURTHOUSE: A P laming and Design Guide

the courts that generate a high volume of traffic
should be located on the lower floors and have the
necessary support offices nearby. Night courts should
be located near a major public entrance, and the rest
ofthecourtfacilityshouldbe inaccessibleafter hours.
diately, such systems are becoming increasingly important to the conduct of trials and for caseload
management. Plans for their eventual installation
should be considered.
Sound and video equipment. While most
courts-of-recordwill probably continue to use court
reporters for taking the record, electronic sound and
video recording and playback equipment should be
available in every courtroom to present evidence and
record the proceedings. Microphones should be
controlled by the judge or clerk and located at the
bench, witness stand, lecturn, attorney tables, and
interpreters stand.
g. Security.
Security may be provided with architectural barriers, technology, and operational methods. Architecturally, security is provided through the clear
separation of circulation routes for participants in the
proceedings and the elimination of spaces where a
weapon or bomb might be placed. The public should
enter the courtroom from the public zone, prisoners
should enter through a secure zone, and judges and
court staff should enter through a restricted, or private, zone.
Technologically, the courtroom can be made
more secure through the use of magnetometersat the
entrance, bullet-absorptivematerialsalong the judges
bench, and duress alarms connected to security stations to transmit an audio or visual depiction of the
action occurring in the courtroom. Operationally,
bailiffs or court deputies should be stationed in the
courtroom during proceedings, and an emergency
response plan should bedeveloped by facility users in
the event that a situation arises.
h. Furnishings.
The specific furnishings of the courtroom are
outlined in the following section on specific courtroom elements. Generally, the colors and tones of
walls and ceilings should promote a dignified, calm
atmosphere in the courtroom. Furniture and finishes
should be comfortable, sturdy, durable, vandal resistant, and easy to clean. Consideration should be
given to the life-cycle cost of materials as well as the
aesthetics. Draperies or other window coverings
should be used if the courtroom has windows. Floors
and walls should be treated for sound control. Seats,
benches, and chairs should be comfortable and easy
to maintain. Space should be provided to display
flags and state seals.
I
Durcrs Alarm
Speaker
0 Mlcmphonc
0 Computer
Audio-visual Equipment Locations

Adaprcd froni fhc American Counhousc.
Computer terminals and monitors. Access to

computer terminals should be planned for the bench,
court clerks station, court reporters station, attorney
tables, witness stand, and jury box.
Other equipment. Provision should be made for
the projection of slides, overhead transparencies,and
medical x-rays. If the courtroom is fully automated
and equipped with video monitors, these materials
could be displayed or projected electronically.
i. Technical Considerations.
In most courtrooms, judges and court staff should
have access to audiovisualhelevision equipment,
computer terminals, and information systems. Although such equipment may not be installed imme-
62
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSE
DESIGNCOMPONENTS
2. SPECIFIC COURTROOM ELEMENTS.
Space. The trial court bench generally needs to

seat one judge. In states where an appellate court
may use trial courts, some courtroom benches may
need to accommodate a three-judge panel. In triallevel courtrooms, the size ofthe judges bench should
be proportionate to the size of the courtroom. In
medium-sizedcourtrooms, the judgesdesk top should
be six to eight feet in length by two to two-and-a-half
feet in depth. In large courtrooms, the length may
extend to ten feet. A work surface that is much wider
than two feet will cause the judge to sit too far back
from the front of the bench and, coupled with the
height of the bench, will give the appearance to
spectators that the judge is simply a talking head.
The space between the judges desk and the
opposing wall should be at least five feet so that the
judge can move for side-bar conferences, reach for
reference books, and move in a dignified fashion to
and from the bench. The total space requirement for
a judges bench should range from 45 to 70 square
feet.
The eye level of the judge should be higher than
that of a standing attorney. Generally, the minimum
a. The Judges Bench.

The judge is the symbol of the administration of
justice. The judges bench should therefore impart an
appropriate sense of dignity. The judge must be able
to view and hear all courtroom participants, exercise
a protective influence over witnesses, address all
persons in the courtroom or speak softly during sidebar conferences with the attorneys or with the clerk,
and pass documents and exhibits to attorneys, the
court clerk, and the court reporter. The judge is an
impartial arbiter and needs to be positioned so that he
or she does not appear to favor the prosecution
(plaintiff) or defense.
Design and Image. The bench is the focal point
ofthecourtroomandshouldbe placed in a prominent
location in the room, commandinga view of all areas
of the room. The bench should face the spectators; it
may be placed on the front wall, either centered or
off-center, or in the corner of the courtroom. The
judge should have a clear view of all entrances,
jurors, witnesses, and attorneys.
Attorne
Judges Bench
Courtesy of
63
HOK

elevation of the judges bench should be 21 inches.
Anything lower will place the judge at or below the
eye level of the average-height participant. The
bench should be elevated at least three risers (21 -22
inches in a small- and medium-sized courtroom; 2426 inches in a large courtroom).
The front of the standard trial bench should be 52
to 56 inches in height. This includes 21 to 22 inches
for riser height, 29 to 30 inches for the work surface,
and 3 to 4 inches for the privacy rail. Large trial and
appellate benches would add 3 to 4 inches for the
additional riser height.
Environment. The bench work area should be
well lighted, but there should be no glare or harsh
lights. Normal room lighting should be augmented
by incandescenttask lightingdirectlyabovethe bench.
Controls for lighting the entire courtroom should be
located at or near the bench. The judge should be
able to hear the witness, attorneys, defendant, clerk,
court reporter, and others in the courtroom clearly,
but noises from the spectator area and corridors
should not be audible at the bench.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities. The bench
needs to be freely accessible to handicapped judges.
Depending upon local and state requirements, all
benches in the courthouse may need to be handicapped accessible; this may require ramps or mechanical lifts. In larger urban courts, only a few
courtrooms, assigned to handicapped judges, may
need to be handicapped accessible.
Adjacency and Circulation. The bench and the
court clerks station should be adjacent. The court
reporters station may also be adjacent to the bench,
or may be located in the well area.
Accessibility. There should be private access to
the bench from a secure corridor. Entry to the bench
should be from directly behind or close to the bench.
The judge should not have to cross public areas to
enter the courtroom.
Security. The front panel of the judges desk
should be made of bullet- absorptive materials. Care
should be taken not to use steel-plated, bullet-resistant materials, as this may cause bullets to ricochet
through the courtroom.
The judges bench should have a concealed,
silent, positive-action duress alarm that will directly
alert the courthouse security station or an employee
trained in emergency notification procedures. While
care should be taken to avoid placement of the alarm

where it could be accidentally activated, the alarm
should be within easy reach of the judge, and its
activation should be as inconspicuous as possible.
The button should also activate an audio or, preferably, video system within the courtroom, which
transmits to the security station. This will enable
security personnel to determine what is occurring in
the courtroom and plan an appropriate response.
Furnishings. Several drawers should be provided
for forms, supplies, and personal items, as well as
adequate shelving for reference books. The bench
should include a comfortable, easily moved executivearmchair with adjustable height and swivel capabi Iities.
The front of the bench may be surrounded by a
chest-high shelf approximately ten to twelve inches
deep. This would allow attorneys to refer to files and
documents during a bench conference, prevent the
attorneys from seeingdocuments on the judges desk,
and prevent attorneys from resting their arms and
elbows on the top of the bench. The judges bench
should facilitate the transfer of documents and verbal
communication with the court clerk and court reporter, as well as provide clear lines of sight to the
witness.
TechnicalConsiderations. E I ectricaI receptacles
and cable conduits for a built-in video display and
computer terminals for electronic access to legal
information databases, taped depositions, or instant
case transcript display should be installed. An electrical engineer or other electrical or computer consultant should assist with the design and installation
of such equipment. All receptacles should be flushmounted in the floor. Judges may also wish to take
notes on the computer, so the bench should be
designed with a keyboard tray. A telephone should
be installed for emergency communications and for
holding telephone hearings.
b. The Court Clerks Station.

The court clerk helps all court proceedings run
efficientlythrough a variety of tasks, includingcheckingcase files and recording appropriate casedeterminations. In this capacity, the clerk frequently passes
the files to and from the judge and, therefore, requires
immediate proximity to the judge. Either the clerk or
court reporter is responsible for marking trial evi-
64
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSE
DESIGNCOMPONENTS
dence and for the custody of all exhibits. The clerk
may also call prospective jurors to the jury box and
swear in impaneled jurors.
Design andlmage. The design and image of the
court clerks station should be compatible with the
style and finishes of the judges bench and other
courtroom furniture. It may be at floor level or
elevated on one riser. A floor-level location is more
accessible to the handicapped and further accentuates the prominence of the judges bench, while an
elevated location eases the transfer of documents to
the judge and presents a better view of the courtroom;
these factors should be carefully weighed in the
placement decision. The court clerk should have a
clear view of all courtroom participants, as the clerk
takes notes during the proceedings and must be able
to see and hear all participants clearly. The court
clerk should not obstruct the judges view of the
witness.
Space. The court clerks work surface should be
approximately 30 to 36 inches in depth by five feet in
length. The desk and appropriate storage area must
accommodate a large volume of case files in addition
to other documents, exhibits, supplies, and soundrecording and computer equipment. For clerk stations requiring two clerks, this space should be expanded to minimum length of seven feet with some
sharing of work surface. The court clerks station
should be positioned a minimum of four feet from the
opposing wall to allow for easy access. The total
square footage required is approximately 30 to 40

square feet for a single clerks station and 55 to 70
square feet for a double clerks station. One of the
most frequent complaints issued by clerks is lack of
space.
Environment. The court clerks station should
have the same amount of task lighting as the judges
bench. This spot illumination will augment the
lighting used in the courtroom. Work surfaces should
be nonglare.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities. The court
clerks station should be accessible to persons with
disabilities. An elevated station may require portable
ramps or a lift.
Adjacency and Circulation. The court clerks
station should be adjacent to the bench, facilitating
communication with the judgeandthetransferof files
and documents. In most courtrooms, the clerk is on
the opposite side of the judge from the court reporter
or witness stand to provide balance to the room and
to avoid blocking the judges view of the witness. In
some traditional courtroom arrangements, however,
the clerk i s stationed immediately in front of the
bench.
Accessibility. The clerks station should be easily
accessible from a private, restricted corridor at the
front of the courtroom.
Security. The court clerks station may have the
same duress alarm/intercom system as the judge,
providing direct linkage with central security through
Clerk
Judge
Judge/Clerk Relationship
Courrcsy of HOK.
65

a foot- or knee-activated button under the work
surface.
furnishings. The court clerks station may include a shelf for both signing of documents and
preventing attorneys from seeing documents on the
work surface. There should be storage areas, either
desk drawers or pigeonholes, for forms and paperwork. There should also be an inconspicuous, lockable storage area for evidence and trial material. The
clerks chair should be movable, able to swivel, and
comfortable for long periods of sitting.
Technical Considerations. Depending upon local practice and court rules, the court may want to
install a video/audio recording system control panel.
The court clerks station should have flush, floormounted electrical receptacles, a telephonejack, and
cable conduits for computer terminals and a built-in
video display. The computer terminal should be
equipped with a silent keyboard and laser printer.
The control console for the sound amplification system may be located at the court clerks station, along
with a microphone for the clerk.
Court reporters are shifting to the use of computers for the preparationof verbatim transcripts. Newer
systems can translate the reporters notes irnmediately into written text that can be reviewed in the
courtroom. Systems for the hearing impared have
been developed in which a real-time translation of
the reporters notes is displayed on a video screen. In
courts using electronic audio recording, a specially
trained clerk usually monitors theequipment to make
sure that it is recording properly. This recording
monitors station can be located where the court
reporter would normally sit.
Design and Image. Each court of record should
have a work station for recording trial proceedings.
The design and image of the court reporters station
should be compatible with the style and finishes of the
judges bench and other courtroom furniture.
The court reporters station may be at floor level
or elevated on one riser. Afloor-level location is more
accessible to persons with a disability, further accentuates the prominence of the judges bench, and
minimizesthe possibilityofobstructingthe judgesor
attorneys view of the witness. An elevated location
puts the court reporter on the same level with the
witness, a benefit for recording, and presents a better
overall view of the courtroom.
Space. The court reporter may have a small desk
for storing supplies, recording tapes, and equipment.
Ifthestation isadjacenttothe judge, thedistance from
the desk to the back wall should be at least five feet,
to accommodate (if necessary) a stenotype machine
on a stand, various seating angles, and easy access. If
located in the litigation area, thecourt reporter should
have tablespace and comfortableseatingappropriate
to the recording methods being used. The court
reporters station requires approximately 25 to 30
square feet, including circulation.
Environment. The court reporters station should
have the same task lightingas the judges bench. This
spot illumination will augment the lightingused in the
courtroom. The acoustic needs of live court reporters
are different from those of an electronic recording
system. Electronic recording requires a more
accoustically dead courtroom than do court reporters.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities. The court
reporters station should be accessibleto persons with
a disability.
c. The Court Reporters Station.

A court reporter, who records the court proceedings, is used in most general jurisdiction courts.
Reporters use different methods to take the record,
including stenotype machines, computer-aided transcription, electronic audio recording, and video recording. The reporters space must support the method
used and have the flexibility to change.
The relationship of the court reporters station to
other parties in the litigation area is important. The
station should be adjacent to the witness stand so that
the reporter can clearly view the witnesss facial
expressions and hear voice testimony. The court
reporter should also have an unobstructed view of the
entirewell area.Thisfieldofvision should includethe
judge, witness box, jury box, and attorneys tables, all
within a 180-degreearc, allowing for the rapid headand-eye movement necessary for. identifying exchanges between speakers and accurately transcribing verbal and nonverbal (e.g., head nods, facial
expressions, hand gestures) communication. The
court reporter should be as inconspicuous as possible, particularly to the witness, who should not be
made to feel that every word being uttered is being
recorded, and to the jurors, who should not be
distracted from the witnesss testimony.
66
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSE
DESIGNCOMPONENTS
date any in-courtmonitoringequipment,conduitsfor
the necessary wiring and a comfortable chair. The
permanent work station may be located outside the
cou rtroom.
Technical Considerations. The court reporter
station should have several electrical outlets and
enough space for electronic recording equipment
and sound reinforcement equipment. The station
should also be made cable-ready for computer terminals and video technology. A silent printer for producing transcripts in the courtroom may be needed
too.
Adjacency and Circulation. Court reporters

should be located within easy sight and hearing of the
witness and the judge. The court reporter can be
located on an axis between the judge and witness, or
in the litigation area in a similar position between the
judge and witness. If located in the litigation area, the
court reporter should not obstruct the view of the
witness by the judge or the jurors. These placements
will allow for private communication between the
reporter and the judge and close proximity to witnesses, whose testimony may often be difficult to hear
or understand. When side-bar conferences occur
between the judge and attorneys, the reporter is in a
position to hear and record the remarks. These locations also provide the court reporter with full visual
command of the litigation area, and a position that
enables the judge, jurors, and attorneys to hear the
reporter equally well when the judge requests that
parts of the transcript be read.
The reporter should be separated from the witness box by one or two feet. If the two areas are
immediately adjacent to one another, a barrier should
be provided between the witness box and the court
reporter.
Accessibility. Access to the reporters station
should be provided through a private corridor at the
front of the courtroom. Depending upon the stations
design and placement, a swing gate may be needed
to provide access and security.
Security. As a court reporter could be sitting near
a potentially hostile and violent witness, the court
reporters station should allow for an easy escape.
Furnishings. Although thecourt reporters equipment will be determined by the method of court
reporting, the space described above should accommodate the following methods:
Stenotype. Requires a movable chair, space for
the stenotype machine, and adequate electrical outlets.
Computer-aided transcription. Requires a comfortable chair with back support, desk space for
transcription machine, video monitor, silent printer,
and adequate electrical outlets.
Electronicrecording. Requires a permanentwork
station that will accommodate recording equipment,
space for note-taking and log entries, wiring for the
sound-recordingequipment, and a comfortable chair.
Videotaping. Requiresappropriate camera locations, a permanent work station that will accommo-
d. The Wifness Stand.

The witness, along with the judge, should be a
focal point of all courtroom proceedings. It is critical
that all courtroom participantsclearly hear and seeall
verbal and nonverbal communication from the witness. In addition, because many witnesses testify at
a personal sacrifice of time, money, and with the risk
of being harmed, they deserve the courts courtesy
and protection. Witnessesmust beallowed to present
their testimony in an impartial manner, free from
intimidation.
Design and Image. The design and image of the
witness stand should be compatible with the style and
finishes of the judges bench and other courtroom
fu rn it ure.
The witness stand may be elevated on one or two
risers from the floor, but should remain lower than the
judge. The witness should be in clear view of the
judge, jury, court reporter, and attorneys tables. If
the witness stand is not constructed as part of the
bench, it may be preferable that the witness stand be
a movable, modular unit, thus allowing it to be
rotated to an appropriate angle.
Space. The front width of the witness stand
should be at least three-and-a-half to four feet wide
and approximately five feet deep to allow for ease of
entry and exit. Because witnesses must frequently
receive, examine, and return exhibits, a desk area
approximately 15 to 18 inches deep should be provided to the front or side of the stand on which to rest
files or evidence. This shelf area also ensures an
adequate nonencroachment distance between the
witness and attorneys. The bottom of the desk should
be approximately 30 inches from the floor of the
witness stand to permit ease of entry and exit. Additional adjacent space should be allowed for an inter-
67
I Exhibit
Attorney
Witness Stand
Cortrtcsy of HOK.
eight feet away from the seated witness. This will

lessen any feelings of intimidation jurors may have
due to their proximity to a criminal defendant or an
antagonistic witness. This distance also facilitates
movement between the witness stand and jury box
and is particularly important for handicapped jurors
in wheelchairs. The location of the witness stand
should not allow the witness to seize objects from the
bench, and there should be a physical barriel between the witness and the judge.
The exhibit area for screens, chalkboards, and
television monitors should also be close to the witness stand for ease of reference and demonstration.
The exhibit area could be placed between the witness
stand and the jury box for ease of viewing by those
participants. A movable witness stand creates a
flexible environment for the placement of evidence
and exhibits.
In those instances that require an interpreter, the
interpreter should be easily seen and heard by the
court reporter, judge, jurors, and attorneys. A ternpo-
preter to stand or sit without blocking the view of the

witness.
Environment. Thearea around thewitnessshould
be well lit so that the judge, jurors, and attorneys can
clearlyseetheexpressionsofthewitness, but the light
source should not be so direct as to cast shadows or
glare.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities. The witness
stand should be accessible to persons with a disability, which may require the use of a portable ramp to
overcome the additional elevation of the stand.
Adjacency and Circulation. The witness stand
may be located in a number of different positions.
The most common arrangement is to place the witness stand between the jury and the judge and adjacent to the court reporters station; this provides the
proximity necessary for the witness to be seen and
heard clearly. Other possible placements are opposite and facing either the judge or the jury box. The
witness stand should be no closer than four to five feet
from the jury box so that the nearest juror is seven to
68
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSE
DESIGN
COMPONENTS
rary chair may be used for the interpreter, and a
microphone may be provided as needed.
Accessibility. In most situations, the witness
stand should be entered through the litigation area
from the spectator-seatingarea. When not testifying,
witnesses in controversial or emotional trials may be
isolated in victim/witness roomsadjacent to thecourtroom.
Security. The witness chair should be affixed to
the floor to ensure control of prisoners who must
testify.
Furnishings. The witness chair should be stationary to prevent witnesses from backing away from the
microphone. Chairs with swivel seats should be
comfortable and quiet. A modesty panel should be
provided.
Technical Considerations. There should be an
electrical receptacle and cable conduits for built-in
video display of recorded evidence and taped depositions and for instant review of case transcript displays.
A movable microphone should be mounted
unobtrusively in the witness stand and be able to
transmit clearly the testimony of children and
soft-spoken witnesses. The microphone may be

connected to an amplifier controlled by the judge or
the clerk.
e. The Jury Box.
Jurors are temporary officers of the court and

should be afforded the comfort and courtesies appropriate to their role. They must be present and alert for
long hours, often over several days. They must be
protected from public contact, harassment, and intimidation. Although jury service is a civic duty
required of all eligible citizens, many jurors serve at
great personal sacrifice of wages and time. Many are
completely unfamiliar with the judicial process and
find it intimidating, confusing, and mentally taxing.
jury box should be compatible with the style and
finishes of the judges bench and other courtroom
furniture. The front of the jury box should be shielded
with a modesty panel.
The first row of seating may be elevated on one
riser, and the second row should be elevated on two
risers. This has several advantages: (1) as temporary
officers of the court, the jurors receive the promi-
Two-Tier Jury Box

Courtesy of HOK
69

nence they are due, (2) the jurors are at or above eye
level of the witness, which reduces any psychological
intimidation of the jurors by the witness, and ( 3 )the
jurors have a better view of the witness and the
judicial proceedings.
Space. The jury box should accommodate all
jurors plus one or two alternates. The standard jury
box should accommodate 16 jurors in order to provide maximum flexibility for present and future trials.
(Fewer than 12 seats would limit courts that need a
full 12-person jury.) Seating placement can vary, but
a two-tiered configuration is usually most efficient.
Space should be provided for a handicapped juror
either with an open space on the end of the first row
or by removing the first juror's chair. In 6-person jury
arrangements, space should be provided for eight
chairs to include two alternate positions. Jurisdictions using an 8-person jury may find it advantageous
to use a 14-person jury box to provide adequate
circulation in the litigation area and greaterflexibility.
The jury box should allow1 0 to1 2 square feet per
juror. A 14-person jury box would typically be 19 to
21 feet long and 7 1/2 to 8 feet deep; a 7-person jury
box would be 4 feet deep. The distance from the first
row to the front railing should be approximately 18
inches long to allow for leg room. The modesty panel
should be high enough to shield the lower level of
jurors from approximately waist height to the floor.
The total requirement for a 16-person jury box is
approximately 160 to 192 squarefeet; for an 8-person
jury box, 80 to 86 square feet.
A nine- or ten-inch shelf may be desirable as part
of the jury box for examining documents'and exhibits
and to ensure a nonencroachment distance between
the jurors and attorneys.
Environment. Jurors must hear the judge, witnesses, and attorneys clearly. They should have
unobstructed sight lines to the judge, witness, attorneys, and exhibit area. Lightingshould beof standard
courtroom intensity.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities. The jury box
should be large enough to accommodate a wheelchair. A portable ramp or mechanical lift may be
necessary, if the first tier is elevated on one riser.
Alternatively, it may be moreefficient to leavethe first
tier at floor level, particularly if a three-tier box is to
be used. Jacksfor earphones may be installed at one
or two positions for use by the hearing impaired.
Adjacencyand Circulation. The jury box should
be situated so that the attorney's tables, witness box,

judge, and audiovisual area are in full view. The
jurors themselves should be in view of the court and
thespectatorstoensuretheperception ofan open and
public trial. The jury box should be located on the
same side of the judge as the witness box, and it
should not extend past either the witness box or the
attorney's tables, so that there i s at least a 90-degree
view of all participants. All jurors should be able to
see witnesses and attorneys as nearly full-face as
possible.
The jury box should be far enough from the
spectator area to inhibit any physical or verbal contact. Seven feet from the center of the closest juror's
chair to the bar separating spectators from the litigation area is adequate. A bailiffs station may be
located between the jurors and the spectators to
prevent any communication. Jurors should be far
enough from the attorney's tables to prevent eavesdropping-a minimum of four feet to the table and six
feet to the nearest attorney's chair. Jurorsshould not
sit with their backs to the spectators; this tends to
make the jurors uncomfortableand can causedistractions as jurors turn to see who may be entering or
leaving.
Court rules and procedures often forbid cameras
to focus on jurors. If video or closed-circuit television
camerasareused, jurorsshould beoutofthecameras'
view.
Accessibility. The jury box may have one or two
entrances. If there is a single entrance, it should be
located near the exit to the jury deliberation rooms.
The path should be as direct as possible and should
not require jurors to cross the courtroom or exit
through the spectator seating area. Access to the jury
deliberation rooms should be by way of a private
corridor.
Security. The jury box should incorporate a
modesty panel and shelf area to provide some distance from trial participants. A bailiff or court deputy
may be stationed between the jury box and the
spectators to prevent any communication or intimidation.
Furnishings. Jury seats should be fastened to the
floor; they should swivel but not rock and should not
be placed closer than eight inches apart side-by-side,
nor closer than three-and-a-half feet from the back of
one row to the back of the next. Chairs should have
70
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSE
DESIGNCOMPONENTS
armrests and be constructed to lessen juror fatigue

during long periods, with adequate back support and
leg room. A footrail may be desirable. Depending
upon jurisdictional restrictions, writing surfaces may
also be included for each juror. Wall surfaces behind
the jurors should be easily cleaned.
Technical Considerations. The jury box may be
equipped with electrical receptacles and cable conduits for built-in video display of recorded evidence
and taped depositions and instant review of case
transcript displays. A microphone may be placed
near the jury foreman position.
Environment. Attorneys should be able to see

and hear all courtroom participants clearly. The
litigation area lighting above the counsel tables should
be augmented with direct incandescent task lighting.
Glareor reflection from the tables should be reduced.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities. The attorney
tables should accommodate persons with a disability.
Adjacency and Circulation. The attorney tables
and their placement should enhance the attorneys
in-courtroom work and movement throughout the
litigation well. The tables should face the bench and
provide a full view of the judge, court reporter,
witness, and jury.
To prevent private conversationsfrom being overheard or documents from being read, attorney tables
should be four to five feet apart and approximately six
to eight feet from the nearest juror or spectator.
A distance of 10 to 16 feet is required from the
front of the judges bench to the front of the attorney
tables. This distance creates the symbolic image of
judicial objectivity and dignity while forming an area
within which attorneys may move and that will
accommodate additional attorney tables if necessary.
The back edge of the attorney table should be
aligned with, but notaheadof, theendofthe jury box.
This ensures that no juror is out of the attorneys field
of vision, an important factor during the questioning
of witnesses.
The distance between the back of the attorney
chairs and the bar should be approximately five to six
feet to accommodate comfortably an additional row
of chairs or benches along the railing for staff, paralegals, or other involved parties and to allow for a
pathway behind the attorney tables.
Accessibility. The primary access of attorneys
and parties to the attorney tables should be from the
public circulation corridor and through the seating
area. Other points of access include the prosecutors
entrance from the private corridor and the entry for
persons in custody from the secure corridor.
Security. The tables should not have drawers or
concealed recesses where a weapon or bomb may be
placed.
Furnishings. The attorney tables should not have
glossy finishes that may reflect light and createa glare
on the writing surface. The chairs provided for the
parties should be swiveling armchairs with casters.
In some jurisdictions, a movable lectern with a
microphone should also be available. It should be
f. Attorney Tables.
A variable number of attorneys may appear before the court, but provision should be made for the
typical two to four persons, including the litigants, at
each table. Litigation often requires a great deal of
space for large legal books, documents, notes, and
evidence. The work surface for attorneys should be
sufficient to handle this volume while allowing for
comfortable seating and movement of the parties at
the tables. Attorneys and litigants should be able to
confer in private without being overheard. Attorneys
should be able to move easily in the litigation area
and be able to approach a lectern or any other
participant in the case.
attorney tables should be compatible with the style
and finishesof the judges bench and other courtroom
furniture. There should be a separation between the
attorney tables, and they should be positioned to
reflect equal status. The tables should be movable. A
modesty screen should be considered if prisoners are
ever placed in shackles in the courtroom.
Space. It is recommended that each courtroom
have separate tables for the defense and plaintiff (or
prosecution). The tables should not be connected in
order to facilitate private client/attorney communications and to decrease the potential of violence between the parties.
The attorney tables should be at least seven feet
long (and eight to ten feet long if multiple litigants or
attorneys are common). The table top should be three
to four feet wide to accommodate the necessary work
materials. The area of each attorney table, including
attorney chairs and two-foot movement space behind
the chairs, should be approximately 55 to 80 square
feet.
71
THECOURTHOUSE: A P lunning and Design Guide

adjustable in height, with a slanted surface for notes
and large enough for papers and reference books.
Task lighting may be provided to aid in reading. The
lectern should be easily accessible from the attorney
tables and should not interfere with the view of the
proceedings by the litigants or the jurors.
Technical Considerations. E Iec t r icaI receptacles
and cable conduits for built-in computer display
terminals may be provided for accessing law databases, reviewing taped depositions, video display
evidence,exhibits, andcasetranscripts. Thereshould
be flush floor-mounted outlets for microphonesand a
closed-circuittelevision system; telephone linesshould
be at each attorney table so that attorneys may be
connected to their office computers by means of a
modem.
ing. Otherwise, a chair can be provided near the

defendants table in criminal trials or by the jury box
nearest to spectator seating. In trials where defendant
security is not a concern, the bailiff or court officer
may be stationed by the court clerk.
Accessibility. The area surrounding the bailiffs
station should be free of obstacles should it become
necessary to respond to an emergency. Access to the
bailiffs station should be through a private corridor.
Security. The bailiff must have access to a duress
button, which is connected to the main security
office.
h. Spectator Seating.
As a general rule, trials must be open and public.
Persons who wish to view trials and hearings, whether
membersofthe pressorordinarycitizens, have a right
to both see and hear the proceedings.The demand for
spectator seating in particularly notorious criminal
trials usually overwhelms even the largest courtrooms.
A large trial courtroom can accommodate an
unusually large number of spectators. This courtroom can also be designed for high-securitytrials and
equipped with audiovisual and news media features
not normally required for most trials.
DesignandImage. Public seating should remain
at floor level. This allows access by disabledpersons
and adds prominenceto the litigation area and judges
bench. Thedifference in elevation from the bench to
the spectator-seatingarea promotes the judges visual
control of the courtroom.
Space. The size of the spectator-seating area in
most courtrooms should be determined by the number of empaneled jurors. For voir dire, the prospective juror panel is between 24 and 60, depending
upon the number of alternates and the number of
challenges allowed. Seating requirements should
satisfy this number of jurors in addition to witnesses
and spectators. A good planning average would be 8
to 1Osquare feet per person, including circulation. In
large courtrooms, a standard of 8 square feet per
person should be used. In smaller courtrooms, the
higher figure should be used.
One persons seatingallowance should be calculated on the basis of 3 square feet or 2 feet by 18
inches. Rows that can hold eight or more people
require two exit aisles to meet fire code specifica-
g . The BailifSs Station.

The bailiff is responsible for the security of the
courtroom and all participants, maintains order in the
courtroom, and removes disruptive persons from the
court. Additional responsibilities may include announcing the entry of the judge, escorting witnesses
to and from the jury box, escorting jurors to and from
the jury box, handling heavy or hazardous evidence,
and running errandsforthe judgeduringthetrial. The
number of bailiffs assigned to a courtroom depends
on thetypeofcaseor judge presiding. One bailiff per
courtroom is usually sufficient, except in multi-defendant trials or high-profile cases that pose a security
risk.
bailiffs station should be compatible with the style of
the judges bench and other courtroom furniture.
Space. The bailiffs station may consist of a
movable swivel chair, which provides the support
and comfort required for long periods of courtroom
duty. The bailiff station may include a small table.
The total area of the bailiffs station should be approximately 12 to 15 square feet.
Environment. The bailiff should be able to see all
areas of courtroom clearly.
Adjacency and Circulation. The bailiff or court
officer should be able to see all the participants and
the public. The location of the bailiffs station will
vary depending upon the circumstances of the case
being heard. The station may be located by the jury
box entrance when defendants in custody are testify-
72
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSE
DESIGNCOMPONENTS
crease the seating capacity of the courtroom. When
the jurisdiction requires additional jury courtrooms,
the seating can be removed and replaced with a
standard 14-person jury box.
Technical Considerations. The jury box may be
converted to bench seating in nonjury courtrooms to
increase seating capacity. If more jury courtrooms
are required, the benches can be replaced with a
standard 14-person jury box. Where there is exceptional public interest in a trial, closed-circuit television might be used to show the proceedings in
another room of the courthouse.
tions. There should be three feet between the first row

and the railing of the well area to provide sufficient
physical and sound separation between spectators
and participants. This passageway may also serve as
an exit to the central aisle, and care should be given
to meeting local code restrictions.
The width of aisles in the spectator seating area
should be in accordance with local and state building
and life safety code requirements. Generally, side
aisles should be at least three feet wide, and the center
aisle should be five feet wide. There should be 33
inches between rows.
Environment. The lighting should be subdued
but sufficient so that the judge and bailiff can clearly
see everyone in the spectator area. There should be
carpeting on the floor and the surrounding walls
should be acoustically treated. Local codes governing accessibility must be met. Generally, aisles must
be wide enough to allow access by a wheelchair.
AdjacencyandCirculation. Public entry into the
courtroom should be through a vestibule of approximately 60 to 80 square feet for noise control and
security. The inner set of doors should have sufficient
glass panels to permit visual identification of courtroom activities and participants without physical
intrusion into the courtroom.
For reasonsof security, a single monitored public
entrance is preferred. In traditional courtrooms, this
entrance should be along the rear wall of the courtroom on the same axis as the judges bench. In
corner-orientation courtrooms, the entrance should
be off-angle from the judges bench and not along the
same side of the courtroom.
Accessibility. The spectator-seatingarea should
be accessible from the public circulation corridors.
Security. Security may be provided by placing
magnetometers at the public entrance to the courtroom. It i s also desirable to separate opposing parties
seated in the courtroom.
Furnishings. Seatingmay beeither bench-typeor
theatre-type. Movable or stacking chairs should be
avoided. Bench seating with comfortable padding is
preferred over theatre seats because benches can
accommodate more people within the same area.
Bench seating is also comparatively easy to maintain,
shows wear less quickly, and offers a dignified appearance. The jury box may be converted to benchtype spectator seating in nonjury courtrooms to in-
i. Other Courtroom Components.

There are other courtroom components necessary for the efficient completion of a trial or hearing.
These components vary depending upon the type of
trial or hearing.
Sound Lock/ntrance Vestibule. A courtroom
entrance or vestibule serves as a transition between
thecourtroom and the publiccirculation areas. ltalso
blocks noise from the adjacent corridor. Typically,
the vestibule consists of two sets of doors. Glass
panels should be placed in both sets of doors to allow
viewing of the proceedings. The distance between
the doors should be regulated by applicable codes,
but generally eight-to-ten feet are recommended.
The vestibule should permit easy passage of a wheelchair. The vestibule entry may also include space for
a coat closet and umbrella stand. Attorney/client
conference rooms may also open off the vestibule.
The public entrance to the courtroom should be
lockable to provide security when the court is not in
session.
SpecialCounselStation.Special counsel may be
present in the courtroom, particularly in juvenile and
domestic cases. Social workers, probation officers,
and guardians ad litem participate as witnesses or
protect the interests of other participants during trials.
Atemporarystation neartheattorneytablesshould be
considered. In probation hearings, the setting may be
informal, and probation officers can be seated at one
of the attorney tables.
Evidence Display and Storage. Charts and displays are best presented either between the witness
box and the jury box, so that the witness may point to
them, or across from the jury box, if their detail is large
enough to be seen at a distance. For viewing medical
73

x-rays, a portable viewing box or a concealed wallattached unit that can accommodate the standard 8
x 11 x-ray should be installed.
After exhibits are introduced into evidence and
marked by the court clerk or court reporter, they
should be displayed on a shelf or table in full view of
the court. Hazardous exhibits, such as firearms and
other objects that could be used as weapons, drugs,
and toxic substances should be placed away from the
witness, jury box, and defendants table. Usually, the
clerk station or an adjacent bailiffs or court officers
station is the most suitable location.
Each courtroom should have an inconspicuous
evidence storage locker or closet where items may be
secured by the clerkduring recesses. The storage area
should be located out of any traffic patterns and
should accommodate a variety of documents on
shelves, in their proper order, and be equipped with
several small compartments to safeguard weapons or
drugs.
Clock. A wall clock should be provided.
Storage Area. Approximately 40 square feet
should be provided for storing such items as projectors, television monitors, chart boards, easel pads,
tripods, chalk and markers, cleaning cloths, pins and
tape, and pointers.
Press Accommodations. With the exception of a
few types of hearings, the press has the right to report
on trial events. Some trial courtrooms may be designed with special facilities for the press, such as a
specified location in the spectator area or a dedicated
area at the rear or side of the courtroom. In some
jurisdictions, the press occupies a room adjacent to
the courtroom with a one-way glass for viewing and
taping the proceedings. The presence of the press
should not disrupt the dignified and decorous atmosphere of the court.
Defendant or Prisoner Seating. In general cases,
the defendant sits with the defense attorney at the
counsel table. In cases that do not require an attorney, such as traffic violations and misdemeanors,
defendants often are seated together at the edge of the
litigation area waiting for a call to appear before the
judge. Seating should be near the bench with clear
sight lines between the bench and witness stand. A
sturdy armchair or bench should be provided with
sufficient weight so that it cannot easily be used as a
weapon.
Cashiers Station. In some courtrooms, particularly those involving misdemeanors,traffic, and parking violations, defendants either pay their fine or
make arrangements to have the fine paid before being
released. A secured cashier window, located outside
the courtroom and accessed directly from the courtroom, aids in finecollection and reduces the need for
an escort to the clerks office. However, if the
cashiers window is adjacent to the courtroom and
litigation area, consideration should be given to the
noise of conversations regarding payment arrangements, which may disturb court proceedings. Space
will be required for a computer terminal and printer,
case files, and a cashier drawer.
There should be limited access to the cashier
station. The cashier should be seated behind a
secured window with a telephone or intercom and
connected to the security office with an alarm button.
Electrical receptacles and cable conduits for a computer terminal, silent keyboard, and low-noise printer
are also required.
3. SPECIALIZED COURTROOMS.
a. Appellate.
Appellate courts generally have few spectators

and minimal public traffic. The courtroom is used
infrequently for hearing oral arguments and conducting ceremonies. Courts of last resort, usually the
states supreme court, generally hear final appeals in
civil and criminal matters. They may have jurisdiction in capital cases, administrativeagencydecisions,
lawyer and judicial disciplinary cases, and juvenile
and interlocutory matters. Appellate courts do not
have juries or witnesses; there are usually five to nine
justices who may sit either en banc or in panels of
three to hear oral arguments.
Intermediate appellate courts, referred to as the
court of appeals in most states, often have mandatory
jurisdiction over original appeals from the trial courts.
In some states, the intermediate appellate court hears
appeals from some trial courts, or its jurisdiction may
be limited to only civil or noncapital criminal cases.
Capital cases proceed directly to the court of last
resort for automatic review in most states.
In some states, the intermediate appellate court
sits in geographic appellate divisions throughout the
state. The number of judges ranges from 3 in some
states to as many as 92 in Puerto Rico. The court may
74
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSE
DESIGNCOMPONENTS
courts, conferences are held immediately after oral

arguments. This requires a private judicial conference room, with private toilet facilities, adjacent to
the judges entrance to the courtroom. Where cases
are conferenced at a later date, a conference room
also should be located near the judges chambers.
Judgesalso require a robing room immediately adjacent to the courtroom entrance with lockers for
storing their robes. The attorney waiting area, or
lobby, should be adjacent to the courtroom.
Security. The courtroom should have a security
station. The bench and bailiff station should be
equipped with a security alarm monitored by a central security office.
Furnishings. Where an appellate court sits in a
trial courtroom, modular furniture that can be assembled rapidly i s an option. The bench should have
sufficient work surface for taking notes and holding
case files. All furnishings should be of an enhanced
quality to reflect the prestige and dignity of the court.
Technical Considerations. Cou rt-record ing
equipment should be integrated with the furniture,
and each judges space should be equipped with a
concealed microphone. The bench should have an
intercom, or telephone, and clockltimer. The court
may wish to consider built-in file cabinets in the
conference rooms for storing case files and papers.
The courtroom lectern should have a built-in microphone and task lighting. A display area sufficient for
an easel or video display screen should be provided.
have its own courthouse, or judges may use trial

courtrooms to hear cases.
In addition to the judges chambers, space needs
include offices for research assistants, law clerks, and
judicial secretaries; conference areas; court clerks
offices; law library; and attorney waiting areas.
Design a n d h a g e . Furniture should be an integral part of the architecture. A fixed lectern placed
between the counsel tables is commonly found in an
appellate courtroom. Support spaces may include an
attorneys waiting room, judges conference room,
robing room, and law library.
Space. The space required for a states court of
last resort generally will be greater than for its intermediate appellate court because of the larger bench
needed to seat the en banc court and the courts
higher status. Seating for an appellate court bench
varies depending upon the size of the court. Typically, an appellate court bench seats three or more
judges. The size of the public seating will depend
upon the ceremonial uses of the courtroom.
Adjacency and Circulation. Sufficient circulation space is required behind the bench. In some
@
E
+
Judges
b. Juvenile I Family.
In many states the general jurisdiction court has
established special juvenile or family divisions of the
general trial court. Several states, however, have
special juvenile or family courts. For example, Providence, Rhode Island, has a family court, the state of
Delaware has a statewide family court, and Virginia
has a juvenile and domestic relations district court
system. Although considered limited jurisdiction
courts, these courts are much more specialized than
most general and limited jurisdiction courts. A juvenile/family court often has court services staff (juvenile probation officers or social workers) or social
serv-iceoffices. Typically, these courtrooms are not
very large, reflecting the more private nature of many
of the hearings. Juvenilecourts, however, have many
of the same security concerns as the adult criminal
courts, e g , holding and transporting juvenile defen-
Lectern
Attorney Tables
0000000
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Appellate Courtroom
Corrrfexyo/ HOK
75

If the facilities are used after regular office hours,
they should be clustered near the entrance to the
courthouse, so that the rest of the courthouse may be
closed off. The cashier's station should be secured
and equipped with controlled access and a screened
payment counter. Direct access from the courtroom
to the cashier counter should be provided for litigants
making payments before their release.
Designandimage. Traffic court may be the only
contact that most people have with the judicial system. It is important that the courtroom project a
suitably dignified judicial image.
Space. A special seating section should be designated for police witnesses. The courtroom should
hold no more than 100 to 150 people and the
maximum size should be between 2,000 and 2,400
square feet. An overcrowded courtroom reduces the
dignity of the court and is difficult to control. If
needed, additional public seatingshould be provided
in the public waiting area outside the courtroom, or
the court should consider changing its calendaring
system.
Adjacency and Circulation. The location of the
traffidarraignment courtroom should be close to the
court's main public entrance, preferablyon the ground
floor, so that the entire building does not need to be
secured if court is held after hours. The courtroom
should have a separate exit to the cashier's window.
This courtroom accommodates higher traff ic volumes and circulation than general trial courtrooms,
and special attention needs to be paid to circulation
in the spectator seating areas. Sufficient public seating should be provided adjacent to the courtroom,
and restroom facilities should be nearby. A holding
area next to the courtroom is necessary.
hvironment. Because of the large number of
people, air ventilation is important, and special attention may need to be given to the acoustics.
Furnishings. Bench or pew-type seating in the
spectator area is necessary to accommodate a large
number of people.
Technical Considerations. See requirements for
general trial courtrooms. Video display screens may
be located outside the courtroom for presentation of
court instructions and directions.
dants. The jurisdiction of the juvenile /family court

usually covers delinquency, dependency, divorce,
child custody, and child support. For a moredetailed
discussion of juvenile and family courts, see the
facility guidelines developed by the National Center
for Juvenile Justice.
Design andimage. Careful consideration should
be given to the shape and layout of the juvenile and
family court. Dependent and abused juveniles must
not be placed in positions where they may be subject
to intimidation. Courtrooms should reflect a high
degree of sensitivity to children and families, particularly those dealing with domestic and dependency
matters, while being dignified and reinforcing the
authority of law.
Space. A juvenile/family courtroom does not
require a large spectator seating area. Often, however, insufficient space is allowed for in the litigation
area: In addition to litigants and attorneys, the
litigation area should accommodate the child advocate, bailiff, probation officer, or social worker.
Adjacency and Circulation. A conference room,
or small hearing room, adjacent to the courtroom is
desirable.
TechnicalConsiderafions.A one-way mirror, or
remotevideo testimony from a separate room, may be
used to protect a child witness from intimidation.
c. Traffic and Arraignment.

Traffidarraignment courts require a standard
nonjury courtroom with special attention to the public and clerical areas. Traffic court is a high-volume
operation, and the courtroom must accommodate a
large number of persons daily. Most cases are disposed of by pleas, and trials are generally brief with
few witnesses and little testimony. A court reporter is
usually not present, but the proceedings are often
electronically recorded. Most defendants pay or
make arrangements to pay their fine before leaving
the courthouse, and the clerk must have the facilities
adjacent to the courtroom to receive fine payments,
issue receipts, and maintain cash.
The arraignment courtroom's primary function i s
to hold hearings where the defendants hear their
rights, hear the charges against them, and enter a plea
of guilty or not guilty. The arraignment hearing may
also be used to set bail or conditions of release, or to
set a date for the preliminary hearing or trial.
d. High-security.
Occasionally, courts need to conduct trials in
which there is a greater than normal potential for
76
SPECIFIC COURTHOUSE DESIGN COMPONENTS
mediation and arbitration. The areas should accommodate 10 to 20 persons, yet be small enough to
foster an informal, nonthreatening atmosphere.
Requirements are generally those for a standard
conference room. Persons attending may be the
judge, court reporter, bailiff, and attorneys. This
room should be located near the courtroom so that
the judge and parties have convenient access. Furnishings should include a desk or slightly elevated
bench, tables, chairs, telephone, electrical outlets,
and cabling for the court reporter and computer
terminals.
Design and Image. The design and image of
interspersed hearing and conference rooms should
be appropriate to their intended functions. Emphasis
should be on the formality of the discussions. Conference rooms intended for general use should accommodate large amounts of traffic and wear. Rooms for
more formal settings and hearings should convey the
appropriate image.
Space. The smaller hearing rooms should. accommodate 10 to 20 people and require approximately 400 to 800 square feet. Informal meeting and
conference rooms designed to accommodate a minimum of 6 people may range in size from approximately 150 to 400 square feet.
Environment. The hearing and meeting rooms
should be well lighted, have appropriatethermostatic
controls, and be free from exterior noise and distractions. The rooms should be soundproofed to prevent
private conversations from being heard in adjacent
areas.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities., All rooms
should provide wheelchair access.
Adjacency and Circulation. The meeting rooms
should be interspersed throughout the facility. They
generally need to be located on the courtfloors and to
be accessible from the courtrooms and chambers.
Accessibility. Larger courthouses should have at
least one room in which informal hearings and alternative dispute resolutions may be conducted by
judges or special hearing officers.
Furnishings. Some informal proceedings, such
as mediation, requireonly a large conference table, at
which the parties jointly work toward a solution.
Other proceedings, such as arbitration and juvenile
hearings, may require a more formal setting utilizing
a slightly elevated judges bench, witness stand,
clerks station, bailiffs station, work tables for each of
violence or disruption, necessitatinggreater security.

In larger jurisdictions, consideration may be given to
designing one courtroom to handle such trials.
Design and Image. It is important that the additional security precautions do not detract from the
dignity and decorum of the court nor should they
interfere withaccess to justice.
Space. Additional bailiff positions should be
provided. The holding cell should be adjacent to the
courtroom and equipped with a microphone and
speaker; two-way closed-circuit television transmission can be used if the defendant becomes violent or
disruptive. Space might be provided in the courtroom
for a secure prisoner station, which is surrounded by
security glazing and directly accessible from the
holding area.
Adjacency and Circulation. Adjacency and circulation requirements are generally the same as for a
regular criminal courtroom, except that the highsecurity courtroom should be located in an isolated
area of the courthouse, where access can be controlled. The prisoner entrance should lead directly
from the holding area into the courtroom. The jury
should enter and exit by means of the private circulation corridor.
Security. The judges bench, clerks station, and
witness stand should be lined with bullet-absorptive
material. Any devices used to secure prisoners in the
courtroom should be discreetly concealed. If prisoners are restrained in the courtroom, the counsel table
should have a modesty screen to shield the prisoner.
Furniture and furnishings should be secured or so
heavy that they cannot be used as weapons. Closedcircuit television may be used to monitor continuously any proceedings in the high-securitycourtroom
from the central security station. Additional security
screening may be appropriate at the entrance to the
courtroom. Witnesses under protectivecustody should
enter the courtroom from the private, secure corridor
connected to a secure witness waiting area.
e. Informal
HearinglMeetinglConference Rooms.
Small meeting rooms should be provided for

hearings on minor infractions,. small claims, and
private matters, as well as for settlement conferences
and status hearings. Private conferences may occur
between parties in child custody, neglect, or other
sensitive cases. These areas are also well suited for
alternative dispute resolution proceedings such as
77
THECOURTHOUSE: A Planning andDcsign Guide

the parties, and a small area for public seating.
Movable furniture may be used in the hearing rooms.
Technical Considerations. A telephone line,
cabling for computer and video display terminals,
and videotape equipment may be provided in each
room.
f. Video Arraignment.
Video arraignment for misdemeanor cases may
reduce the crowding in courtrooms, reduce the cost
of security personnel escorting prisoners, permit the
use of security forces in other needed areas, and
speed up the arraignment proceedings. If the court
decides to employ TV arraignment procedures, the
following guidelines may facilitate the system plann ing.
Design and Image. The camera coverage should
include the judge, prosecutor, defense attorney, defendant, and the arraignment facility at the jail.
Space. The courtroom does not need to be large.

Video arraignments can be conducted in a standard
courtroom.
furnishings. All of the video equipment should
be built into the courtroom furniture where possible.
Technical Considerations. One set of cameras
and a large-screen TV should be installed in the
courtroom and in the jail. The large screen permits
others in the courtroom to view the proceedings.
Smaller TVmonitorsandacamerashould be installed
at the judges bench, attorney tables, and court reporterstation. Afacsimile machineat both endsofthe
video link may be used to transmit paperwork. Existing communication towers on the roof of the courthouse and jail may be used to transmit and receive
remote signals. Possible interference with existing
radio system and licensing should beexplored before
acquiring the system. Currently, connections can be
achieved by means of cables or microwaves. Engi-
Telecommunications
Link
YO-
- \
Courthouse
Jail
El0 0 0 0
00000
00000
00000
00000
00000
00000
oocjbo
odboo
00000
00000
Courtroom
Arraignment
Room
n Video Monitor
Camera Above
0
0
Video Cassene Recorder

Microphone
Speaker
Telephone Handset
Video Arraignment System

Cortrmy of
HOK.
case files and chairs for attorneys is required. In some

jurisdictions, a court case calendar displayed on a
board outside the clerks office is sufficient.
i. Multi-defendant (Mega-courtroom).
The past several years have seen the development of lengthy, multi-party trials. The accommodation of many as 100 attorneys with many different
defendants or plaintiffs, the possibility of multiple
juries, and the need to process, store, and retrieve
hugevolumesoftestirnony, exhibits, andevidenceall
present very special design problems. Because of the
large number of people, the litigation space must be
considerably larger than in a regular trial courtroom.
Large courtrooms require advanced sound systems,
video cameras, video display monitors, and computers for keeping track of thousands of pleadings and
exhibits.
Caution, however, should be exercised in the
consideration of a multi-defendant courtroom, because most communities do not need such a facility.
Only in rare instances may it be cost-efficient to build
such a facility. Where they have been used, they were
located outside the courthouse in auditoriums or
hotel ballrooms, and expenses were borne by the
litigants. Even where it may be justified, designing a
suite of several courtrooms that could easily be converted into one mega-courtroom i s an option.
Design andhage. Becausethe courtroom floor
plan needs to be flexible, movable and modular
furniture settings are necessary, but it is important to
maintain a dignified judicial atmosphere. The courtroom floor may need to be raised to permit the
running of phone, computer, audiovisual, and security alarm cables.
Space.
Multi-defendant courtrooms require
much larger litigation areas, as they may need to
accommodate up to 100 or more attorneys. Space
needs to be made for multiple counsel tables. Multiple juries and the need for multiple jury boxes may
alsoaffectthesizeofthe litigation area. Overall space
needs may exceed 3,000 square feet, depending
upon the size of the trial.
hvironment. Extra-large courtrooms require
special ventilation systems. The need for meeting
spaces, extra-large corridors to handle the large number of attorneys, and larger courtrooms may preclude
the use of natural lighting.
lectern
00
00
Aiiornev Tables
0 0
~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0000000
10000000
0000000
0000000
0000000
0000000
0000000
0000000
0000000
~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0000000
Multi-Defendant Courtroom
Corrrtesy of HOK
neers can help determine which is best suited to a

given situation.
g. Preliminary Hearing.
In felony cases, preliminary or probable cause
hearings may be required, depending on the jurisdiction. After the arrest, the hearings are generally held
at the jail or detention center, or later in court.
Preliminary hearings are often heard in limited jurisdiction courts. The hearing rooms require the same
elements as a standard nonjury courtroom. The size
will depend upon the number of defendants.
h. Calendar Call.
In master calendar court systems, a special calendar call courtroom may be desired. This typically
requires a large nonjury courtroom. Depending on
the courts jurisdiction and case-scheduling practices, space may be required to accommodate attorneys for court calendar call. For high case volumes
and daily calendar call, a dedicated space next to the
courtroom with a large work surface to spread out the
79

type and size of the court. The judges chambers must
accommodate meetings and conferences with staff
and attorneys, legal research and study, preparation
and review of case files, preparation of opinions,
storage of case files, informal hearings, screening of
visitors, reception, telephone answering, typing, and
filing. Judges and judicial personnel may include
justices, judges, magistrates, commissioners, hearing
officers, referees, judges pro tem, visiting judges,
retired judges, or senior judges.
The judge should have ample office area, because time not spent on the bench is usually spent in
chambers. The chambers must be conducive to
efficiency. When not presiding in the courtroom, the
judges work includes legal study and review of the
law, preparation of opinions or judgments, preparation for upcoming hearingsor trials, review and study
of case,files and records, and meeting and conferences with court staff and attorneys. Active cases are
often discussed and decided in chambers, and, therefore, adequate space should be provided to comfortably accommodate several visitors.
~ec~nica/Consi~erafions.
Spacefor microphones
and video display equipment needs to be provided.
Because of the large litigation area, attorneys at the
rear of the courtroom may not be able to see what is
happening, or even the witnesses. For this reason,
court proceedings may need to be viewed by closedcircuit television. Attorneys should have a buzzer
connected to the judges bench to notify the judge of
objections. Each attorney station should be equipped
with phone jacks, computer cable hookups, security
line, and video cabling. The large volume of pleadings and paper exhibits may require optical disks to
store images of exhibits and court documents. (Automation is essential in such cases.) Large screens for
projecting computer images and videotaped evidence or depositions, or viewing imaged documents
or closed-circuit television images, are necessary.
a. Judges Private Office.

The following outlines some of the design features of the judges private office. Design features of
judicial support functions and other staff spaces are
presented in an accompanying section.
Design and Image. The location, size, and furnishingsofthe judges privateofficeshould reflect the
dignity and importance of the position. The chief or
administrative judge may require additional space,
reflecting the judges added administrative responsibilities.
Space. There should be sufficient space in the
judges personal office for study, case preparation,
and a personal library of reference materials. The
office also needs to accommodate conferences between judges, attorneys, and court staff. Generally,
space requirements range from 250 to 500 square
feet, depending upon the location of judicial conference areas, the size of the judges personal library,
and space standards agreed to by the court.
Environment. Much of the judges work requires
a quiet and distraction-freeenvironment. The chambers should have windows for natural lighting and
visual relief, but should not be able to be viewed
directly from the buildings exterior, as this poses a
security threat to the judge. The office should also be
Private Circulation
Chamber
Cortrfcsj of
HOK.
B. COURT SUPPORT ELEMENTS

A courtroom cannot operate effectively or efficiently without appropriate support areas. These
spaces are divided into the following categories:
chambers, jury operations, security and prisoner detention, and general facility support.
1. TRIAL JUDGESCHAMBERS. The group of
private offices provided for the judge and his or her
personal staff is referredto as the judges chambers or
judicial suite. Personal staff may include a judicial
secretary, minute clerk or calendaring clerk, law
clerk, court reporter, and bailiff, depending upon the
80
SPECIFIC COURTHOUSE DESIGNCOMPONENTS
telephone alsoshould be provided. Other equipment

might include a facsimile machine.
soundproof and relatively quiet as conversationswith

attorneysand Iitigants regarding pendingcases should
be confidential. Environmentalcontrols for the office
should be located within the chambers.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities. All judicial
offices should be accessible to persons with disabilities.
Adjacency and Circulation. Judges must be
close to the courtrooms. During recesses or other
breaks in courtroom proceedings, the judge can
quickly retire to the private office to handle other
matters. This, however, does not require the chambers to be immediately attached to the courtroom.
The chambers may be located across a private corridor from the courtroom or even on a separate floor.
Where the chambers are separated from the courtrooms, a small robing room, conference room, or
office may be located adjacent to the courtroom for
the judge to use for private conferencesor to conduct
business during short recesses.
Accessibility. The judges private office should
easily be accessible to the courtrooms through a
private corridor or elevator. The public should be
able to visit the judges private office only by passing
through a security checkpoint and then entering the
private corridor.
Security. Judgesshould be able to enter and exit
the courthouse inconspicuously. There should be a
private corridor from the judges parking area to the
judges chamber. The chambers should be equipped
with a silent duress alarm, located inconspicuously
at the desk, that will alert a central security control
station of an emergency.
The chambers may directly adjoin the secretarys
and law clerks offices, but should have an alternate
access that enables the judge to enter the private
corridor without passing through the secretarys office. This dual access permits the judge an escape
route in case of an emergency.
Furnishings. The judges private office is usually
furnished with a desk, work surface, bookcases, small
conference table, sofa, and side chairs. The furnishings should be appropriate to the decorum of the
office and may include national and state flags.
Technical Considerations. Offices should have
electrical receptacles and cable conduits for built-in
computer terminals to access law databases, word
processing, and database management systems and
to review taped depositions and case transcripts. A
6. Judicial Staff Support and Chamber Support Spaces.

In addition to the judges private office, space
should be provided for other personnel who assist the
judge, such as a secretary, law clerk, scheduling
clerk, and bailiff. (A court reporters office may also
be located in the chamber suite or elsewhere in the
facility. A discussion of the court reporters office is
presented in the next section.) Thestaff officesshould
harmonize with the design and image of the judges
private office to form a unified suite. Chamber
support spaces also include toilet and robing area,
library and conference room, and judicial lounge.
Recepfion/Secrefarial A rea. The secreta rys work
area should be a minimum of 100 to 120 square feet
to accommodate a desk with typing stand, one or two
lateral filingcabinets, and bookshelves. There should
also be space forword-processingorcomputerequipment, including a video display terminal, keyboard,
and printer.
The secretaryscreens visitors and needs a waiting
area for those persons wishing to see the judge. An
adjoining reception/public waiting area of approximately40 to 60 square feet should be located directly
outside the judges private office. It should seat two
to four guests and be furnished with comfortable
chairs. When several judges share one or more
secretaries, a central clerical/reception area may be
used. The judges office should be immediately
adjacent to this area.
The secretary should have access to photocopy
and facsimile equipment. This equipment may be
part of the chamber suite or centrally located and
shared among a set of chamber suites.
The secretarys desk should have a duress alarm
system for immediate notification of security personnel in emergency situations.
Law Clerk Area. A law clerk is generally an
attorney who performs legal research and reviews
case files for the judge. The law clerks office should
be a minimum of 120 square feet and should include
a desk, filing cabinet, bookshelves, and visitor chairs.
The office should also have convenient access to the
law library.
Minute and Scheduling Clerk Area. The minute
or scheduling clerk prepares the calendar for the
judge and assists the secretary. (In some jurisdictions,
81
THE COURTHOUSE: A P laming and Design Guide
minute clerks are also assigned secretarial duties.)

Minute clerks may be stationed permanently in the
judges chambers, the courtroom, or in the clerks
office. Typically, the work space needs can be
accommodated in an open office arrangement similar to that of the judges personal secretary. If located
in the judges chambers, the work station should be in
view of the reception area for screening visitors when
the secretary is out of the office.
Bailiffor Court Officer. The bailiff i s responsible
for the judges security and may be located either in
the judges chamber set or in a central location with
other bailiffs. If the bailiffs station is located in the
chamber set, the work space should be approximately 100squarefeetor less, includingadesk,chair,
filing equipment, and visitor chair.
Judicial Toilets and Robing Areas. For security
reasons and as a convenience to the judge, judicial
restroomsshould be separated from pub1ic restrooms.
The judges restroom should be approximately 50
square feet and designed to accommodate persons
with disabilities. When chambers are clustered,
common restroom and robing facilities might be
shared between judges to save space and lower costs.
Judicial Libraries and Conference Rooms. The
judges private office should contain a small personal
library and a meeting area that can accommodate
four to six persons. If needed, larger library.and
conference space may be located outside the judges
private office and shared with other judges in the
court. The number of conference rooms provided
should be contingent upon the number of judges and
their location in the courthouse. To improve space
efficiency, conference rooms also could double as
law libraries for judicial staff.
Judicial Lounge. In larger courts, a judicial
lounge also may be provided for the judges, consisting of a kitchenette, tables and chairs, and sofas and
side chairs. This area would allow judges to have
lunches and breaks in private and confer with colleagues in a relaxed atmosphere.
to hold small conferences with other judges and

attorneys. They also need to confer regularly with
their law clerks. Security needs are generally the
same as for trial court judges. Because of the status of
appellate judges and the prestige of the court, the
space requirementsareslightlylarger than for general
trial court judges. Approximately 450 to 550 net
square feet (NSF),including a private toilet, is considered adequate for the judges private office.
Appellate judges generally have a secretary and
one or two law clerks. Space is needed for reception
and waiting, a secretarial work station, private offices
for law clerks, and case files and office supplies. A
small private library may be included in the judges
private office or as part of the chambers. A separate
small conference room may also be desirable.
In some states, appellate judges may have an
office in their hometown. This may be rented office
space similar to a law office.
Appellate judges generally have the same equipment needs as general trial judges. This includes a
computer, video display equipment, VCR, audiorecording equipment for note-taking and playback,
photocopier, and facsimile machine.
Lighting, acoustics, ventilation, heating, andcooling are generally the same as for a general trial court
judge.
3. COURT REPORTERS OFFICE. The court

reporter requires an office to transcribe tapes and
notes of trial proceedings. This exacting work requires an environment conducive to sustained concentration with minimum interruption. Each reporter
may have his or her own office, although some
jurisdictionsgroupall reporters intoacommon, shared
area.
Design and Image. Each court reporter should
have a separate, private office in which to transcribe
court proceedings and store equipment.
Space. The court reporters office should be
approximately 120 square feet. For a multi-reporter
suite, space requirementswill depend on the number
of reporters and types of work stations to be included.
Environment. Because a court reporters work
requires intense concentration, the office should be
quiet, comfortable, and well lighted.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities. The office
should accommodate a wheelchair.
2. APPELLATE JUDGES CHAMBERS. Because

an appellate judge spends most o f his or her time in
chambers, this space should be comfortable, functional, and ample. Appellate judges spend a great
amount of time performing legal research, drafting
opinions, reading, and relaxing. While they will not
hold hearings in their chambers, they do need space
82
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSE
DESIGNCOMPONENTS
The jury staff should be located in the assembly
room whenever persons are waiting. Staff should
have their own entrance separate from the assembly
room and a private work area.
Design and Image. Jury assembly areas should
be tastefully and comfortablydecorated. Many courts
will excuse unselected jurors as soon as it i s known
they are not needed that day. Where this occurs, the
jury assembly may remain empty for most of the day,
and the room may be used for other purposes.
Space. The juror assembly room may consist of
two distinct spaces: an assembly or orientation area
for prospective jurors and a waiting area and lounge
for selected jurors. In somecourts, a separatevoirdire
area, or impaneling room, for jurors being questioned
may be needed. Usually, however, voir dire takes
place in the courtroom.
Because jurors may wait long periods before
being called, there should be enough chairs for each
juror to have a seat.
There should be space for passive recreation,
such as reading, television, table games, and refreshments. Separate smoking and nonsmoking lounges
should be furnished in the larger assembly rooms.
The space required for the jury assembly/orientation
area will depend on the number of jurors commonly
called for court. The space required is approximately
12 to 18squarefeet perjuror. Avarietyofseatingmay
be used: carrels require 30 to 35 square feet per juror;
table seating requires 25 square feet per juror; casual
seating 20 to 25 square feet per juror; and theater
seating 15 square feet per juror. Theatre seating,
however, is needed only for orientation, which lasts
from 30 to 60 minutes during the day. Additional
spaces include toilets, a vending area, a coat closet,
and a storage area for personal belongings. Space
should also be planned for court employees based
upon the courts operational practices. At a minimum, a check-in desk is required near theentrance to
the room.
Environment. The room should be spacious and
furnished for such activities as reading, writing, and
watching television. The rooms should be well
ventilated, particularly the smoking areas, and acoustically treated to lower interior noise and reduce
disruptions to adjacent offices.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities. All jury
assembly areas should be accessible to persons with
a disability and accommodate wheelchairs.
Adjacency and Circulation. The offices should

be located near the judges chambers and the courtrooms so that the reporter can quickly move back and
forth as required.
Accessibility. Court reporters offices may be
located either in the private or public areas of the
courthouse, depending upon the organization of reporting services. If court reporters are assigned permanently to one judge, then they may be located in
the private areas; if court reporters are assigned from
a pool, then their offices may be located off the public
corridors. They should, however, have access to the
private circulation corridor that runs between the
courtroom and their offices.
Security. The court reporters office should fall
within standard courthouse security procedures.
Furnishings. Space should be allocated for a
desk, typewriter, small word processor or personal
computer and printer, sound-recording devices, and
storage cabinets for tape recorders, sound recorders,
tapes, records, and notes.
Technical Considerations. Greater use of automated transcription and audio-video equipment requires sufficient telephone jacks and electrical outlets.
4. JURY OPERATIONS.
a. Jury Assembly I Orientation.
Jury duty is a public service performed by hundreds of thousands of Americans each year. In many
instances, jury duty is the only exposure many of
these Americans will have to the justice system.
Therefore, it is imperative that jury assembly areas be
comfortable places for potential jurors to wait and
receive their orientation to jury service.
Potential jurors are requested to report to the
courthouse. Citizens reporting for jury duty should be
treated with dignity and made to feel as comfortable
as possible. All amenities should be provided within
a controlled area. In large courthouses, where several
jury trials may be held on the same day, the size of the
jury pool may be large, requiring special dedicated
areas. In smaller courthouses where the need for jury
trials is limited, no special areas may be needed
except an enlarged jury deliberation room or conference room. In some smaller communities, the courtroom may double as the jury assembly area.
83

Adjacencyand Circulation. Jury assembly areas
should be located on one of the lower floors of the
courthouse. The major advantages of having the
assembly area located on the main floor are ease of
accessibility from the public entrance and fewer
people using elevators and escalators to reach the
courtfloors. The primary disadvantage is the need to
transport jurors who. are not selected through the
public circulation routes between the courtrooms
and assembly area. For convenience, it i s helpful if
the assembly room is near the snack bar.
The primary advantage of locating the jury assembly area on the courtfloor i s the ease of movement
of jurors to the courtroom. The primary disadvantages are the difficulty jurors may have in finding the
jury assembly area upon arriving at the courthouse
and the resulting large number of people on the
courtfloor.
Transporting jurors to the courtroom is a major
problem in larger courthouses, particularly when
everyone istryingtousetheelevatorsat thesametime
in the morning. The use of a freight elevator to move
jurors or making one of the regular public elevators
large enough to hold an entire jury panel should be
considered.
Accessibility. The jury assembly area should be
easily accessible from theentrance to the courthouse.
The room should have double doors to accommodate
the large traffic flow. An initial reception area should
be provided for jurors to check in, receive badges,
and store personal belongings. The adjacent work
station, approximately 80 square feet for each jury
clerk, should be sufficient for clerks to call jury
panels, prepare jury lists, and arrange payment to
jurors.
Furnishings. Some jurors may wish to do personal or business work during their wait and should
be provided with quiet work carrels or booths consisting of desk, chair, and telephone. A vending area
providing snacks, soft drinks, and coffee should be
furnished in each juror area in addition to a drinking
fountain. Each jury assembly area should have mens
and womens restrooms.
TechnicalConsiderations. CIea rIy d isp Iayed signs
should guide jurors to the jury assembly area, especially if the area is located away from the main public
entrance. The room should have adequate outlets
and cabling for video display equipment (should the
jurisdiction provide orientation instructions to the
Coats
Vestibule/
Lounge
Men
Women
Q-
. - L b
-,
_L-
Private Circulation
Jury Deliberation Suite
jurors via videotape) and a public address system.

Adequate power and cabling for computer terminals
and printers should be installed in the staff work area.
Courts with jury call-in systems require approximately one direct phone line per 75 jurors.
b. Jury Deliberation Rooms.
Upon the completion of a jury trial, the judge
instructs the jury as to the requirementsofthe law and
their duty to decide the case. The jury is then escorted
by the bailiff or court officer from the courtroom to the
jury deliberation room. These deliberations may last
from only a few minutes to many days; therefore, the
room must be comfortable, well ventilated, and designed to minimize the stress on jurors. The jury
deliberation room must protect the privacy of the
jurors and their deliberationsand assure confidentiality.
In large courthouses, it may not be necessary to
have a jury deliberation room for each jury courtroom. Smaller courts with infrequent needs for jury
deliberation may wish to enlarge the room so that it
may also serve as a jury assembly room or a court
conference room or perform some other function.
Design and Image. The room should assure the
confidentiality ofthe jury deliberationsthrough soundproofing, controlled circulation, and supervision by a
court security officer. A sound lock, or vestibule, is
desirable. Deliberation rooms should be equipped
with both mens and womens toilets. In smaller jury
rooms, consideration may be given to using one
un isex toi let.
84
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSE
DESIGNCOMPONENTS
Space. The jury deliberation room should comfortably accommodate 12 to 14 jurors, preferably at
an oval-shaped table to encourage participation of all
jurors. The room should be at least 280 square feet,
with a minimum width of 14 feet. This will allow
sufficient spacefora blackboard, charts, exhibits, and
video monitors. While some jurisdictions use smaller
juries of 6 to 8 persons, the space savings of a smaller
room are generally insignificant and reduce the flexibility of the jurisdiction to use larger juries.
Additional space should be provided for a vestibule and two toilets. Total area for a jury deliberation
room should approximate 400 to 450 square feet.
Environment. The jury deliberation room should
be soundproofed to prevent people in adjacent areas
from hearing the deliberations. The room should be
well lighted, well ventilated, and air conditioned. If
smoking is permitted, special exhaust equipment
should be installed in the vestibule area, where jurors
may be permitted to smoke.
To minimize contacts with outside persons, the
jury room should be designed to eliminate the need
for persons to leave the room. Mens and womens
toilet facilities of approximately 40 to 50 square feet
each should be located off the entrance vestibule.
These should be soundproofed so that they may be
used without embarrassment, and the doors should
not open directly into the main jury room.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities. All jury
deliberation rooms should be accessible to persons
with disabilities and accommodate wheelchairs.
Access to and from the courtroom should be barrier
free. At least one of the toilets should be accessible
to persons with a disability.
Adjacency and Circulation. The jury deliberation room should be near the courtroom and accessible through controlled circulation from the jury box.
The room may adjoin the courtroom or be located
across the private corridor. Again, optimum flexibility is achieved through physical separation. To
provide confidentiality of the juror deliberations, the
room should not adjoin the attorney conference or
witness waiting rooms. A bailiffor other staff member
may supervise the jury from a security station outside
the jury deliberation room, or outside a cluster of jury
deliberation rooms. There should also be a signaling
or contact system for jurors to notify the bailiff of any
special needs.
Accessibility. The jury deliberation room should
be accessible from the courtroom by a private corridor. Jurorsshouldnot have to pass through the public
seating area of the courtroom to enter the jury deliberation room. The public must not be able to gain
access to the jurors or see or hear the deliberations.
Jurorsshould enter the deliberation room through
a vestibule of approximately 40 square feet. The
vestibule will facilitate the movement of jurors from
the courtroom to the jury deliberation room while
also providing noise control and security. Jurorsmay
also leave coats and store personal belongings in this
area before moving into the main deliberation room.
Security. Long and sometimes emotional deliberations can increase feelings of claustrophobia and
general unease, thereby interfering with thedecisionmaking process. Windows may be provided for
visual and psychological relief, but should not allow
the jurors to see or hear the public, as this may be
grounds for a mistrial. If the jury deliberation room is
located on the ground floor, it should not have
windows, unless they are high enough to prevent a
person outside from seeing or hearing the deliberations. The room should not have vented doors or
transoms.
furnishings. To minimize contact with outside
persons, the room should be designed to eliminate
the need for jurors to leave the room. A drinking
fountain, or sink, and coffee machine should be
located within the room, and toilets for both men and
women should be provided. Comfortable chairs
should be arranged around a conference table. The
chairs should be upholstered, movable, with back
supports and arm rests. The traditional conference
table is rectangular, but many courts are experimenting with round or oval shaped tables in an effort to
make the seating positions more equitable and improve communication among the jurors.
Technical Considerations. AI t hough t e Iep ho nes
are not allowed in jury deliberation rooms, a telephone jack and electrical outlets should be installed
for when the room is not in use by jurors. There
should be cable connections for video monitors to
allow jurors to view taped evidence and review
transcripts. There should also be a device to summon
the bailiff when the deliberations have been concluded.
85
THECOURTHOUSE: A Platinitzg and Design Guide

e. Grand Jury Operations.
The grand jury determines whether the prosecuting attorney has sufficient evidence to prosecute a
suspect. Grand juries may also investigate criminal
activity and subpoena witnesses and evidence. The
prosecuting attorney assembles witnesses and conducts the presentation of cases. Grand juries may
convene for several months while evidence is gathered and witnesses questioned. The size of grand
juries across the country typically ranges from 15 to
23 persons.
Grand juries are often impaneled by a judge in a
courtroom and then retire toa special grand jury room
to review evidence. Present in the grand jury room
are the jurors, the prosecuting attorney, the witness,
a court reporter, and possibly a bailiff. An important
consideration in the design and location of the grand
jury room is maintaining theconfidentialityand security of witnesses who may be called to testify.
Design and Image. The grand jury room should
have the character of a formal hearing room. In most
courts, the grand jurors are seated in the regular petit
jury box, but occasionally courts have two jury boxes
in the criminal courtroom: one for the petit and
another for the grand jury. In single-judge and small
multi-judge courthouses, one of the petit jury deliberation rooms might be designed to accommodate
grand juries. In large criminal courts, where grand
juries meet regularly, a room should be dedicated
solely to the grand jury. Such a room should include
toilets, witness waiting area and lounge, a bailiff's
station, a reception area, an evidence storage room,
and the deliberation room and juror lounge.
Space. The grand jury area should consist, at a
minimum, of a grand jury hearing room, entry vestibule, waiting areas for sequestered witnesses, a receptiodwaiting room, two restrooms, and an interview room. A juror lounge may also be included, or
a jury deliberation room may be used if access is
limited.
The grand jury hearing room should be approximately 600 to 800 square feet. It may be calculated
at 30 to 40 square feet per person. The entry vestibule
should be a minimum 40 to 80 square feet. The
witness-waiting areas may range in size from 100 to
240 square feet. The receptiodwaiting room should
beapproximately 150squarefeet, with tworestrooms.
The interview room should be approximately 100
square feet.
Grand Jury Suite

Coirnrsy of IiOK.
Environment. Grand jury room spaces should be

soundproof, properly ventilated, air conditioned (with
an independently controlled thermostat), and well
lighted. Furnishings should be comfortable for long
periods of use. Writing surfaces should also be
provided for the jurors to take notes during presentations. The room should be screened from the public
view.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities. The grand
jury area should be accessible to persons with disabilities and should accommodate wheelchairs.
Access to and from the courtroom should be barrier
free. At least one of the toilet facilities should be
accessible to persons with disabilities.
Adjacencyand Circulation. The grand jury room
should be accessible from both the public, prisoner,
and private circulation areas of the courthouse. Witnesses may include members of the general public
who may use the main entrances to the courthouse,
undercover or secret witnesses who may be escorted
through the private circulation areas to avoid identification, and prisoners who need to be brought through
the prisoner circulation areas.
Accessibility. The grand jurors and prosecuting
attorney may enter the room through the private
circulation corridor. In some instances, defendants in
custody will be called upon to testify, and access for
detainees should be through the secure corridor and/
or elevator. If the grand jury area is located near one
86
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSE DESIGNCOMPONENTS
of the jury deliberation rooms, grand jurors may use
the deliberation room as a lounge.
Security. The grand jury room should be private
and secure. Often, secret witnesses will be interviewed by the grand jury, and there is a need to
protect their identity. Such witnesses should be able
to get to the grand jury room without going through
the public corridors. The grand jury spaces may be
provided with windows for visual relief, unless they
are located on the ground floor where the public
could see or hear the proceedings. Ground-level jury
spaces should be private and soundproof.
Furnishings. Grand jurors' seating is frequently
in a tiered arc or horseshoe, with the attorneys, court
reporter, interpreter, and grand jury foreman located
near the center of the arc and the witness either
directlyacrossorofftooneside. Avariation isan oval
or rectangular table with a witness stand at one end.
Chairs for all parties should be comfortable and
able to swivel. The prosecutor should be seated at a
table, and there should be a lectern for use when
questioning witnesses. Other work stations include
the court reporter and electronic recording areas with
writing surfaces. The grand jury suite should also be
equipped with a coffee bar, small refrigerator, counter,
and cupboards.
Technical Considerations. The room should
have appropriate electrical outlets. There should be
cable runs installed for video display monitors and
audio-recording and playback equipment to allow
jurors to view taped evidence and review transcripts.
5. SECURITY AND PRISONER DETENTION.
a. BailifSs Central Workroom.

Where bailiffs are assigned from a centralized
office or group, a central bailiff's workroom provides
a centralized location for bailiff assembly and coordination. The area may include office space for a chief
bailiff and assistant, a work station for a clerical
assistant, a locker area, and an assembly area. Bailiffs
will assemble in the workroom before court and
during recesses, and this will be an area to complete
reports, confer with other bailiffs, and relax. As with
the other specially designated rooms, the bailiffs
work area will help to reduce overall congestion
within the courthouse.
Design and Image. In larger facilities, a central
location for all court bailiffs may be provided. The
space should combine work stations and desks with

casual furniture for conversations and relaxation.
Space. The size of the bailiffs workroom and
assembly area will vary depending upon the size of
the court facility and number of bailiffs required.
Small individual lockers may be provided in the
bail iff's workroom.
Adjacency and Circulation. Although the location of the bailiffs workroom is flexible, it should be
located near the courtrooms and also near the central
courthouse security station. From this location, bailiffs can quickly respond to any emergency.
Accessibility. In larger courthouses, consider
providing a central assembly area and workroom for
the exclusive use of bailiffs.
Furnishings. The workroom,should be furnished
with comfortable seating, a work surface, and desk.
Technical Considerations. A telephone should
be included for use in an emergency.
b. Sheriff and Process Servers.

In many jurisdictions, the sheriff is a constitutional officer and charged with a variety of duties,
which may include law enforcement, court-related
security, and supervision and escort of prisoners. The
sheriff also may be responsible for serving court
process, such as subpoenas and warrants, and executingcertain courtorders, such asevictions, confiscation, and sale of property. The division of these
functions and operational preference of the sheriff
will influence the need to incorporate the sheriff's
department within the courthouse.
Design and Image. In larger facilities, a central
office to house the sheriff and process servers may be
provided. These are private work offices where
officers will report in the morning, receive their
assignments, and then leave on their assignments.
The office may be empty for a large portion of the day.
The office should accommodate work stations and
desksand might becombined with thecentral bailiffs
workroom or the central security station.
Space. The size of the workroom and assembly
area will vary depending upon the size of the court
facility and number of process servers. Most process
servers will spend most of their day outside of the
building, so each officer does not need a full-sized
work station. Officers may share a desk or require
only a small work station while in the office. Small
individual lockers also may be provided.

Adjacency and Circulation. The office may be
located near the central holding or central security
area and be part of the the secure and private circulation areas of the building.
Accessibility. Officers should have access to the
clerk's office, the judges' chambers, and parking.
furnishings. The workroom should be furnished
with desks and comfortable work stations that can be
used by officers.
c. Central Security Control and Security Stations.
The security control station serves as the central

core of court security operations. This unit is a
centralized area within the courthouse from which all
security zones and safety alarm systems are monitored and assistancedispatched. The security control
unit must be manned constantly during regular work
hours. From this unit, the courthouse may be monitored through the use of closed-circuit television
systems. Security stations are control points on the
courtfloors and should be located so as to monitor
public elevators and courtroom entryways and to
control private circulation access. The control unit
should have an equipment room and toilets for staff.
Design and Image. The centralized control center would serve as headquarters during any emergency. The center would dispatch personnel in
response to emergencies and summon, or notify, any
Fire Alarms
Floor Control Stations
Duress Alarms
Officer
Intercom System
External
Emergency
Personnel
Door Access
System
Public Address
System
necessary external agencies or personnel. There

should be separate and secure circulation for incustody prisoners through the courthouse. Attorney/
prisoner interview booths, with appropriate privacy,
should be provided.
Space. The size of the security control unit will
vary with the size of the court facility. A minimum of
100 square feet should be provided, with larger units
being 400 to 500 square feet. The security stations are
smaller work stations of 60 to 80 square feet.
Environment. The security control unit should
have proper thermostatic and ventilation conditions,
as this improves the concentration of the officers on
duty. High-denisty lighting should be used, but not so
high that it creates a glare on the television monitors.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities. The control
units and toilets should be accessible to persons with
disabilities.
Adjacencyand Circulation. The security control
unit should be centrally located near the main public
entrance. It is also recommended that the unit be
located near the bailiff's workroom, as this ensures
speedy assistance in an emergency. Security stations
should be located on the courtfloors, near the public
circulation areas.
Accessibility. In larger facilities, an alternative
arrangement would be to decentralize security access by locating a security station on each court-floor.
Security, No unauthorized persons should have
access to the security control station.
Furnishings. The security control unit shall contain a combination desk and control panel, a lockable
file cabinet, and a storage locker. The security
stations are open work stations consisting of a desk
and chair.
Technical Considerations. Appropriate elect r ical and cabling requirements should be provided for
thesecurity equipment and monitors. Multiple phone
lines should include those dedicated for internal
courthouse use and dedicated external lines to supporting agencies.
d. Central Prisoner Holding and Transport.
The courthouse must securely separate persons
in custody while maintaining their safety and constitutional rights. While the facility design, materials,
and equipment should facilitate security goals, no
system is secure without adequate personnel trained
to use the facility properly and securely.
Central Court Security Control Unit

Corrresyof HOK
88
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSE
DESIGN
COMPONENTS
view into the holding cells or have visibility through
monitors and should be able to monitor or control all
entrances and exits. The station should be secured
from unauthorized entry and should include a dedicated staff toilet.
Sufficient staging areas for transporting inmates
should be provided near the sally port entrance and
thesecureelevators. Corridors should be wideenough
to prohibit inmates from grabbing officers and to
allow adequate two-way passage.
There should be separate holding facilities for
men and women. If these holding areas are collocated, there should be sight and sound separation
between the sexes. If juveniles must be held with
adults, additional sight and sound separation is requi red.
Group-holding cells should have 12 to 15 square
feet per inmate. State standards should be consulted
to determine the required sizes of holding cells. A
minimum group cell of 100 to 120 square feet is
recommended. Individual cells for segregating prisoners should be a minimum of 40 square feet.
Attorneyklient meeting booths may be provided
at the central holding facility, on the courtfloors, or
both. These booths should be approximately 60
square feet and divided with appropriate security
glazing or wire mesh to separate the parties. A small
contact conference area of 60 to 80 square feet may
also be provided to allow for the review and signing
of documents.
Environment. The cells should be well ventilated, well lighted, and well maintained. Temporary
holding cells for prisoners awaiting court appearances should conform to appropriate state and American Correctional Association standards for lighting,
ventilation, heating, and cooling in short-term holding and detention facilities. Lighting fixtures and
ventilation shafts should be secured in place to prevent their removal and use as weapons. The cells
should be equipped with vandal-resistant furniture.
It is extremely important that holding areas be
soundproofed. Drains for sinks, toilets, and wash
basins should be large enough so that they cannot be
easily blocked up and cause flooding.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities. All areas
should be accessible to persons with disabilities.
Adjacency and Circulation. All passage of prisoners to and from the holding cell and the courtroom
should be by a secure corridor that is completely
Persons held in pretrial detention and persons

convicted and remanded to the custody of the state
must be transported to and from the courthouse in a
safe and secure manner. Prisoner detention facilities
increase the efficiency of the courts by allowing the
detainee to be located in close proximity to the
courtroom at thescheduled timeof appearance. Even
in jurisdictions where the jail is adjacent to the
courthouse, i t may be necessary to design a holding
and staging area within the courthouse for securing
and transporting prisoners.
Modern courthouses generally have two detention areas: a central holding and staging area for
transferring of prisoners to the courtfloors and a
staging and holding area for rapid movement of
prisoners to and from the courtrooms.
Secure
Stair
Courtfloor Holding Area

Coirrresj of HOK
Design and Image. Court facilities in which

criminal trials are held should have detention facilities for male and female prisoners. Prisoners awaiting
a hearing or trial should always be kept apart from the
court staff and the public. There should be a secure
holding facility within the courthouse to temporarily
hold prisoners before their appearance in court.
Space. The central holding area should consist of
the following elements: a control center, staging
area, holding cells, and visitation booths. The control
center monitors the operations of the holding area.
The officer manning the station should have a direct
89

separate from the circulation routes of judges, court
staff, and the public. The route should be as direct as
possible.
Accessibility. In those instanceswhere prisoners
must be transported from the jail to thecourthouse by
vehicle, there should be a secure sally port for the
deliveryof prisoners. Sally ports range in size, but one
bay area should be at least 800 to 1,000 square feet
to accommodate a large van.
Access to secure corridors should be either by
keykard control or through remotely controlled electronic locks. Attorneys should be able to enter the
interview booths from the public area without entering the secured area.
Security. Secured corridors should be free from
indentation and be monitored by security cameras
connected to the control station.
Furnishings. Furnishings should be fixed and
rated for maximum security. Lighting fixtures and airconditioning and ventilating registers should be secured in place to prevent their removal as weapons.
Floor drains and vents should be properly covered.
The holding cells should have solid ceilings. (An
exampleofgood ceiling construction isa solid welded
ceiling.) A modesty panel should be provided around
the cell toilets to maintain proper privacy. Care
should be taken that there are no protruding objects
or sharp edges in the holding cells.
Technical Considerations. Every cell should
have its own toilet facility. This will eliminate the
need for staff persons to transport inmates to and from
toilets. These facilities may be combined wash basin
and toilet units constructed of either stainless steel or
porcelain. Toilets and drains should be installed
alonga wall on thecorridorsideofthe holding facility
or along an accessible service duct so that repairs can
be made from the outside. Drains are necessary in
any cell with toilets.
a designated inmate elevator that transports the detainees to and from a central holding facility in the
courthouse or nearby jail. When a detainee's case
comes before the court, a bailiff or court officer
escorts the inmate from the holding area to the
defendant's table. In those cases that result in continued detention, the inmate is returned to the central
holding area to await transport to the detention facility or jail.
Design and Image. The holding cell cluster
should be a combination of group and individual
holding cells. The prisoner circulation system should
not interferewith privateand public circulation within
the facility.
Space. The short-term holding area should consist of a control station, holding cells, and, if possible,
attorneyklient meeting booths. The control station
need not beenclosed and should provide the security
officer with direct visibility to all areas. Groupholding cells should allow 12 to 15 square feet per
inmate. The minimum recommended size of a groupholding cell is 100to 120squarefeet.Individual cells,
used for segregation of prisoners, should be a minimum of 40 square feet. Noncontact attorneyklient
meeting booths may also be provided.
Environment. Temporary holding cells should
conform to appropriate state and American Correctional standards for lighting, ventilation, heating, and
cooling. There should be separate holding facilities
for men and women. If these holding areas are
collocated, there should be sight and sound separation between the sexes.
The cells should be well ventilated, well lighted,
and well maintained. Lighting fixturesand ventilation
shafts should be secured in place to prevent their
removal and use as weapons. The cells should be
equipped with vandal-resistant furniture, such as a
bench that extends around the interior wall.
It is not unusual for in-custody defendants to
attempt to disrupt court hearings by shouting insults,
using abusive language, banging on walls, and flushing toilets. Such noise from courtfloor-holding cells
can easily disrupt court proceedings, cause embarrassment, and intimidate witnesses or jurors. It is
critical that the holding area be soundproofed so that
no sound from the holding area is heard in the
courtroom. If the cells are placed adjacent to the
courtroom, sound barrier material should be applied
e. Courtfloor Holding Areas.

Short-term prisoner-holding facilities should be
close to the courtrooms. While a larger prisoner
inta ke-and-processing facility should be central I y
located adjacent to the secured prisoner entrance of
the courthouse, multiple temporary holding clusters
should be located adjacent to or near the courtrooms.
On the courtfloors, these holding facilities may be
located between pairs of courtrooms and serviced by
90
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSE
DESIGNCOMPONENTS
officers, witnesses, the press, and members of the
general public. Many courts provide no waitingareas
for these persons, forcing them to mill about in
congested corridors or compete for limited seating.
Design and Image. Traffic congestion in narrow
corridors, the noise it generates, and the debris that
accumulates can be remedied by providing a publicwaiting area off the hallways. Waitingareas draw this
traffic out of the hallway and into a semi-closed area
or alcove.
Space. The waitingareas should be between 200
and 400 square feet in area and, if possible, should be
located in sight of the courtrooms they serve. Traffic
and other high-volume courtrooms require larger
waitingareas, while200squarefeet is moreappropriate for general trial courtrooms that have less public
seating.
Environment. The waiting areas should be furnishedwith durable, low-maintenance materials, and
walls, ceilings, and furniture should be acoustically
treated to deaden sound transmissions. Access to
natural light is recommended.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities. All waiting
areas and their support elements, such as drinking
fountains and public telephones, should be accessible to persons with disabilities.
Adjacency and Circulation. Wa it ing a reas shouId
be distributed throughout the court facility. In multistory courthouses, the waiting areas should be easily
located from the elevator lobby area.
Accessibility. At least one waiting area should be
provided for every four courtrooms in large courthouses. If courtrooms are in clusters of less than four
and are on different floors, one waitingarea should be
paired with each cluster.
Security. Public waiting areas overlooking lobbies, or with balconies, should be protected by a
barrier to prevent someone from falling or jumping.
Any areas where contraband or weapons may be
hidden should be eliminated.
furnishings. Furnishings should be comfortable,
but made of durable, low-maintenance vandal-resistant materials.
Technical Considerations. Considera t ion might
be given to placing video display monitors in public
waiting areas to provide directions and court-scheduling information.
to reduce the transmittal of sound through the dividing wall. Sally port-type doors for each holding cell
can serve as a soundlock as well as a security device.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities. The holding
areas should be accessible to persons with disabilities.
Adjacency and Circulation. Temporary holding
areas may be located adjacent to and between pairs
of courtrooms to enable the area to service two
courtrooms. These temporary holding areas on the
courtfloors facilitate greater efficiency in the courts,
while promoting increased security and control.
Accessibility. The short-term holding area should
be accessible by a secure corridor or elevator from the
central holding area and should lead directly into a
courtroom.
Security. If more than one holding cell i s present,
there should be a guard station with a security alarm
system. The security station should be a minimum of
40 to 60 square feet.
furnishings. The walls and ceiling should ,be
reinforced. Removable drop ceilings should be
avoided. The interior finish and toilets should be
vandal proof. A small viewing window on the courtroom door is required.
Technical Considerations. Every cell should
have its own toilet facility. This will eliminate the
need for staff to transport inmates to and from toilet
facilities. These facilities may be combined wash
basin and toilet units constructed of either stainless
steel or porcelain. Toilets and drains should be
installed along a wall on the corridor side of the
holding facility or along an accessible service duct so
that repairs can be made from the outside. Drains are
necessary in any cell in which toilets are provided.
6. GENERAL COURT FACILITY SUPPORT

ELEMENTS.
a. Public Waiting Areas.

It is important that the traffic patterns of the
general public and of persons having business before
the court not be overlooked. When the court is in
session, people will typically congregate in hallways
by the courtroom entrances while waiting for their
cases to be called. These persons include litigants
and their families, the private bar, law enforcement
91

Furnishings. The rooms should contain comfortable seating for up to four witnesses.
TechnicalConsiderations. The rooms should be
soundproof.
b. Victim I Witness Waiting Room.

With the advent of victims rights movements
nationwide, there is now general consensus in the
criminal justice system that victims of violent crime
and witnesses in criminal trials deserve sensitive and
compassionate treatment. One of the most traumatic
aspects of a trial for victims and witnesses is the
numerous and prolonged appearances necessary in
manycases. These proceedings normally require that
all parties appear at the courthouse at the same time
and congregate in the same public areas. This often
results in victims having to physically associate with
their alleged assailants and the defendants family.
The intermingling of defendants and witnesses for
prosecution always has the potential for intimidation
and conflict. The opportunity for a mistrial due to
improper communication is also increased.
Design and Image. In view of the recognized
rights of victims and witnesses to be shielded from
intimidation and trauma, waiting areas should be
provided for their use while awaiting trial. Attorney
conference rooms may alsodouble as witness waiting
areas.
Space. Individual victim/witness waiting rooms
should be a minimum of 100 square feet to hold up to
four persons, and larger for groups over five persons,
or for long-term waiting. The waiting room may
include a toilet.
Environment. The rooms should be comfortably
and attractively furnished, well ventilated, and well
I ighted .
Needs of Persons with Disabilities. The rooms
should be accessible to persons with disabilities and
should feature a 36-inch doorway that will accept a
w heelcha i r.
Adjacency and Circulation. Victi m/w itnesswaiting rooms should provide sight and sound separation
from public waitingareasand should beaccessible to
the courtroom through the courtroom vestibule, or
they should be located in a nonpublic zone, such as
the judicial staff corridor.
Accessibility. There should be at least one,
preferablytwo, victim/witnesswaiting room percourtroom. Rooms should have easy access to restrooms
and a drinking fountain.
Security. Victim/witness waiting rooms may
require some control of access to keep its occupants
safe and free from intimidation.
c. Attorney I Client Conference Rooms.

Attorneyklient conference rooms provide a private space that attorneys can use to confer with their
clients or a small meeting area to be used by anyone
having business with the court. In the overcrowded
conditions of most courthouses, attorneys can be
seen meeting with their clients in public waiting
areas, the cafeteria, the law library, in the back of
courtrooms, in telephone booths, or any place that is
available. The surrounding noise and confusion
hardly contribute to a meaningful exchange between
client and attorney. Clients are often reluctant to
discuss personal matters that directly relate to a case
in such an open atmosphere. The private viewing and
signing of documents for trial also becomes difficult.
DesignandImage. Room should be provided for
attorneys to confer with colleagues, clients, and witnesses in private.
Space. The attorneyklient conference room
should be a minimum of 100 square feet. Often,
attorneyklient conferences involve multiple litigants,
witnesses, or family members.
Environment. The attorney/client conference
room should be soundproofed to maintain the privacy of conversations, particularly if it is located
adjacent to a courtroom or the public corridor.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities. The room
should be wheelchair accessible.
Adjacency and Circulation. Attor ney/c Iient conference rooms should be located near the courtroom,
either adjacent to a courtroom vestibule and victim/
witness room, or off the public corridor. If the room
adjoins the courtroom, additional soundproofing to
prevent conversations from being overheard may be
necessary.
Accessibility. These roomsare often interchangeable with the victim/witness rooms previously described. The number of rooms needed will depend
upon the typeof proceedings. Domestic and juvenile
law cases often require additional rooms. At least two
rooms, and up to four rooms, per courtroom should
be provided.
92
SPECIF~C
COURTHOUSE
DESIGNCOMPONENTS
adequate work surfaces, such as large tables, should
be provided in addition to the smaller carrels.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities. The library
must provide access to persons with disabilities.
Adjacency and Circulation. The law library
should be convenient to all users. If the library is
intended for after-hours use, it should be located low
in the courthouse, possibly with its own separate
entrance, to minimize the traffic and security risks to
other areas in the courthouse. The library should be
located near public restrooms, a water fountain, and
a telephone for users.
Accessibility. A law library should be available
and conveniently located to all users, particularly
judges, law clerks, and attorneys. In those situations
where the library is open after hours, it should have a
separate entrance.
Security. Court staff should be able to supervise
the library easily. Arrangements should be made for
after-hours security; larger libraries may need antitheft devices.
Furnishings. Free-st and ing sheI ves provide max imum flexibility. The units should have adjustable
shelves, and space between the shelves should be a
at least 36 inches.
Technical Considerations. Due to the weight of
the books and other materials, the library should be
located on lower floors, especially when renovating
older court facilities or constructing large court facilities with a large law library. The live-load capacities
recommended by the BOCA National Building Code
are 60 poundshquare foot for reading rooms and 150
pounds/square foot for library stacks. For most law
libraries, 125-1 50 pounds/squarefoot live load should
be adequate. The library should provide terminals
and printers for legal database research.
Security. A viewing panel in the door should be

provided so that potential users can see if the room is
occupied.
Furnishings. The room should comfortably accommodate a table with four to six chairs.
Technical Considerations. Atto rney/c Iient conference rooms and victim/witness waiting areas may
be designed to be interchangeable. A dedicated
telephone in each room i s not necessary, but access
to a telephone should be convenient.
d. L a w Library.
Many courthouses, particularly large urban trial
courts, have a law library located on their premises.
The size of the law library and the frequency of its use
varies considerably from court to court. Law libraries
are used frequently by judges, judicial staff, attorneys,
and the public. Whilesomecourts havean organized
law library complete with a librarian and library staff,
the library in many courts is unstaffed. Courts, judges,
prosecutors, public defenders, and the local bar may
also have separate collections. Even with a central
collection, judges should have a minimum set of
reference materials in their chambers. Occasionally,
the library may double as a conference room or
training room, as long as the activities do not interfere
with normal library use. For additional standards
governing law libraries, see American Association of
Law Libraries' Standards for County Law Libraries.
Designandhage. In larger jurisdictions, the law
library may contain an open study area with microfilm reader and printer, on-line computer facilities to
access automated legal research databases, photocopy room, staff workroom, circulation desk, staff
computer room, staff offices, staff lounge and toilet
facilities, book stacks, and microform storage areas.
Space. The size of the law library will depend
upon the current collection of books and periodicals,
as well as future expansion. Space should be allocated for a public counter, catalog area, public duplication area, reading and research space with desks
and carrels, open and closed stack shelving and
storage, microfilm processing and storage, and staff
spaces, including offices, conference space, and supply areas.
hvironment. The law library should have a
quiet atmosphere, and there should be natural lighting, especially in the work areas. Because much
research requires the use of numerous legal texts,
e. Attorney Lounge.
A lounge may be provided for use by attorneys

while waiting for trials to begin or during recesses.
The area should be used for group meetings, conferences with colleagues, making telephone calls, and
for reading or writing. The benefit of an attorney
lounge i s that attorneys are more likely to remain in
the courthouse between hearings or during recesses
where they are readily available when needed in
court. It also deters attorneys from waiting in clerical
or other areas where they may interrupt the work of
the court.
93
THECOURTHOUSE: A Plunning andDesign Guide

require the passage through restrictedor secure areas
of the building.
Furnishings. Generally, the news media will
provide all furniture and equipment.
~echnicalConsiderations.The press room should
be equipped with adequate electrical power, telephone jacks, tables and chairs, and storage and work
space for audio equipment, photographic equipment, typewriters, and television video equipment.
Design and Image. The attorney lounge should

include areas for relaxation as well as for work.
Space. The size of the attorney lounge may vary
from 200 to 1,000 square feet, depending on the size
of the courthouse.
Environment. The room should have natural
lighting if possible and be well ventilated and air
conditioned.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities. The lounge
attorney lounge is flexible, although consideration
should be given to placing it near the courtrooms and
judges chambers, as well as near the law library.
Accessibility. In larger courthouses, a lounge
should be provided for the exclusive use of trial
attorneys. It should be entered through the public
circulation zones.
Furnishings. The lounge should be furnished
with sofas and chairs as well as work tables.
Technical Considerations. Several telephones
should be available. Some lounges also would include a fax machine, although this may be furnished
by the private attorneys. Coin-operated duplicating
machines may also be provided.
g. Law Enforcement Officers Waiting I Workroom.

The law enforcement officers waiting / workroom isanarea in which lawenforcementofficerscan
complete reports, review testimony, make phone
calls, converse, and relax before their court appearance or during recesses. It serves much the same
purpose as the attorney lounge in that it provides
officers with a designated area outside the public
corridors where they can be readily available once
court begins, rather than waiting in other court offices
or the courtroom itself.
Space. The size of the law enforcement workroom may vary from 200 to 400 square feet, depending upon the expected number of offices.
Environment. The room should have natural
lighting, if possible, and be well ventilated and air
conditioned .
law enforcement workroom is flexible, although it
should be near the courtrooms.
Accessibility. The room may be entered from the
public corridor and need not be located in the private
or restricted areas of the court facility.
Security. The room should meet standard courthouse security procedures.
Furnishings. The workroom should be furnished
like the attorney lounge, with sofas, chairs, work
tables, and a telephone.
Technical Considerations. A telephone should
be provided for shared use by all officers.
f. Press Accommodations.
All court proceedings, with the exception of
some juvenile and domestic matters, are open to the
public and press. In larger courthouses with very
active trial schedules, there may be a large number of
reporters at any one time, particularly during trials.
The press room isdesignatedspace in which reporters
can conduct interviews, prepare notes, and make
telephone calls, without interfering with the work of
the court. This relieves congestion in the corridors
and makes the courthouse less crowded and noisy.
Space. The size of the press room should range
between 200 to 400 square feet.
Environment. This room should be a quiet environment in which to work, with adequate insulation
to ensure that adjacent offices or courtrooms are free
from any typing noise or conversations.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities. The press
room should be accessible to persons with disabilities.
press room is flexible. It should be convenient to the
courtrooms and the external exits but should not
h. Centralized Audio I Video Control Room.

Centralized audio/video control systems are appropriate in larger courthouses to allow a2small staff
of reporters to monitor courtrooms from a central
location.
Environment. Depending on the individual audio/video system adopted, the recording functions
will require a particularoperating environment, speci-
94
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSEDESIGN
COMPONENTS
fied bythevendor, thatwill maintain anoptimal room
temperature and relative humidity and contain certain cable connections and a regulated power supply.
Space. Space should conform to the specifications of the selected equipment. Additional space for
tapeduplication and storagewill be needed. Apublic
counter where attorneys may come to order transcripts and copies of the audio- or videotapes must be
provided.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities. The central
recording facility should be accessible to persons
with d isabi Iit ies.
Adjacency and Circulation. This space should
be near the data-processingor administrative offices
for the ease of management and the availability of
technical support. Adjacency to the courtrooms is
not necessary.
Accessibility. The control room should be in the
private or restricted areas of the courthouse. There
should be a public counter accessible from the public
corridor where attorneys and the public may order
transcripts or copies of the record.
Security. Only authorized court staff should be
able to enter the central audio/video room. The
entrance should be locked. Fireextinguishersor a fire
suppression system should be provided.
Furnishings. Storage cabinets, work tables, and
operator consoles should be provided. The room
should be equipped with a public reception and
information counter.
Technical Considerations. Provision for an adequate power supply, back-up power, switch panel,
and cabling are needed. A raised floor may be
necessary to accommodate the necessary cabling.
Court services programs involve the development

and management of programs to help the court process cases promptly and effectively. The involvement
of local court administrationsvaries from jurisdiction
to jurisdiction. Examples of these programs include
victim/witness management, court reporters and recorders, alternative dispute resolution (ADR) programs, and even law library management.
Design and Image. The design and image of a
court administration office should be similar to that of
a general office setting. The layout should be organized by function and established to promote efficiency and comfort.
Space. The space characteristics of the court
administrationofficewill dependoneach jurisdictions
preference of operation. Depending upon the size of
the agency, not all components may be located in the
same area of the facility. The court reporters may be
located in one area, ADR staff in another, and administrative staff in a third. The design will be contingent
upon these distributions. Generally, there will be a
public entrance for attorneys and public citizens
seeking information. There may also be a private
entrance for judges and judicial staff. The
administrators private office should be generally
consistent in size with that oftheclerks privateoffice:
approximately 250 to 325 square feet.
Adjacency and Circulation. Court administration deals most frequently with the judges and the
clerk of court. The office should be close to both of
these agencies. However, the administrators role is
more private and far less public oriented than that of
the clerk. It is generally recommended that the office
be located higher in the facility, with convenient
access to the judges and judicial staff through private
circulation.
Accessibility. Theofficeshould have both public
and private entrances. The general public and attorneys should enter from the public circulation zones.
Judgesand judicial staff should enter from the private
or restricted zones. Court administration staff should
have access to staff-only areas through the use of a
controlled access system. Where the court administration and clerks duties are shared, their offices
should be conveniently located.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities. All areas of
the office should be accessible to persons with disabi I it ies.
C . COURT ADMINISTRATION AND

CLERK OF COURT
1. COURT ADMINISTRATION. In many jurisdictions, a local court administration office provides
administrative and program support to the courts.
Court administration will generally assist the court
with operations management and court services programs. Operations management involves a variety of
tasks, including budget preparation, facilities and
equipment management, data processing, supplies
and equipment purchases, statistical reporting, calendar management, and personnel administration.
95
THECOURTHOUSE: A Planning
Environment. Theofficeshould bewell removed
from the main entrance of the courthouse to provide
a quiet and secure working environment. The atmosphere should have appropriate lighting, acoustics,
and interior finishes.
Security. The office should maintain standard
courthouse security measures. The private corridor
used by court administration staffand judicial personnel should have controlled access, either through
card or key entry.
Technical Considerations. Telephone lines and
computer cabling should be available to all staff as
well ascableconduitsfor built-in computer terminals
and printers for electronic access to law databases,
word processing, database management, and taped
depositions and case transcripts. Other equipment
andDesign Guide
sible for managing and supervising nonjudicial staff,

budgeting, and purchasing.
The organization of clerks offices varies considerably depending upon size, the organization of the
court, and the type of functions performed. Staff
organization and case processing are important considerations to the overall design of the office. Many
clerks offices use a linear case-processing flow, in
which all cases proceed through a series of individual
steps much like an assembly line. Under this form of
organization, the staff may have well-defined duties
and specialize in one or two tasks. The case files in
this system move through the office from one station
to another where some action is taken. The work
space best suited for this operation is an open office
that facilitates the flow of paper and allows for supervision of a large staff.
Clerks offices, especially in large offices, are
typically divided according to casetype so that one
section handles exclusively civil cases while another
handles only criminal. As the court becomes larger,
greater and greater specialization occurs, such as the
distinction between general civil and small claims
cases or between misdemeanor and felony cases.
The other form of organization consists of teams
of clerks who process cases as a group, such as all
cases assigned to a particular judge or court division.
Each team handles all case-processingactivities associated with a particular group of cases, including
indexing, docketing, and filing. With this approach,
the office should be designed with clusters of office
staff.
The location of clerical staff also varies considerably, and staff may not always be directly responsible
to the clerk of court. The main counter operations of
case initiation, fee receipting, file folder preparation,
indexing, and docketing are nearly always done in
the main clerks office. Case scheduling and
calendaring may bedoneeither in theclerksofficeor
in the judges offices, depending upon the courts
calendaring system. It may also be performed in a
central calendaring office. The in-court clerks, often
referred to as minute clerks, may be located in the
judges office, clerks office, a central pool, or in the
court room.
2. CLERK OF COURTS OFFICE. A clerk of court

may beeitherelected orappointed. Theclerksoffice
performs a variety of functions that may vary from
jurisdiction to jurisdiction, especially in those that
have a separate court administration agency. Generally, however, there are five basic areas of responsibility.
Care and Custody of Court Records. The clerks
office is generally responsible for the safety and
security of all court records, documents, case files,
and other pleadings filed in the office and for the
storage and security of exhibits admitted into evidence.
Court Proceedings Matters. Most clerks offices
are responsible for preparing court calendars, scheduling bench and jury trials, monitoring case progress,
and keeping minutes of courtroom activity.
jury Selection and Management. In some jurisdictions, the clerks office is responsible for assemblingaqualified pool ofjurors,subjectto impanelment,
and assisting the court with voir dire. In some courts,
the clerk may process small estatesand issue commitment orders. This function may also be under the
court administrator or jury commissioner.
Statistical Reporting. The clerks office is generally responsible for producing and distributing such
i nformation.
Accounting and Administrative Functions. The
clerk is generally responsible for the collecting fees,
fines, and support payments related to court activity,
as well as for paying jurors. The clerk is also respon-
a. General Features.
Design and Image. The clerks office should
convey an image of order and efficiency; each office
96
SPECIFIC COURTHOUSE
DESIGNCOMPONENTS
storage room, photocopy machine area, cashier work
stations, and behind-the-counter work areas.
The office layout and work station arrangement
should be flexible and conducive to efficient case
processing. In larger clerks offices, similar elements
should be placed adjacent to one another. For
example, by locating general and limited jurisdiction
civil operations next to each other the space can be
adapted to any disproportionate growth.
Accessibility. The clerks office should be near
the major public entrance. This is especially true for
Iimited jurisdiction courts with traffic or misdemeanor
jurisdiction. Directories and floor diagrams should
be posted at prominent locations throughout the
building. Office signs and instructions should be
clearly visible and understandable.
In addition to public accessibility, the office
should also have access to staff-only areas of the
building. Through a card or key entry system, staff
can use circulation routes to the courtrooms and
other restricted areas of the building without entering
the public circulation zones.
the office should be accessible to persons with disabilities. Particular attention should be given to
designing at least one counter position to accommodate either a staff person or customer with adisability.
Chairs or benches should be provided for elderly or
mobi Iit y-i mpa ired individuals.
Environment. The appearance of the work environment is an important consideration in designing
the clerks office. Because many clerical staff work
overtime, or during a second or night shift, lighting
and HVAC should be controlled from within the
clerks office.
Security. The clerks office should have adequate security. As the recipient of large amounts of
cash daily, the office should have secure cashier
positions with duress alarms linked to the central
security station. Clerks offices responsiblefor storing
evidence should have secure, fireproof storage areas
or vaults. Ideally, court clerks should have separate
access to the courtrooms through private elevators or
stairwells.This separatecirculation path will increase
security and facilitate efficiency. A greater level of
security can be achieved by monitoring the counter
and cashier with a closed-circuit television camera.
furnishings. Most clerk operations function well
in an open office environment. Staff can generally be
should promote the smooth and efficient flow of

work. Office layout and work station arrangements
should be flexible and facilitate the efficient flow of
case records.
Space. The number and scope of the clerks
functions vary depending upon the clerks jurisdiction and the size of the clerks staff. The number of
staff may range from one or two in small courts, to
well over 1,000employees in large urban courts such
as Miami or Washington, D.C. In small offices, each
person normally performs several different tasks or
handles several types of cases, while in the larger
offices, greater specialization is necessary. Therefore, as the size of the office increases, greater spatial
differentiation between activities of the office i s required.
The design of clerks offices will vary because of
different sizes of operations and internal practices.
However, some general characteristics apply to most
clerks offices. An adequate public-queuing area
leading to a counter is generally recommended. A
file-viewing area adjacent to the counter for attorneys
and the public i s often useful. Open office work
stations can be used for most of the staff. Private and
semiprivate space can be designed for the clerk,
supervisor, and data-entry personnel who require
controlled access for training purposes, discipline of
staff, and minimization of work interruption. The
records-filing and storage areas should be centrally
located and secure. Copier areas, mail room, conference room, break area, and other ancillary spaces
may also need to be planned for the clerks office or
may be shared with other court offices.
Adjacency and Circulation. The clerks office
should be located on one of the lower floors near the
major public entrance to promote ease of location by
the public and reduce traffic congestion in other areas
ofthe building. In multi-story facilities, this will divert
a large volume of public traffic from the elevator core
and upper court floors. Public access areas within the
office include the reception and waiting areas, public
viewing room, counter areas, and the records storage
areas housing land records, liens, and judgments.
Appropriate separation should be maintained
between the public and staff. Provide private circulation for court employees between offices and the
judges chambers and courtrooms. Staff-only areas
include court records storage areas, the exhibit room,
computer equipment room, microfilm room, supply
97

accommodated in cubicle or counter work stations.
Some private offices may be needed for personnel
who must supervise staff or receive visitors. The
furnishings in these offices may be standard office
equipment.
Filing systems are important to clerk office and
should be efficient and easily accessible. Open shelf
lateral files are recommended for most courts because they hold more per square foot of floor space
and provide greater ease in shelving and reshelving
case files.
Technical Considerations. Sufficient telephone
and computer cabling lines should be provided.
Microfilm areas require proper electrical, plumbing,
and ventilation systems. Evidence storage rooms
should be designed to prevent theft or loss due to fire.
Full-timeworkstationsfunction best when traffic flow

is constant and in larger operations in which clerks
are specifically assigned counter duty. The full-time
work station allows the clerk to be seated on one side
ofthe counter, while customers stand on the opposite
side. The counter stations should be designed so that
the staff and customer are at approximately the same
eye level. At least one section of the counter should
be lowered to serve the needs of handicapped staff
and public. The counter work station should be a
standard work area, complete with a computer terminal, typing return, and storage areas. In both station
arrangements, the layout of the clerks office should
permit otherclerks in theoffice toobserve thecounter
and provide assistance.
Active files and records should be within easy
access to the counter work stations. The counters
should be wired to support computer and video
display terminals. Security glazing or shatter-proof
glass may be installed between the counter and the
ceiling to reduce noise in the office and provide
greater security.
b. Public Queuing and Waiting Area.

There should be a public waiting area adjacent to
the counter where the public waits to transact business. The size of the area will depend upon the
number of persons expected at peak periods and the
frequency of use. Generally, between 12 and 15
square feet per person should be allowed. The
minimum distance for the entrance to the counter
should be 10 to 12 feet. The waiting area should be
located off the main corridor and accessible to persons with disabilities or part of the public corridors.
There should be signs and instructional material for
the hearing impaired. Provision might be made for
video display terminals with instructional tapes.
Depending upon the number of people coming
tothecounter, thewaitingarea may befurnishedwith
chairs or benches. It may also include writing tables
or wall-mounted counters for the public to complete
necessary forms. Computer terminals and video
display devices to provide case status information
and instructions regarding the filing of cases should
be available.
d. Cashier Work Stations.

Fees and fines are normally received at the
public counter. In larger courts, a special cashiers
cage or tellers window is recommended to provide
greater privacy and security. Cashier work stations
may be located with the main clerk office or in the
case of limited jurisdiction courts, such as traffic and
misdemeanors, near the courtrooms to ensure that
defendants arrange for payment of fines before leaving the courthouse.
Provisions should be made for fee and fine payment by handicapped persons. For security purposes,
the cashier counter should be segregated from the
public by a partition. A positive-action duress alarm
should be installed under the counter, and the area
should be monitored by closed-circuit television.
The work station should include automated cash
registers or a computer terminal and printer, file
cabinets, a comfortable chair or stool, and a cash
drawer.
c. Counter Work Stations.

Every clerks office should have a public counter
where people may transact business. The counter
should be highly visible and large enough to accommodate anticipated needs. Counters may be
standalone units or full-time work stations. The
standalone units function best when public contact is
sporadic and in small-to-medium size operations
when a number of clerks need access to the counter.
e. Public Viewing I Records Review Area.

While court files, with the exception of juvenile
and adoption files, are open to public inspection, the
clerk of court is the legal custodian of those files. To
provide public access to court records and to ensure
98
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSE
DESIGNCOMPONENTS
be subject to frequent or wide fluctuations in humid-
that they are not misplaced, stolen, or altered, the

records should be viewed in a controlled area to
permit staff monitoring and assistance. The size of the
room will vary depending upon volume and frequency of use. There should be sufficient space for
several tables or carrels and chairs, and possibly
microfilm readers. The room may also contain computer terminals for accessing case-related information and a coin-operated photocopier.
The records review area should beadjacent to the
public queuing area and near the file storage area.
Access to the area should be controlled through
visual surveillance. The room should be well ventilated and have appropriate lighting levels for reading
and reviewing documents.
ity or temperature. When a basement or ground floor

location is used, problems of dampness and flooding
should be considered.
For fire prevention and fire safety specification,
please refer to the Manual for Fire Protection for
Archives and Records Centers, publication 232AM1986, prepared by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) in Quincy, MA. All walls separating
permanent records storage areas from other functional spaces should be four-hour fire resistant walls.
All openings in fire walls should be protectedon each
side by fire doors suitable for Class A openings. No
ducts should pass through fire walls that separate two
records storage areas. No water, steam, or other
pipes, other than sprinkler pipes, should pass through
the records storage area.
Warehouse-typeshelvingand one-cubic-footstorage boxes are generally recommendedfor inactive or
closed files awaiting transfer to archives, microfilming, or destruction. Aisles between the rows of
shelves should be a minimum of 36 inches wide, with
major aisles being 4 to 6 feet wide to permit the
passage of carts. The flooring should have a minimum live load capacity of 125 to 150 pounds per
square foot, depending upon the height of shelving
and the type of equipment used.
f. Active Records Storage Area.

Active court files should be located close to
where they are to be used. In some cases, the active
case file remains in the clerks office, while in other
courts, once the case is assigned to a judge, the case
file is transferred to the judges office until the case is
closed. In many traffic and misdemeanor courts, the
citation or case file is located near the public counter
where it can be retrievedquickly by counter staff. The
size and distribution of active filing space will vary,
but should be based on average filing inches of case
files, the type of storage equipment used, and record
retention schedules. The distribution of file areas
should be based on function within the office, accessi bi I ity requirements, and centralization/decentralization policies.
The type of filing equipment used should be
based on volume of materials, accessibility requirements, and cost. The most common forms of filing
equipment are vertical and lateral drawer filing cabinets and open shelf lateral filing. Mechanical files
may be used for active records but are generally
discouraged if frequent access is required.
h. Evidence Storage Area.

The clerk of court is generally responsible for the
storage and eventual destruction, or disposition, of
evidence and exhibits. Exhibits are one-of-a-kind
items and should never be loosely stored in offices or
record rooms where other employees or the public
may have access. Most exhibits should be stored in
a separatesecure room with highly controlled access.
Only exhibits of high value or a sensitive nature, such
as guns, drugs, jewelry, or cash, need to be stored in
an inner vault.
The size of the evidence storage room will depend upon the caseload. The exhibit vault should not
be in a high-traffic area, but should be conveniently
located for access by the courtroom clerks. The door
should be secured and locked, there should be no
windows, and the ceiling should not be dropped tile.
While it is not necessary in all circumstances that the
room be a vault, the surrounding walls should be
sturdy and relatively secure; they should reach from
floor to floor. Intrusion alarms may also be installed.
g . Inactive Records Storage Area.

An appropriately designed inactive records storage facility should be available to the clerk and easily
accessible to clerical staff. Space needs will depend
upon the size of case files, number of annual dispositions, and record retention schedules. Depending
upon the frequency of access to inactive or closed
records, they should be removed from the clerks
office and stored off-site. The storage area should not
99
THECOURTHOUSE: A Pluming undDesign Guide

k. Supervisor Offies.
Some type of fire prevention system should also be

included, although sprinkler systems can cause as
much damage as fire and smoke. Open shelving
makes for orderly storage and retrieval of exhibits.
Private offices may be provided for supervisory

positionssuch astheclerkofcourt and chiefdeputies.
An office provides privacy for routine work assignments and sensitive personnel matters and symbolizes the hierarchical status of the position. However,
in some jurisdictions, supervisors may prefer a work
station located with other clerical staff.
In many jurisdictions, the clerk is an elected
official, and the office should reflect the image and
status of that position. The clerks office may range
from 250 to 350 square feet and may include a desk,
chair, flat work surface, several side chairs, a small
conference table or sofa and chairs, bookcases or
shelves, filing cabinets, and a typewriter or computer
work station. Since the clerk must meet with judges
and other visitors, access to the room should be
unobstructed. The offices for chief deputies should
use a similar arrangement, but should be slightly
smaller.
i. Microfilm Room.
Some courts microfilm records in-house, which
requires a large work surface, cameras, reader-printers, processors, splicers, and other supplies. If active
records are being microfilmed, the room should be
located near the case-processing areas of the clerks
office, and access should be limited to clerical staff.
The room should have adequate ventilation, and
consideration should be given to electrical power
supply and the proper disposal of chemicals. When
optical disk-imaging systems aredeveloped for use by
the courts, a regular work station in the general office
should be sufficient for image scanning.
If closed, or inactive, records are being microfilmed, the microfilm room may be located off-site in
a records storage center. Space for preparing files, the
camera, and holding filmed files until the developed
film is returned must be included in the microfilm
a rea.
1. Computer Facilities.
It is becoming commonplace for clerks to automate cashiering, case processing, case calendaring,
indexing, docketing, statistical reporting, and records
management. With the advent of optical disk storage,
even thecase filecan bestored in thecomputer. In the
past, most automation involved large mainframecomputers that required special rooms with environmental controls. The trend now is toward smaller microprocessors linked in a distributive network that may
require only a small room, if any. A careful review of
theautomation needsoftheentirecourtand its future
possibilities, even if the current operation is completely manual, should be performed. At the very
least, conduits and raceways should be built to accommodate future automation. (For further discussion of automation, see the section entitled Courthouse Automation.)
j . Clerks Work Stations.

The clerks staff may work with the public over
the counter or in internal administration, involving
document processing, accounting, or telephone answering. Some jobs, such as money counting and
confidential case processing, should be done out of
public view. Activities that require maximum concentration, such as data entry, should be located in
quiet, distraction-free environments.
Most clerk work stations could be arranged in an
open or partitioned setting. (Partitions enhance work
privacyand acousticcontrol.) Workstations will vary
depending upon function and type of office furniture
used. A standard desk (that accommodates a typewriter or computer terminal) and a file cabinet will
require approximately 64 square feet. Some work
stations may be designed in 48 square feet, although
spacing and acoustical privacy between employees
becomes a concern. In order for work stations to be
integrated with computers and other automated office equipment, sufficient cabling and outlets should
be provided for each station.
m. Supply I Storage I Equipment.

Clerks must maintain a large amount of office
supplies, including file folders and court forms. Each
clerks office, or major division within a large clerks
office, should have a supply closet to store these
items.
Photocopy, facsimileequipment, and relatedstorage space should be located conveniently for staff use
and internal copying needs and to fill requests for
100
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSE
DESIGNCOMPONENTS
state while prosecuting criminal cases on behalf of
the people. Other titles include district attorney,
states attorney, and solicitor. In many jurisdictions,
the prosecutor i s not limited to criminal matters and
may make appearances in civil matters as well as
paternity and child support enforcement cases.
Design and Image. It is important to determine
the organizational structure employed. Some
prosecutors offices organize staff according to units
or teams consisting of attorneys, investigators, paralegals, and clerical staff assigned to handle specific
casetypes or criminal process. In this arrangement,
the teams would be arranged in clusters. The
prosecutors private office should be comparable to
that of the clerk of court and reflect the prosecutors
status and importance to the judicial system.
Space. Depending upon office size, the receptiodwaiting area may be centralized near the receptionist station or decentralized by each division.
Some jurisdictions maintain both a central area and a
division area. Attorneys should have private offices
that accommodate two to three visitors and should be
located in areas removed from the noise and circulation traffic of the main office. A typical attorney office
should be approximately 120 to 150 square feet.
Investigators may require private offices due to the
confidential nature of their work, or two or three may
share an oversized office and use an interview room
when private conversations are necessary. Paralegals
could also work in either a private or semiprivate
environment. Most clerical staff may use partitioned
work stations. Additional spaces generally include a
law library, intake area, conference rooms, interview
rooms, adequate file and storage areas, copier area,
and break area.
Adjacency and Circulation. It is recommended
that the prosecutors office be located in the courthouse near the courtrooms, law library, and clerk of
courts office. The office should be located on
separate floors or separate areas of the building from
the public defenders office to avoid the mixing of
victims, defendants, and witnesses.
In some jurisdictions, it i s necessary to locate the
prosecutors office outside the courthouse due to
space constraints. If so, the office should be adjacent,
or within short walking distance, to thecourthouse. If
possible, a workroom in the courthouse should be
dedicated to the prosecuting attorneys office. This
will give staff a private area to work on cases due in
court documents. Large offices may require several

photocopiers. Proper air conditioning should be inst
alled to prevent overheating of the equipment.
n. Noncourt Activities.
Many clerks offices perform duties that are not
related to the court. These include recording land
transactions, marriage licenses, deeds, judgments
and liens; issuing passports and business licenses;
and performing marriage ceremonies. Space planning and design should incorporate these elements.
0.
Staff Support Areas.
Besides the specific work areas covered in the

clerks office, most offices will require additional staff
support areas, such as private staff toilets and a staff
lounge or break room.
3. APPELLATE COURT CLERK. Many of the
appellate court clerks functions are the same as those
of trial court clerks: management of court records;
scheduling and recording of proceedings; statistical
reporting; and adm i nistration. The nature oft he cases
being received, however, i s very different. Appellate
courts hear appeals of lower court decisions. The
case file received by the appellate clerk is prepared by
trial court clerks and generally contains the record in
the trial court, copies of the court transcript, and
appellant and appellee briefs. Case files tend to be
very thick, and some courts may require copies for
each judge. Although the number of cases may be
less than in a trial court, the amount of space needed
for file storage may be large. Usually, cases are
returned to the trial court once a decision is rendered,
so there is less need for long-term storage.
Another difference is that the case files need to
circulate among the judges, and so they may be out
of the clerks office for some time. As there may not
be as much public traffic in the appellate court clerks
office, most files will be received by mail or courier
and will not be filed personally.
The image, space, accessibility, and adjacency
requirements for appellate court clerks are generally
the same as for trial court clerks.
D. COURT-RELATED AGENCIES
1. PROSECUTING ATTORNEYS OFFICE. The
term prosecutor is one of several names used by the
101

court that day and complete necessary phone calls
and paperwork without having to return to the main
office.
Accessibility. The prosecutors office should be
accessible through the courthouses public zones.
Through a card or key entry system, prosecutors staff
can access circulation routes to the grand jury room,
courtrooms, and other restricted areas of the building
without entering the public circulation zones.
the prosecutors office should be accessible to persons with disabilities.
Environment. The prosecutors office should be
well removed from the main entrance of the courthouse to provide a quiet and secure working environment. The atmosphere should be that of a private law
office, with appropriate lighting and finishes.
Security. Because of the adversarial nature of the
work of the prosecutors office, security requires
particular attention. The reception/pu blic-wa iti ng
area should be separate from the staff work area
through a window or counter reception unit, with the
receptionist controlling all access to the work areas.
Duress alarms should be located at the public counter
so that the receptionist may signal central security in
case of trouble.
Technical.Considerations. Te Iephone Iines a nd
well ascableconduits for built-in computer terminals
Space. As with the prosecutors office, the reception area may be centralized, decentralized, or a
combination. Attorneys should have private offices
that accommodate two to three visitors and should be
located in areas removed from noise as well as the
circulation traffic of the main office. A typical attorney office should be approximately 120 to 1 50 square
feet. Investigators may require private offices due to
the confidential nature of their work, or two or three
may share an oversized office and use an interview
room when private conversations are necessary.
Paralegals could also work in either a private or
semiprivate environment. Most clerical staff may use
partitioned work stations. Additional spaces generally include a law library, conference rooms, deposition or interview rooms, storage area for videotapes,
adequate file and storage areas, copier area, and
break area.
Adjacency and Circulation. Ideally, the public
defendersofficeshould be located in the courthouse,
but in an area distinctly separate from the prosecutors
office. This is necessary to establish a clear demarcation between the competing interests represented by
each office. The public defender will have defendants visiting the office, and they should not come
into close contact with witnesses that may be visiting
the prosecutors offices.
When it is not possible to locate the public
defenders office in the courthouse, the office should
be nearby and certainly within easy walking distance.
As with the prosecuting attorneys office, a dedicated
workroom in the courthouse should be dedicated to
public defenders.
Accessibility. The publicdefendersofficeshould
be accessible from the public circulation zones.
Through a card or key entry system, staff could be
given access to the private circulation routes to the
courtrooms and other restricted areas of the building
without the need to enter the public circulation
zones.
the office should be accessible to persons with disabilities.
Environment. The pub1ic defenders off ice should
have a quiet and secure working environment analogous to that of a private law firm. The physical
conditions of the space should promote proper lighti ng, heating, cooling, and ventilation.
2. PUBLIC DEFENDERSOFFICE. The advent of

public defenders as a routine part of our criminal
justice system is fairly recent. Before the landmark
decision of Gideon v. Wainwright(l963),courthouse
designers gave little consideration to the space needs
of public defenders. Today, the public defender
system is well established as a part of the justice
system. Most of the work undertaken by the public
defender is relatedto pretrial, trial, and presentencing.
In general, space needs for the public defenders
office are similar to those of the prosecutors office.
Design andlmage. The design and image of the
public defenders office should be similar to that of
the prosecuting attorney or other law offices.
102
SPECIFICCOURTHOUSE
DESIGNCOMPONENTS
Security. The security of the public defenders
office should be comparable to that of the prosecuting
attorneys office. Public and staff work areas should
be separated using the central screening and reception area described in the prosecuting attorneys
section. Duress alarms should be located at the
public counter so that the receptionist may signal
central security in case of trouble.
well ascableconduitsfor built-in computerterminals
3. ADULT PROBATION, PAROLE, PRETRIAL,

A N D C O M M U N I T Y SERVICES. The primary goal of
adult probation is to assist defendants with pretrial
services and to rehabilitate convicted individuals.
Probation offices also prepare presentence reports
and recommend possible sentences to the court. The
department may collect restitution payments, place
offenders in community service, conduct drug and
alcohol education and counseling programs, perform
alcohol and drug screening, and provide various
levels of supervision from basic to more intensive
types, such as house arrest and electronic monitoring.
probation, parole, and community services office
should be similar to a general office setting. Often,
these agencies will be designed with the professional
staff offices surrounding an interior service core consisting of clerical staff, filing areas, and interview
rooms.
Space. The typical probation, parole, and community services office will require work stations for
specific functions or programs. At a minimum, these
include administration, pretrial services, community
services, and probation and parole. Probation officers require that their conversations with clients be
private and confidential. To accomplish this, agents
should have either a private office or a shared office
with designated interview rooms. Clerical staff can
use partitioned work stations, often in a pooled setting, easily accessible to all agents. Other requirements include a large waiting area, cashiering station
for collecting restitution payments, conferencehrain-
ing room, adequate file and storage areas, a toilet for

urinalysis testing, a test lab, copier area, and break
a rea.
Adjacencyandcirculation. The adult probation
office should be first and foremost accessible to the
public. It is desirable to have the office located near
the main courthouse entrance or on the lower floors
because of the high volume of public traffic involved.
In some jurisdictions, adult probation officesconduct
interviews after regular business hours. If extended
operational hours are adopted in an office located in
the courthouse, after-hours circulation must be
planned with restricted access to other parts of the
building.
On occasion, the office will need to be located
outside the main court facility due to space constraints. In such instances, it is useful to plan asatellite
intake off ice within the faci Iity, which wou Id receive
offenders sentenced to probation immediately after
their appearance in court.
Accessibility. Access to the probation, parole,
and community services office should be through the
public circulation zones. Many probation offices
conduct classes or hold counseling programs in the
evening, and provision must be made for after-hours
access to the probation offices.
hvironment. All work and waiting areas should
have natural lighting. This promotes a more pleasant
environment for both the probationer and staff. There
should beaquiet and relaxingatmospherebecauseof
the stressful nature of the work.
Security. Security for an adult probation office
would include a secured cashieringstation, including
duress alarm. There should be one main entrance,
directingpersonstoa central reception area underthe
supervision of the receptionist. Duress alarms should
be located at the receptionists desk to signal the
central security unit in case of trouble.
well ascableconduits for built-in computerterminals
103

Environment. All work and waiting areas should
environment and reduces a feeling of confinement for
both juveniles and staff.
Security. Security for juvenile court services will
depend on whether it is collocated with the juvenile
court. If it is not, standard security measures such as
those used with a probation, parole, and community
services agency should be sufficient. If the administrative branch is located with the court, then secure
transport and detention of juveniles in custody should
be provided. A secure entrance for juveniles in
custody should be out of public view and through a
secure corridor similar to that used for adult inmates.
Duress alarms should be located at the receptionists
station to signal the central security unit in case of
trouble. Delinquencycases are not alone in needing
security. Many dependency cases have special concerns also, such as transporting incarcerated parents
tochild custody hearings, maintainingorder in highly
emotional settings, and restraining parents who may
strike out at court personnel.
well as cable conduits for built-in computer terminals
4. JUVENILECOURT SERVICES. Juvenilecourt

services present some special concerns that must be
addressed in the design of court facilities. Juvenile
court services typically include dependency as well
as delinquency and cover criminal justice matters, ,
neglect, adoption, paternity, and termination of parental rights as well. A full discussion of juvenile
courts appears in the juvenile and family court guidelines prepared by the National Center for Juvenile
Justice.
The actual organization and structure of juvenile
court will vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Generally, the juvenile court may be a separate division
attached to the trial court of general jurisdiction, a
separate court altogether with limited jurisdiction, or
a unit of the larger family court system. The most
critical planning concern related to juveniles is the
clear and distinct separation of juvenile offenders
from adult offenders and the need to protect juvenile
matters from public disclosure.
juvenile court services agency should be similar to a
general office setting. The relationship between
juvenile and adult services must be carefully studied
to maintain the proper separation of adults and juveniles.
Space. Space within juvenile court services
should include private offices for the administration
staff. Clerical staff can use partitioned work stations,
as can juvenile court services officers, but they will
require rooms to conduct private interviews. Other
ancillary spaces generally include a waitinglreception area, conference room, adequate file and storage
areas, copier area, small holding room, and break
area.
Adjacency and Circulation. The j uveni Ie service
intake unit should be adjacent to the juvenile court
and should have a distinct and separate entrance to
the courthouse, if the juvenile court is located in a
courthouse with other courts. If the intake unit is
located outside the court building, it should be near
the court and other juvenile-related services.
The public entrance and receptiodwaiting area
should be easy to find and large enough to accommodate a number of persons, including juvenile referrals
not in custody, parents, and law enforcement officers.
Accessibility. The office should be accessible
from the public circulation zones.
5. OTHER AGENCIES. Other types of offices

might be included in thecourthouse, such as indigent
screening, guardian ad litem, psychological testing,
driving school, drug and alcohol testing, domestic
violence unit, and alternative dispute resolution programs. These offices share many of the common
features of probation and juvenile court services.
They generally require a reception area, a waiting
area for clients, staff work stations or private offices,
and interview rooms or small conference rooms.
Designandlmage. Thedesign and imageshould
be similar to that of a general office setting. Professional staff offices could surround an interior service
core consisting of clerical staff, filing areas, and
interview rooms.
104
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSE
DESIGNCOMPONENTS
E. BUILDING SUPPORT FUNCTIONS
Space. Space should include private offices for

the administration staff. In general, the clerical staff
can use partitioned work stations, as can administrative and program staff, although rooms may be required for private interviews. Other ancillary spaces
generally required include a waitingheception area,
conference room, adequate file and storage areas for
supplies and case files, copier area, and a staff break
area. Driving school programs will require a large
classroom. A jury assembly room or large conference
room might double for this purpose.
Adjacency and Circulation. The public should
have easy access to these offices. It may be desirable
to locate these offices near the main courthouse
entrance or on the lower floors of a multi-story
courthouse because of the high volume of public
traffic involved. Some functions, such as driving
schools, may conduct business after regular hours.
After-hours circulation must be planned for with
restricted access to other parts of the building. Some
offices, such as domestic violence, should be located
in a less public area of the courthouse with access to
private circulation in case clients must be escorted in
or out.
Accessibility. These offices should be accessible
from the public circulation zones of the facility.
Consideration may need to be given to after-hours
access.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities. All areas
Environment. All work and waiting areas should
environment and reduces the feeling of confinement.
The interior design should promote a quiet and relaxing atmosphere because of the stressful nature of the
work.
Security. There should be one main entrance,
directing persons toa central reception area under the
supervision of the receptionist. Duress alarms should
be located at the receptionists desk to signal the
central security unit in case of trouble.
well ascableconduitsfor built-in computer terminals
word processing, database management, and automated case files, taped depositions, and case transcripts. Other equipment might include a facsimile
machine.
1. LOBBY. The main courthouse serves both

functional and symbolic purposes in a community.
Functionally, it needs to handle large numbers of
people adequately, particularly on days when jurors
are reporting to the courthouse or during early hours
when most people are reporting to court for the day.
If a security station is placed at the entrance, sufficient
area should be available for persons to form a queue
without having to wait outside in inclement weather.
The symbolism expressed by the buildings exterior should continue through the interior of the building, commencing with the lobby. In older courthouses, grand public spaces conveyed dignity and
majesty and provided a sense of order and orientation
to its users. The lobby should convey an image of the
importance of the functions performed in the building. It is also necessary, however, to balance the
spatial allocation of the public lobby and its grandeur
with fiscal constraints. Ultimately, providing more
than minimum space not only reflects concern for
user perspectives and celebrates human and societal
values, it recognizes that people come to a courthouse to resolve serious problems in a dignified
setting. As the first interior space encountered by
court participants, the building lobby is the architectural element that immediately translatesthese values
to the user.
2. ELEVATORS A N D ESCALATORS. Courthouses generate a high volume of traffic during the
day. A clear and adequate circulation system using
stairs, escalators, and elevators is needed in multistory buildings to move people expediently. Furthermore, many judicial facilities are located in cities
where multi-story structures are most practical and
economical. Because of the height of many modern
court facilities, stairs are generally lirnited to lifesafety exit requirements and to quick access between
two floors. Stairs also do not permit access to the
physically impaired. For these reasons, escalators
and elevators have become the primary means of
moving people in multi-story facilities.
Both elevatorsandescalators have their uses, and
one system supplements the other. Escalators are the
fastest and most efficient way to move a large number
of people in an uninterrupted manner, especially
105

between the lower three to four floors. These levels
typically contain the most active functions, including
the clerk's office, high volume courtrooms, jury assembly areas, the law library, and other highly public
areas of the court. These activities necessitate the
movement of a large number of people quickly from
the public entrance without creating a large queue at
theelevator banks. Escalatorscannot, however, serve
the needs of the physically impaired or disabled and
they are impractical for higher floors because of the
space and time they require to travel six to nine floors.
Elevators, on the other hand, are advantageous
for moving small volumes of people quickly to the
upper floors. Other advantages are their capability to
serve the physically disabled or impaired, transport
injured or ill individuals during emergencies, and
move equipment, furniture, and supplies.
The number of elevators planned for a courthouse should be based on a number of factors,
including the volume of people at peak periods, the
time interval between stops, the cab capacity, and
speed of the elevator. The allocation of courthouse
elevators should be calculated on the highest capacity of riders during peak times of the day and week. In
addition, separate elevator systems should be planned
for moving the public, court staff and judges, and incustody defendants. Private elevators, which open
onto restricted areas of the building, can be programmed to respond to only a card or key access
system. One of the most common deficiencies found
in most older courthouses is a lack of elevators.
in the distribution of toilet facilities for the physically

impai red.
For security and noise considerations, restrooms
should not directly adjoin the courtrooms. Separate
toilet facilities should be located in the private staff
areas of the courthouse.
4. FOOD SERVICES (CAFETERIA OR VENDING
AREA). The typeoffood servicewill depend upon the
availability of food service near the courthouse, preferences of the facility owners and users, cost, and
operational considerations. If restaurants are available within walking distance of the courthouse, food
service may not be necessary. If, however, surrounding restaurants are scarce, consider incorporating a
cafeteria in the design scheme.
While a full-service cafeteria may not be required, a small snack bar, or vending area, may be
provided simply as an additional convenience for
facility users. Acafeteria would typically include two
separate seating areas, one for the general public and
court staff, and a more private one for judges and
jurors. Food service areas are generally located on
the lower floors of the facility because of the volume
of public traffic and the ease of receiving supplies.
5. GIFT A N D NEWS SHOP (RETAIL AREAS).
Some courthouses have a newsstand which is privately operated, often in conjunction with a snack
bar. Because of the volume of public traffic and the
waiting periods involved, this provides an added
convenience for courthouse users. If a gift and news
shop is provided, it should be located on the lower
floors of the facility, possibly near the jury assembly
area. While retail areas provide convenience for
facility users, the effect on the facility's image needs
to be considered. Determining the proper balance
between convenience and image is an issue each
jurisdiction will have to address during the planning
and design stages. Related to a newsstand is the
presenceofvending machines and newspaper boxes,
which are often located in public corridors of the
courthouse. Such equipment should be located
where it does not create congestion and does not
detract from the image of the court facility.
3. PUBLIC RESTROOMS. Court facilities should

include an adequate number of public restrooms.
Because of the large number of people and the often
long periods of waiting involved, restrooms will be
frequently used. Proper signs for the restrooms are
critical to cut down on numerous inquiries as to their
location.
Male and female restrooms should be grouped
together rather than located in different areas of the
floor to make them easier to find. A single location
also deters visitors from wandering through the building in search of the restroom. The largest bank of
restrooms should be located on the main floor. Other
toilet facilities should be located on the courtfloors
near the public waiting areas. Additional facilities
may be provided on floors containing only office
functions. Code requirements should be adhered to
6. DAY A N D CHILD CARE. Some newer court

facilities are being built with day care facilities for
children of court employees or temporary child care
106
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSE
DESIGNCOMPONENTS
9. MAINTENANCE. The maintenance areas of
the courthouse include office areas for administrative
staff, loading dock, mechanical and electrical rooms,
janitorial closets, and supply rooms.
services for children accompanying their parents to

court. The provision of day or child care services in
the courthouse depends on the preferences of the
facility owners and users. Two additional factors that
should be considered are that child care services
generalIy requiret hat ch ildren receivea certain amount
of outdoor exercise and recreation during the day.
Because court facilities are often multi-story buildings located in densely urban areas, outdoor recreational space i s often unavailable. Second, the cost
and operational implications should be appraised.
Court facility construction may range from $1 00 to
nearly $200 a square foot. Space for a child care
facility located in the courthouse may be much more
expensive that what could be found elsewhere. The
advantage, however, i s that persons coming to the
courthouse with their small children would have a
place where their children could be cared for so that
they do not disrupt or delay the proceedings.
There need to be work stations or private offices
for supervisors, a paging system to call parents, and
durable furnishings designed for children. The facility should be equipped with restrooms suitable for
children, a kitchenette, and storage space for toys and
supplies. The rooms should be soundproof and
removed from the major public circulation areas.
a. Administration.
Many larger court facilities have a maintenance
administration office. This office may be close to the
central receiving and loading dock areas and the
maintenance work areas.
This arrangement will
allow the administrative staff to supervise the incoming supplies and materials. This office should be
easily accessible to vendors as well as the court
admi n istrative office.
b. Loading Dock.
The loading dock should be easily accessible
from the street. The number of bays required will
depend on the size of the facility and the functions to
be performed in the building. The loading dock tends
to be noisy and should not be located adjacent to the
general office areas.
c. Mechanical.
The number and size of the mechanical rooms
depend on the size of the facility. Mechanical rooms
are generally located in the lower levels of the building and need to be well insulated for sound. Only
authorized staff should have access to these areas.
7. FIRST AID. A first aid or nursing station may
be provided to respond to accidents or medical

emergencies. The room need not be staffed full-time
depending upon the size of the facility, but would
serve as an emergency treatment area before the
arrival of emergency rescue personnel. It should be
located on the main floor of the building and within
easy access to an emergency vehicle sally port.
d. Janitorial Areas.
Janitorial areas are typically dispersed throughout thefacility. Acentral workarea should be located
preferably on the lower level and close to the service
elevator. This will promote ease in moving equipment and supplies to and from the facility's floors.
There should be a separate janitor's closet on each
floor for storing supplies and equipment. This closet
should be equipped with a sink, storage shelves, and
a small work surface.
8. MAIL ROOM. A mail room i s a necessity in

any large court facility because of the large volumes
of mail received by the clerk's offices, particularly in
traffic and misdemeanor cases, where many fines are
paid by mail. Often, the mail room is staffed and
operated by the clerk of court or the court
administrator's office. The mail room is best located
near the central receiving or loading dock, near a
service or freight elevator, which would allow staff to
transport mail to and from the upper stories of the
building.
e. Storage and Supply.

The number and size of storage and supply areas
will depend on the size of the courthouse. It is
advantageous to locate this area close to the service
elevator and the loading dock to promote ease both
in transporting supplies to and from the facility floors
and in receiving of vendor supplies and equipment
from the loading dock.
107
CHAPTER
IV
Financing Court Facility Projects
Chapter
FINANCING COURT FACILITY PROJECTS

A. INTRODUCTION
A description of the type of space provided

(e.g., court rooms-jury, nonjury, appellate, and
ceremonial); judicial chambers; clerical offices,
probation offices; jury and witness waiting
rooms; and jury deliberation rooms); and
A statement of the nature of court occupancy in
each facility.
A major stumbling block of any construction or

renovation project is financing. This chapter describesthevariousmeans bywhichcourtfacilitiesare
financed throughout the country. While the trend in
court operations has been toward increased state
funding, the funding of court construction, renovation, and maintenance remains, for the most part, a
local responsibility. With-many communities experiencing annual financial difficulties and a general
mood among the electorate not to support capital
expenditures, many localities have sought new ways
to finance their needed capital programs. The question often asked is, What is the best way to raise the
necessary money to support the construction or renovation of court facilities?
The term court facility, however, covers a wide
variety of structures, depending on what we call the
court. What constitutes a court facility in one state
may not beconsideredacourtfacility in another state.
Besides the traditional courthouse (a building that
houses a courtroom, judges chambers, and clerks
office), a great variety of buildings may house other
court-related functions, among them: courthouse
annexes, government administrative bui Idings, privately owned buildings, juvenile detention facilities,
and various branch office buildings used by geographically diffused courts. An obvious prelude to
any consideration of court facility financing is preparation of a facilities master plan, as described in
Chapter I, that includes
B. NATURE OF COURT OCCUPANCY

Courts use a variety of different spatial arrangements, each of which has special legal and financial
implications. Courts may occupy:
A court-owned building;
A facility owned by some other governmental
agency at no cost to the court (a common arrangement for trial courts in county courthouses);
A government-owned facility based upon some
sort of a charge-back arrangement to cover the
courts share of the facilitys operating costs;
Private commercial space rented by the court;
and
A privately owned building, which the court
occupies under a lease-purchase agreement.
Under this arrangement the court pays the capital
costs of the building plus interest in the form of an
annual rental over a period of years. When the
building cost is paid, thecourt or governing body
takes title of the building.
C. GOVERNMENTAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR

FINANCING COURT FACILITIES
An inventory of buildings housing court functions;

Estimates of the amount of court space in each
buiIding;
Traditionally, state governments have assumed

responsibility for financing the facilities of the court of
111

The courts may pay for facility operational costs
because they own the building or have principal
responsibility for its management;
The courts may pay another governmental
agency for the operating costs of the building,
either in the form of a charge-back resembling
rent, an intergovernmental transfer, or reimbursement of operating expenses; or
The courts may pay a rental fee to use privately
owned property.
last resort and, to a slightly lesser extent, the facilities

of intermediate appellate courts. In some states,
intermediate appellate courts use trial courtroom
space that is paid for by county or city governments.
Table 1 shows the number of states that have responsibility for financing their appellate court facilities.
The financing picture is very different at the trial
court level, where funding remains largely a local
government responsibility, even in states where the
state pays most of the operational costs of trial courts.
The distribution of government financial responsibility gives only part of the picture. Another point of
interest i s how responsibility is divided between the
executive and judicial branches. In general, the
judiciary depends on the executive branch for facility
financing, even at the appellate court level, because
both the state and local court buildings are perceived
as being within the administrative purview of the
executive branch agency that oversees government
facilities. The exceptions to this pattern are normally
at the supreme court level, where the court may have
achieved some degree of independence. There are
also a few states, such as Utah, where the judiciary
has carved out a fair degree of autonomy in regard to
al I court facilities.
2. RENOVATION OF EXISTING FACILITIES.

Probably more common than the construction of new
facilities is the renovation ofexistingfacilities. These
needs mayor may not fall into the category of a major
capital expense. If the renovation i s relatively minor,
it may be picked up in the operating budget as an
operating expense or funded from some small pot of
available money. Often, however, renovation is of
such dimension that it must be treated as a major
capital expense and included in long-term capital
planning and debt management. It would, for all
practical financial purposes, be treated in the same
way as the construction of a new facility.
3. CONSTRUCTION OF A NEW FACILITY.

People often assume that the term facility financing
refers only to long-term capital expenses. As used
here, this is not true; operating expenses and minor
capital expenditures are also included. There is,
however, no doubt that the financing of major new
court facilities involves financial complexities that
require a special definition of need. Planning and
D. TYPES OF FACILITY-FINANCING NEEDS

1. MAINTENANCE OF EXISTING FACILITIES.
The first obligation of any court system is to finance
the operation of its existing facilities. This need may
take various forms:
Table 1
Government Responsibilityfor Financing
Appellate Court Facilities
Financial Responsibility
State
Statellocal
Local
Not Applicable
No Data Obtained
Total
Court of Last Resort
Intermediate Appellate Court
43
1
31
0
0
6
50
8
6
50
Source: National Center for State Courts Judicial Facilities Project, 1989
112
FINANCING
COURTFACILITY
PROJECTS
and sometimes for bonding. Determining need is

made easier by the existence of facility standards or
guidelines, such as those presented in chapter 3, for
measuring the adequacy of existing facilities or designing new facilities. Most court systems, however,
lack such standards (see Table 3).
architectural studies should reliably estimate the financial need, which should be included in a capitalbudgeting plan and in the debt management strategy
of the responsible government agencies.
E. DETERMINING FACILITY-FINANCING
NEEDS
2. USE OF COURT FACILITY MASTER PLANS

FOR CAPITAL BUDGETING. Major court facility
needs should be incorporated into some statewide
plan to facilitate coordinated capital budgetingand to
1. USE O F FACILITY STANDARDS. At some

point, facility financing must be reduced to a specific
dollar amount for operational and capital budgeting,
113

and project drawings, which is designed to determine if the court wishes to proceed;
Detailed design and refinement of cost estimates;
Determination of funding strategy, which may
involve a fiscal advisor to determine a bondmarketing approach and to estimate the annual
cost of the bonds based upon the going interest
rate for the particular type of bond (higher for
revenue bonds than general obligation bonds)
and the bond rating of the responsible government; and
Preparation of a contract and bid evaluation.
estimate capital expenditures. Such a master plan

may be required as a condition of participating in a
state capital budget and sharing any bond proceeds.
Ideally, these plans should contain cost estimates.
However, only 10 states reported having a court
facility master plan, and some of these plans were
outdated (see Table 4).
3. ESTIMATES OF OPERATING COSTS FOR

INCLUSION IN BUDGET. Facility operating costs
may appear in a court budget in various ways, each
involving a different way of defining financial need
(see Table 5).
The costs listed in Table 6 are those that might

appear in a court-operating budget or capital budget
in relation to facility construction or renovation.
4. ESTIMATESOFCAPITAL EXPENDITURESFOR
BUDGETING. The most difficult cost determination is associated with capital expenditures, which
tend to be large and financially complex and subject
to change because of the longer time frame for facility
construction. Typically, governments estimate costs
with the following process:
F. VARIOUS GOVERNMENTAL APPROACHES

TO FACILITY FINANCING
1. LONG-TERM FINANCING. While it is theoretically possible to finance facility construction from
annual appropriations, rarely is this possible in practice. For the most part, facility construction involves
incurring a long-term debt. The types of debt, as
Consultation with an engineer who prepares a

preliminary report that includes estimates of construction cost, site review, future operating costs,
Table 4
States Reporting Existence of Statewide Court Facilities Master Plan
State
*.
-.
Year Prepared
Prepared By
Frequency of
Revision
Colorado
Connecticut
Georgia
Hawaii
Illinois
Michigan
New York
1987
1989
1976
1989
1977
1981
1989
Covt Agency
Govt Agency
Consultant
Consultant
Consultant
State University
AnnualIy
Annually
Never
1-5 Years
Never
Never
Ongoing
North Dakota
Rhode Island
Utah
1981
1976
1987
Consultant
Consultant
Consultant
Never
1-5 Years
.
.
.
.
Source: Naljonal Center for State courts Judicial Facilities Project, 1989
114
1-5 Years
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSE
DESIGNCOMPONENTS
Type of Facility
Financial Need
Description of Facility
Financial Need
Utilities,
maintenance,
security,
insurance, etc.
In a court-dedicated buiIding,
personnel, contracts
maintenance.
Reimbursement of
operating expenses
Used by one government entity to

compensateanother for occupancy
of its facility, after the expenditures
have been made. Can cause friction
if audits cannot determine true
operational costs.
Difficult to anticipate.
Usually based on historical
pattern of facility operational costs included
in reimbursement
agreement.
Space allocation
chargeback,
intergovernmental
transfer
Often used when the court has

partial occupancy of a building.
Usually, a formula allocating
facility-operating costs on a
square-footagebasis. Costs may
include utilities, security,
maintenance and custodial costs,
insurance, perhaps even debt
service.
These costs are out front

costs negotiatedby examinrng validity of cost figures
and space estimates. Costs
may be more or less imposed
by executive branch agency.
Rent
Normally associated with

court use of private commercial
space.
In a given year may be deter

mined by existing lease, if
new, negotiatedon the basis
of existing commercial rental
rates. Negotiation may be by
executive branch agency.
viewed from the perspective of the governmental

agency contracting the debt, are listed in Table 7.
Since laws pertaining to indebtedness vary so
widely, only a few general comments can be made
about the relative advantages and disadvantages of
general obligation and limited liability bonds. The
strong and weak points about general obligation
bonds, as compared to limited obligation bonds, are
featured in Table 8 .
2. SHORT-TERM FINANCING. The references

above are to long-term construction financing. However, it is very often advisable to have some interim
means of financing, since there may be some uncertainty about the final total cost of the project and the
schedule for completion. Some courts may have a
discretionary fund fed by some court cost or fee. This
fund may provide short-term financing for front-end
expenditures such as master planning, programming,
115

.. . .
Table 6
Estimates of Capital Costs for
Budget
Types of Facilityfinancing N e e d
Description of Facilityfinancing Need
Direct operational
budgeting for
minor capital
expenditures
on facilities
This would typically be a small

courthouse renovation, which would
not require long-term financing and
could be financed through the
operating budget.
Normally based on bids and price,

later incorporated in contract of
successful bidder.
facility planning
and design
These are the front end costs

for engineering and architectural
help and are normally paid out of
operating budget, special revolving
fund, or line of credit. Sometimes,
they are later capitalized when
long-term financing is arranged.
If the study is done by a consultant,

there is normally a contract based
on competitive bids. If study is
done by a government agency,
there may be an intergovernmental
change, which is sometimes hard to
estimate unless there is a firm
agreement.
Debt service
This is the repayment of interest

debt schedule incurred from
governments debt instruments
for facility construction. These
costs are reflected in the operating
budget, usually in the budget of the
agency occupying the facility.
This is automatic based upon

debt schedule and principal
to holders of a bond.
Interest on lineof-credit loan
A line of credit permits a government

to incur construction costs and then
later seek long-term financing based
upon the actual cost, as opposed to
an estimated cost.
The interest is specified in the

loan document.
Rental on a
lease-purchase
With many governments at the legal

debt limit, facility construction may
be accomplished by lease-purchase
advances of the capital funds, which
are paid back with interest by rental
payments, ultimately leading to
transfer of title.
N o problem of estimation, since

rental payments are computed for
the length of the lease. However,
some jurisdictions use variable
rate lease-purchase bonds requiring
annual adjustments, usually with
the option to go to a fixed rate.
Construction
Actual construction costs are

usually paid from bond money
on a draw-down basis, although
they occasionally are paid from
annual appropriations or line-ofcredit loans.
Construction costs are normally

set by contract according to a
payment schedule.
Reimbursement of
capital costs
Used in some states to compensate

local governments for court facility
construction based on bond issues
and long-term debt service. State
budget may include money to
defray this debt service.
Whether reimbursement is partial

or total, it is tied to the established
bond repayment schedule and i s
fairly clear.
116
Estimate
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSE
DESIGN
COMPONENTS
Type of Bond
General obligation bonds
tax revenuesof the unit. Such bonds usually require voter

permitting) or may be specific as to the type of facilities.
limited obligation bonds
These are bonds where the funds to retire principal and interest come from rental revenue or use fees. They do not
involve a pledge of the general credit of the government.
(See variants below.)
(1) Enterprise revenue
These bonds finance projects that generate rev

debt. Courts seldom have revenue-producing
there are some court facilities that serve persons from outside
the county ( e.g, a regional juvenile detention facility) and
thus generate revenue.
(2) Lease-rental bonds
These bonds finance construction of facilities that are leased

under contract to a local government. The governmental
unit pays rent sufficient to retire the debt and meet
operating costs. Unlike lease purchase bonds, there SI not
necessarily a transfer of title to the government unit when the
debt is retired.
(3) Special revenue

bonds
These bonds finance facilities on which principal and revenues are paid from special revenues, such as the proceeds
from a special tax or special ad valorem tax on property.
Both devices have been used to finance court facilities.
<
(4) Lease-purchase
bonds
This bond is used when a government agency develops specifications for a facility and has it constructed by a private
developer or public authority. This facility is then leased by
the local government at an annual or monthly rate sufficient
to pay the total cost plus interest. At the end of the lease
period ,the title is transferred to the government agency.
more than one year. A loan against a line of credit is

another frequently used device for short-term financing. Ultimately, short-term financing must be weighed
against the rate that would be paid on long-term
bonds less the interest earned on the bond funds
through investment.
and architectural design. If the front-end costs are

capitalized, the fund can be used as a revolving fund.
Generally, however, courts do not have access to
interest-free internal fundsand must seek loans. Shortterm financing is usually limited toone year, although
some states permit the issuance of tax or revenue
anticipation notes or bond anticipation notes for
117

~.
Table 8
Advantages of Different Types of Bonds
Advantages of General Obligation Bonds
(1) Lower interest rates.
Advantages of limited Obligafion Bonds

(1 ) No necessity for vote and thus less delay in
capital financing. About 36 states require
a vote of approval for general obligation
bonds.
(2) Administrative aspects of preparing to

borrow are simpler and normally cost
(2) Doesnt reduce overall borrowing capacity,

an important factor if there is a legal limit
on the amount of indebtedness.
less.
(3) These bonds lend themselves to public
sale (as opposed to privately negotiated
sales) which may reduce interest costs.
(3) If use fees are involved, the burden falls on

the people who use the facility rather than
on the general public.
3. STATE SUPPORT FOR LOCAL FACILITY

CONSTRUCTION. The debt management schemes
of state and local governments have great consequencesforcourts with planstoconstruct facilities. In
areas where the competition for construction revenues is tough, the judiciary may enhance their
chances for funding by prevailing upon the state to
provide incentives for local governments to provide
court facilities. These incentives usually involve
monetary support provided to local governments,
specifically:
proaches used in a cross-section of states, which

encompass most of the available alternatives: North
Carolina, Utah, Alabama, Connecticut, New York,
Massachusetts, Utah, Illinois, Ohio, Rhode Island,
Maine, Kentucky, and California.
1. NORTH C A R O L l N A 4 O L L E C T I O N OF FACILITY FEES TO REIMBURSE LOCAL COVERNMENTS. North Carolina placesthe primary burden of
trial court facility financing on counties, but municipalities may also provide court facilities with the
approval of the administrative officer of courts and
after consultation with county officials. To encourage local governments to provide adequate facilities,
North Carolina imposes the fol1owingcourtcostsfor
the use of the courtroom and related judicial facilities.
Rentals or reimbursements paid by the state to

local governments, such payments including allowance for debt service;
State support of local bond issues for facility
financing; and
State designation of local facility projects as
eligible for public authority financing under state
Criminal actions-district court ($5), superior

court ($23)*
Civil actions-before judge ($91, before magistrate ($5)
Special proceedings in superior court ($3)4
Costs in administration of estates ($3Y
law.
G. METHODS OF FINANCING COURT

FACILITIES
The mix of possible alternatives for financing
court facilities is complex and varied. It i s therefore
hard to point out models; instead, there is quite a
range of different approaches, which defy easy categorization. Below are described the financing ap-
These costs are remitted to the county, except

thatthefee isalsoremittedtothosemunicipalitiesthat
provide court facilities. The use of these funds is
governed as follows:
118
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSE
DESIGN
COMPONENTS
Fundsderivedfrom the facilities feesshall be used
exclusively by the county or municipality for
providing, maintaining, andconstructingadequate
courtroom and related judicial facilities, including adequate space and furniture for judges, district attorneys, public defenders, magistrates, juries, and other court related personnel; office
space, furniture and vaults for the clerk; jail and
juvenile detention facilities; free parking for jurors; and a law library (including books)if one has
heretofore been established or if the governing
body hereafter decides to establish one. In the
event the funds derived from the facilities fees
exceed what is needed for these purposes, the
county or municipality may, with the approval of
the Administrative Officer of the Courts as to the
amount, use any or all of the excess to retire
outstanding indebtedness incurred in the construction of the facilities, or to reimburse the
county or municipality for funds expended in
constructing or renovating the facilities (without
incurring any indebtedness) within a period of
two years beforeor after the date a district court is
established in such county, or to supplement the
operations of the General Court of Justicein the
county.6
judicial branch participation i n the states capital

development program. The intent of the rule is:
To provide for the effective planning of court

capital facilities.
To provide the efficient use of new and existing

courthouses through application of collocation
and multi-use court facility concepts.
To establish a framework for the conceptual,
planning, developmental, and implementation
phases of court capital facilities.
To provide for council review and approval ofall

proposed court capital facilities.
To ensure adherence to the space guidelines,
design criteria and other requirements of the
Utahludicial System Capital FacilitiesMasterplan.
This rule applies to all court facility projects for
courts of record regardless of funding source.
The above system does not, as the statute indicates, provide any exact correlation between fees
remitted and facility needs. It does not provide much
aid in sparsely settled counties with a small caseload.
The rule states that,

(1) There shall be a facilities masterplan
which shall include design criteria, space guidelines and standards, workload forecastsand a tenyear capital priority list. This Code and the
masterplan will direct and control all capital
facility projects, including those implementedon
behalf of the judicial branch by the Division of
Facilities, ConstructionandManagement(DFCM).
Design criteria, space guidelines and standards
shall be adhered to by local government in the
provision of space for courts of record. Exceptions to court design criteria and space guidelines
requireapproval of the AdministrativeOffice and
notice to the Council which may rule on the
propriety of such exceptions.
2. UTAH-STATE REIMBURSEMENT PURSUANT TO FACILITIES MASTER PLAN. Utah is one of

a few states that have directly assumed the responsibility for financing trial court facilities. At the general
jurisdiction court level (i.e., district court), the state
pays for court space for those counties that have
chosen court financing (counties of a certain class
were given an option to have the state finance the
district court, whereas larger counties were given no
option). State law permits both leases and reimbursement as means of paying counties for facilities.*
The state also has assumed responsibility for the
circuit court facilities, which are subject to standards
of the state building board.9
Utah has used its administrative rules to lay out
responsibilities for capital expenditures on facilities.
The state court administrator is given authority to
establish and manage a court facility program.0
Court executives at the trial court level are given
authority for planning and management of facilities.
Rule 3-409 of the Utah Code of Judicial
Administration sets forth a detailed approach for
The rule goes on to establish the respective roles

of the judicial council, administrative office, and the
local judges and court executives.I2 The responsibility for seeking funding is left up to the administrative
office.) Interestingly, the rule makes noexceptionfor
those counties that chose not to have state financing.I4
Utah accords its courts an unusually high degree
of autonomy and responsibility in relation to facility
financing, but relies on the state capital budgeting
system for financing.
119
THECOURTHOUSE: A Plunrzing and Design Guide

3. N E W YORK-USE OF PUBLIC AUTHORITIES. In 1986 the New York legislature found that
court facilities in some parts of the state were inadequate:
Temporary president of the senate recommends

one voting member;
Speaker of the assembly recommends one voting
member;
Chief judge of the court of appeals recommends
one voting member;
Minority leader of the senate recommends one
nonvoting member; and
Minority leader of the assembly recommends
one nonvoting member.
It is hereby found and declared that there exists a

severe lack of adequate judicial facilities in cer-
tain counties within the tenth judicial district. . . .

The provision of adequate judicial facilities is a
matter of substantial state con~ern.~
The legislative remedy for this problem was to
permit the development and construction of court
facilities through a state building authority known as
the dormitory authority,I6 which was authorized,
among other things:
The chief administrator submits to the board the

court capital bulding plans received from political
subdivision^.^^ The board determines if these plans
are suitable and sufficient for the transaction of the
business of the unified court system.26 If the chief
administrator disagrees with the chief executive officer of the political division over the adequacy of the
capital plan, it takes a unanimous vote of the board to
approve it.* If the chief administrator agrees with the
plan, then there must be two votes to disapprove it.2A
The legislation permits the board to take into account
the fiscal capacity of the political ~ u b d i v i s i o n . ~ ~
In addition to the bonding mechanisms established by the legislation, there is also a system of state
incentives for local governments to participate in
court facility construction. The court facilities incentive aid fund is fed by a fee authorized by state law.O
Within thisaccount there isaspecial account foreach
participating local government for apportionment of
the fund receipts. The allocation can be denied if
the local government isdelinquent in rental payments
to the dormitory a u t h ~ r i t y .The
~ ~ legislation permits
payments from the fund to defray a percentage of the
interest paid on notes and bonds3)and a percentage
of the expenses incurred for operation and maintenance of court facilitie~.)~
Both payments are based
on taxing capacity, so that the percentage reimbursement ranges from 33 percent to 25 percent for
interest and from 25 percent to 10 percent for operational payments. For the latter payments, the local
subdivisions must submit a detailed cost breakdown
to the chief admini~trator.~~
The payments are limited
by the amount of money in the fund, so the state
assumes no general ~bligation.~
To fix and collect rentals and other charges for the

use of . . . judicial facilities, court facilities or
combined occupancy structures or any part
thereof; to contract with holders of its bonds to fix
such rentals at rates at least sufficient to pay for all
costs of operation, maintenance and repairs of. .

. judicial facilities, court facilities, or combined
occupancy structures, and the interest on and
amortizationof, or payment of its bonds issued to
finance . . . judicial facilities, court facilities or
combined occupancy structures.
The legislation set up a mechanism by which
local governments could enter into a lease, sublease,
or other agreement with the dormitory authority for
the principal and interest on the bonds issued by the
authority to cover the cost of design, construction,
reconstruction, rehabilitation, or improvement of judicial facilities-related fees and expenses of the authority.* The legislation callsfor passageoftitletothe
local government upon termination of the lease or
agreementIg and specifies 30 years as a maximum
term.2 Municipalities as well as counties were
included under the legislation.* Authorization was
granted to issue up to $1,250,000,000 in judicial
facility bonds.22
No bonds can be issued unless the state court
administrator certifies that the facility proposal i s
consistent with a capital plan for
Court
capital planningwasplacedundertheaegisofacourt
facilities capital review board,24consisting of four
voting members and two nonvoting members, all of
whom are appointed by the governor subject to the
following recommendations:
4.ALABAMA-JUDICIAL BUILDING AUTHORITY. Unlike New York, which has included courts
under a general state building authority, Alabama
120
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSE
DESIGNCOMPONENTS
there be "sufficient off ices of the superior court for the
The number and
efficient operation of the
location of such offices i s to be determined by the
chief court administrator after consultation with the
j u d g e ~ . ~Court
"
locations tend to proliferate.
permits the creation of a state building authority

specifically for the judiciary by the joint action of the
governor, lieutenant governor, the director of finance, the speaker of the house, and the chief justice.17 This mechanism is limited in its use to the city
of Montgomery and the appellate- and state-level
judicial agencies located there, but the technique
might be applied more b r ~ a d l y . ' ~
The authority can purchase or lease property and
build, equip, and maintain judicial facilitie~.)~
The
authority may issue bonds to finance its activities up
to a limit of $40,000,000 (excluding refunding
bonds)40;such bonds are to be repaid from rents paid
by the unified judicial system at a level and pace
commensurate with the scheduled payment of debt
~ e r v i c e . ~The
' term limit on the bonds is 30
The bond proceeds are paid into a special fund in the
state treasury and must be used for court facilities4);
similarly, rental proceeds go into a restricted fund
dedicated to retirement of the
5. CONNECTICUT-INCLUSION IN THE CENERA1 STATE PROGRAM OF FACILITY FINANCING
A N D WIDESPREAD LEASING OF COURT FACILITIES. The state has the legal responsibility to provide
court f a c i l i t i e ~ including
,~~
space for support services
and detention centers. Court facilities are specifically
included in the statutory definition of "public buildi n g ~ 'and
' ~ ~are treated in most regards like the facilities of any state agency.47The administrative services
division of the office of the chief court administrator
containsa facilities unit, which interactswith thestate
executive branch as to court facilities and oversees
the planning, design, construction, renovation, and
maintenance of state-owned and state-leased facilities occupied by the judicial branch, which amounts
to more than 1.5 million square feet of space.
About 34 percent of the judicial locations are
owned by the state. This normally occurs when the
state is the sole owner of the building. New construction isgenerally handled through the issuanceofstate
bonds, a very time-consuming process in Connecticut. Thus, if there is an urgent demand, the court must
take another route, most commonly a lease-purchase
arrangement with some private developer.
The leased space isobtained from municipalities,
but much more commonly from privateowners. Both
practices are specifically permitted by state law.48
Moreover, a specific legal provision mandates that
6. MASSACHUSETTS-COURTHOUSE
IMPROVEMENT ACT. In 1978 Massachusetts assumed
the costs associated with operating its trial court
~ystem.~'
At the time, trial court facilities were provided by counties, cities, towns, and occasionally
private owners; then, as now, there were over 100
trial courts. The concept underlying the 1978 legislation was that the Commonwealth would compensate facility providers for operating costs by paying
rent,s2but that the responsibility for capital improvements would continue to fall on local governments. It
was anticipated that some court facilities might pass
to ownership by the Commonwealth, and the chief
justice of the supreme judicial court, upon recommendation of the chief administrative judge for the
unified trial court, was authorized to make recommendations to the legislature on the acquisition of
facil i t i e ~ . ~ ~
Most court facilities remained locally owned.
Moreover, there was a general tendency not to spend
much money on facilities, in part because local
governments felt no great inclination to fund a state
agency; in part because voters had imposed a tight lid
on taxation and spending. In 1988, after various
reports were received on the deterioration of court
facilities, Massachusetts enacted the Courthouse Improvement
The law made a number of changes in government administration of court facilities:
The deputy commissioner of capital planning
and operations was given responsibility for providing court facilities on behalf of the Commonwealth, including jurisdiction over capital facility projects undertaken by the chief administrative justice of the trial court (i.e., the executive
branch took primary respon~ibility)~~;
An office of court facilities was created in the
division of capital planning and operations, the
head of which was to be appointed by the deputy
commissioner with theadviceofthechiefadministrative justice of the unified trial court and the
approval of the commissioner of administrati n n s 6 :
121

The chief admi nistrative just ice oft he un if ied tria I
court was charged with the operation and maintenance of court facilities, and a court facilities
bureau was created within the office of the chief
administrative justices7;
A court facilities council (largely composed of
judges, but including county officials) was created to advise the deputycommissionerofcapital
planning and operations and the chief administrative justice of the unified trial court on court
faci l i t i e ~ . ~ ~
The solution was a law authorizing local governing bodies to establish public building commissions,
which are best described as short-term public authorities. The Illinois legislationdescribed the mechanism as follows:
A Public BuildingCommissionmay becreatedfor
the limited purpose of constructing, acquiring,

enlarging, improving, repairing or replacing a
specific public improvement, building or facility.60
In Illinois, where counties finance court facilities,61.publicbuilding commissions have been used to
construct court facilities (e.g., a juvenile detention
center in St. Clair County). A public buiIdi ng comm ission can issue revenue bondsb2and may be dissolved
when its purpose is accompli~hed.~
The revenues of
the commission are rentals paid by the governmental
entity occupying the facility.64
Illinois law also permits the use of special tax
levies to construct juvenile detention centers.65The
law requires that the voters of a county approve a
special tax levy to construct a juvenile detention
center.6hIf the construction is approved in a referendum, the legislation specifies the following implementation steps:
The Courthouse Improvement Act also contained the following provisions:

Authorization of bond issues up to $320,000,000
to construct, renovate, and repair state-owned
court faci Iit ies;
Immediate Commonwealth ownership of facilities in very poor condition;
Choice given to city and county officials to keep
ownership of remaining facilities or to turn them
over to the Commonwealth;
In the event of local surrender of ownership,
Commonwealth assumes not only operating
costs but outstanding debt service;
In the event of local retention of ownership, the
local government must comply with statewide
standards for court facilities;
In the event a local government issues bonds to
comply with standards, debt service on the bonds
is included in the Commonwealth rental payment for the facility; and
Any disagreementson rent between a local government and the courts will be resolved by the
head of the court facilities bureau within the
executive branch.
Imposition of a special tax levy to support the

centers construction and operation6;
Creation of a special fund in the county treasury
to pay the expenses of the centerb8;and
A tax levy to retire bonds issued for the construction of the center.69
Juvenile detention centers in one county may
agree to accept minors from other counties.7o The
payments from user counties are normally treated as
revenues to the Juvenile Detention Home Fund.
7. ILLINOISSPECIAL TAX LEVIES, PUBLIC

BUILDING COMMISSIONS. Illinois decided as
early as 1955 that many local governments could not
8. OHIO-FACILITY GRANTS. States often provide grants to local governments for some type of
facility construction. In Ohio local governments
provide court facilitie~.~Counties are eligible to
receive state financial support for community-based
correction facilitie~,~
district detention homes for
juveniles,73and family center^.'^ Courts of common
pleas (Ohiosgeneral jurisdiction trial courts) arestate
agents for all three facility-support programs.75Moreover, a court of common pleas can create a judicial
provide adequate facilities. A legislative finding the

stated that:
It is hereby found and declared that there exist in
many county seatsand many municipalities within
this state inadequate and outmoded public im-
provements, buildings and facilities for the furnishing of essential government services.s9
122
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSE
DESIGNCOMPONENTS
construction board for the construction of community-based correction fa~ilities.~
Under state financing, Rhode Island has built a

major judicial complex in Providence and renovated
three other court facilities. The Providence complex
was the first major courthouse construction in Rhode
Island in 50 years.
9. ALASKA-BASIC STATE FACILITY BUDGETING. Alaska has had state financingof court facilities
for over 40 years, and, therefore, the courts are fairly
well integrated into the general state budgeting process. However, the other branches have accepted
some degree of independence by the judiciary, and
there is legislation granting the supreme court authority over all matters relating to the planning, design,
construction, maintenance, occupancy, leasing, and
~ ~ supreme court
operation of all court f a ~ i l i t i e s . The
is required to cooperate and coordinate with the
state lawsgoverning public ~ o r k s , ~ ~ r a t h
than
e r being
directly subject to such laws.
Alaska funds facility operating costs and smaller
capital projects through the budget process, and
where the general fund operating budget wont suffice for a major project, the court seeks inclusion in
the capital budget. A facilities manager in the office
11. MAINE-BUILDING FUND. The great majority of trial court locations in Maine are those used
by the trial court of limited jurisdiction-the district
court. Thefeescollected by thecourt are paid intothe
state treasury for distribution according to law.84
From the funds remaining after distribution, $3,000
per month is placed in a district court building fund to
be used for building, remodeling, and furnishing
quarters forthe district
The amounts involved
are not large.
12. KENTUCKY-STATEWIDE COUNTY REIMBURSEMENT. Kentucky was one of the first states to
undertake financing of trial court facilities, largely
through state payments to counties for judicial occupancy of county-owned facilities.A Within the administrative office of courts, a facilities management
section works with county officials to determine
space requirements for courts and todesign occupied
space. A court facility standards committee is responsible for reviewing and approving all court capital
expenditure^.^^ Each year, the facilities management
section provides a capital plan for the committees
consideration.
In determining court facility payments to counties, the state uses two types of reimbursement-operating cost allowance and use allowance:
ofthestatecourtadministratormonitorsfacilityneeds
and is responsible for passing on recommendations
for capital budget requests. Some state-owned facil; j
ties were obtained through the Alaska Housing Authority, the state vehicle for facility acquisition and
construction, and the court has been the beneficiary
of the states general obligation bonds.
Given the huge expanse of the state and the
unique conditions in some areas, great latitude is
necessary in facility funding. Thecourt, in addition to
routine rental agreements, can enter into lease-purchase agreement^.^^ In one instance, the court system
transferred title to a facility back to a local government as part of a cooperative arrangement for use of
the building.
Operating cost allowance means compensation equivalent to the annual expenses borne by
the unit of government for utilities, janitorial
service, rent, insurance and necessary maintenance, repair and upkeep of the court facility,
which do not increase the permanent value or
expected life of the court facility, but keep it in
efficient operating condition, and, at the election
of the administrative office of courts, capital costs
10. RHODE ISLAND-PUBLIC BUILDING AUTHORITY. Court facility construction in Rhode Island (where the state funds court facilities) revolves
around a state building program operated by the
public building authority.80This entity, upon request
of an agency of government, can acquire, lease, or
construct facilities, and its mandate explicitly includes the judicial functions of government.8 The
authority may issue revenue bondsB2repayable from
rents paid by the government agency requesting the
fa~ility.~
of interior or mechanical renovations for the

benefit of the c0urt.8~
Use allowance means compensation equal to 4
percent annually of the total original capital costs and
the cost of capitalized renovations of the court facility, except that if indebtedness has been incurred in
123

respect to such capital costs at constant annual interest rate equal to or greater than 7 percent, compensation shall be at a rate of 8 percent annually of that
portion of the capital costs for which the rate appI ies.89
The precise amount of the allowances for operational costs and for the debt service incurred by
counties for court facilities is determined by having
courts pay their proportionate share based on the
percentage of space occupied by the court in the
facility.O The state administrative office of courts is
authorized, with permission of the chief justice, to
acquire or lease privately owned facilities if the local
government cannot provide adequate faci Ii t i e ~ . ~
adopted by the board.94 The legislation permits a

referendum to institute a transaction and use tax to
fund facility construction and may also include authority from the voters to issue limited tax bonds
secured from the special
If supervisors adopt
a resolution statingthatthey need toassesssurcharges
to establish adequate criminal justice facilities in the
county, then surcharges may be added to parking
offenses and misdemeanors and deposited in county
criminal justice facil ity temporary construction fund.g6
14. FLORIDA-FACILITY FEES BY LOCAL ORDINANCE. In Florida, counties finance court facilities.97 The state authorizes counties to impose civil
court costs by ~ r d i n a n c eThe
. ~ ~amount of the cost is
not ~pecified.~
Substantialsumscan be raised by this
device, as illustrated in Pinellas County, which collected $855,980 in facility fees during fiscal year
1989-90,OO pursuant to a county ordinance.O
13. CALIFORNIA-COURTHOUSE CONSTRUCTION FUNDS, SPECIAL TAX LEVIES. In

California, counties provide trial court facilities. The
principal state mechanism to assist counties with this
obligation is legislative permission to create courthouseconstruction fundsfed by surchargeson certain
criminal and traffic cases.92 The county treasurer
keeps these funds separate and applies them to courthouse con~truction.~
California law also permits a board of supervisors
to establish a county regional agency to finance the
construction of regional criminal justice facilities
(including court facilities) pursuant to a master plan
H. CONCLUSION
The complexity and diversity in facility financing
are amply demonstrated in the foregoing sections.
There is no ideal sytem. A court system must adapt
itselftothe realitiesofthestatefiscal environment and
should consider all legal options for court facility
financing.
124
SPECIFIC
COURTHOUSE
DESIGNCOMPONENTS
NOTES
l
Mass Gen Laws Ann Ch. 7 5 41C.

Id.
57 Mass Gen Laws Ann Ch. 21 1 B
17.
Mass Gen Laws Ann Ch. 29A 3 6.
59 Ill Rev Stat Ch. 85
1032.
6o Ill Rev Stat Ch 85,
1034a.
61 I l l Rev Stat Ch. 34 5 432(1)(6). Under this legislation, the
Illinois Supreme Court i s permitted to set facility standards
for courts.
Ill Rev Stat Ch. 85 5 1044(m).
h1 1980 Op Atty Gen N 80-038.
64 Ill Rev Stat Ch. 85
1044(h).
Ill Rev Stat Ch. 23 2681
b6 Ill Rev Stat Ch. 23 5 2681. Counties with a population
of more than 300,000 and less than 1,000,000 may establish a juvenile detention home without a referendum, as
may other counties if they finance the home from the
general fund rather than from a special tax levy.
67 Ill Rev Stat Ch. 23 g 2685.
h8 Id.
Ill Rev Stat Ch. 23 g 2685.1.
7o Ill Rev Stat Ch. 23 S 2689.
7 1 OhioRevCodeAnn 307.01(A)(counties):1901.36(municipalities).
72 O h i o Rev Code Ann
307.021.
7 3 O h i o Rev Code Ann
51 39.271.
74 O h i o Rev Code Ann
307.021.
75
Ohio Rev Code Ann 51 39.271 (detention houses); 5
307.021 (community-based corrections facilities, family
centers).
7b O h i o Rev Code Ann 5 2301 3 1 .
77 Alaska Stat 5 22.05.025(a).
78
Id. See also legislation excepting judiciary from the
planning authority ofthe Department of Transportation and
Public Facilities. Alaska Stat 5 35.05.01
79 Alaska Stat 36.30.080(b).
Rrl RI Cen Laws
37-14-1 et seq.
81 R1 Gen Laws 3
! 37-1 4-2(b).
n2 RI Cen Laws S 37-1 4-3(a).
H3 RI Gen Laws 37-14-3(b).
n4 Maine Rev Stat Ann Title 4
163(1).
85 Maine Rev Stat Ann Title 4
163(3).
Ky Rev Ann Stat 26A.1 15(1).
87 Ky Rev Ann Stat
26A.107.
Ky Rev Ann Stat 26A.090(1).
89 Ky Rev Ann Stat 9 26A4.090(2).
9n Ky Rev Ann Stat
26A.115.
y 1 Ky Rev Ann Stat
26A.1 OO(5).
9 2 Cal Govt Code 5 7601 1.
y
Cal Govt Code 5 7601 1(d).
94 Cal. Govt Code 26299.000 et seq.
95 Cal Covt Code 5 26299.044.
96 Cal Govt Code 9 7601 2.
97 Fla Stat Ann
.
yx
Fla Stat Ann 5 34.041(1).
NC Gen Stat 7A-302.

NC Gen Stat 7A-304(2).
NC Gen Stat 7A-305( 1.
NC Gen Stat 5 7A-306( 1.
NC Gen Stat 7A-307( ).
NC Cen Stat 5 7A-304(2).
Utah Code Ann 78-3-1 3.4.
55
Id.
Utah Code Ann 78-4-20-1 (b).
Utah Code of Judicial Administration, Rule 3301 (3)(B)(xiv).
l l Utah CodeofJudicialAdministration, Rule 3-301 (5)(B)(iii).
l 2 Utah Code of Judicial Administration, Rule 3-409(2-12).
I3
Utah Code of Judicial Administration, Rule 3-409(8).
l4
Utah Code of Judicial Administration, Rule 3-409
Appl icabi Iity .
l5
1986, N Y Laws, c. 49991.
Ib N Y Public Authorities Law 5 1677 et seq.
l7
N Y Public Authorities Law S 1678.
IR
NY Public Authroities Law 5 1680-a.1 (a)(l).
l9 NY Public Authorities Law 1680-a.1 (aN5).
2o NY Public Authorities Law
1680-a.1 (c)(l).
21
NY Public Authorities Law 1680-b.1.
lo
22
Id.
N Y Public Authorities Law 5 1680-b2(a); see also N Y

Judiciary Law 55 39(3), 219 outlining the relative roles of
chief administrator and local government chief executives
in court facility planning.
24
NY Public Authorities Law 5 1 680-C.
25 NY Public Authorities Law
1680-c(3).
23
26
Id.
28
Id.
Id.
2y
Id.
27
N Y State finance Law 94(1)(4).

N Y State Finance Law 94(1)(2).
32 NY State finance Law 94(3).
33 NY State finance Law 5 54-j-1.
34 N Y State Finance Law 54-1-2.
35
N Y State Finance Law 5 54-1-3.
36 N Y State Finance Law 544-4.
37 Ala Code 5s 41 -1 0-262, 41 -1 0-263.
IR Ala Code 5 41 -1 0-261 (7).
39 Ala Code
41 -1 0-267.
40 Ala Code 5 41 -1 0-268.
4 1 Ala Code 5 41-10-275.
42 Ala Code 5 41 -1 0-268.
43 Ala Code 5 41 -1 0-270.
44 Ala Code 5 41-1 0-272.
45
Gen Stat Conn 51-27.
46 Gen Stat Conn 5 1-1 (e).
47 See Gen Stat Conn
4b-23 outlining executive branch
control of state facilities and role of commissioner of public
works.
48 Gen Stat Conn
51-27a(c), 51-27d.
4y Cen Stat Conn 5 51 -276.
Id.
5 1 See Mass Gen Laws Ann Ch. 29A 5 1 et seq.
5 2 Mass Gen Laws Ann Ch. 29A 5 4.
Mass Gen Laws Ann Ch. 29A 5 5.
54
1988 Mass Acts Ch. 203.
30
99
Id.
Year End Financial Report to Pinellas County Board of

Commissioners.
lo
BCC O r d 87-56.
IUU
125
APPENDIX
Courthouse Facility Checklist
I ntroduction and U s e r ? Guide

One of the critical steps in preparing for the renovation or construction of a new courthouse is an
assessment of the courts current facility resources. Such an evaluation is a key element in building public
support for improvement of facility resources. A thorough evaluation of existing facilities should consider
both the quantity and quality of space. It should address such questions as: Are there sufficient courtrooms?
Are they configured properly? Do they have appropriate support spaces? Can appropriate public and private
circulation and building security be achieved? Is the building environmentally effective and efficient? Does
it meet modem life-safety requirements? Is it accessible to persons with physical impairments?
The checklist was designed to help court administrators, judges, other court professionals, and facility
management personnel answer these questions. It is meant to be used in conjunction with the Planning and
Design Guidefor CourfFacilities. The order in which each courthouse space is listed in the checklist follows
the order used in the guidelines. Associated with each space are nine evaluation criteria: design and image,
space allocation, environment, handicapped access, adjacency and circulation, accessibility, security,
furnishings, and technical considerations. The checklist may be used to assess each space in the courthouse
on these nine criteria. The choice of scale is left up to the evaluator, but the use of + for acceptable and - for
not acceptable is probably sufficient.
The following definitions may be used for the nine criteria.
Design and Image. This relates to the appropriateness of the physical structure and environment created
within the space. Consideration should be given to the overall design implications conveyed through the
space, environment, and furnishings and how they enhance the decorum and dignity of the court. The design
of the courthouse is the underlying theme that governs its functions. The image is how the scheme is perceived
and the behavior it provokes in the people that use the courthouse. Questions that might be asked at this stage
include: Does the design fit the site and the setting? Does the organization of spaces and functions clearly
respond to and promote the intended uses? Is there a sense of place and a reflection of the importance of the
judicial process? Does the image reflect the values of the community and the judicial system?
Space Allocation. This covers the adequacy of the space provided for individual elements of the design.
Consideration should be given to the amount of space needed to accommodate the activity, the requirements
for circulation, equipment, and storage. Space requirements may be found in the guidelines under each
courthouse element.
Environment. This refers to the adequacy of the heating, cooling, and ventilation; the lighting and
acoustics; and how they affect the performance of all who use the facility.
Handicapped Access. Essential to the free and open access to justice are court facilities that are free
of physical barriers that prohibit persons who are impaired from getting to, entering, or using the services
provided in the building. Citizens and staff who are mobility impaired, physically weak, or who have a sight,
hearing, manipulation, or other disability must be able to navigate freely from the parking lot, bus station, or
taxi stand into the courthouse and to each public space within the building.
Adjacency and Circulation. This refers to two aspects of the design. Adjacency refers to the association
of space with functions to most efficiently transact business. For example, are the high-volume activities
housed near the entrance? Are the jury deliberation rooms conveniently located near the courtrooms? Each
space requires sufficient circulation in order for work to progress efficiently. Is there sufficient space for
people to move about without interfering with the work of others?
129

Accessibility. This refers to the convenience with which court employees are able to accomplish their
work and the ease with which the public can reach their destination and receive service. Consideration should
be given to the adequacy of the space for circulation, the location of services relative to the entrances, the use
of clearly visible and understandable signs, the presence of public information and instructional materials, and
the use of public address systems.
Security. The design of a building can enhance or diminish its security and safety. Covered under security
is the extent to which architectural solutions and the deployment and use of security devices such as
magnetometers, x-ray machines, CCTV systems, and alarm buttons enhance the safety of employees,
witnesses, jurors, litigants, and others who use the courthouse.
Furnishings. This covers the appropriateness,quality, durability, and comfort of decorations, furniture,
floor and wall coverings, and accessories.
Technical Considerations. One of the important features of new facilities is the extent to which their
operation, and the operation of offices within the building, now rely on the benefits of modern electronic
technologies. From the use of computers for docketing, indexing, and calendaring of cases to the use of
computer-assisted transcription to take the official record, todays courts rely heavily on new technologies.
This assessment is concerned with how well such technology is integrated into the design of the facility and
how well the facility design promotes the adoption of new technologies.
130
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146
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts. U . S. Courts Design Guide. (Washington, DC: Administrative
Office of the U.S. Courts, 1991).
Comprehensive guide to the planning and design of federal courthouses. This is a complete
rewrite of the earlier U.S. Design Guide. It discusses courthouse planning issues such as spatial
relationships within the courthouse, circulation patterns, furniture and finishes, security, acoustics, mechanical and electrical systems, barrier-free access, and automation considerations.
Each area of the courthouse is discussed and sample courtroom floor plans are shown. Special
situations are also covered including renovation, use of leased space, courts in a multi-tenant
building, historic buildings, and multi-story buildings. There is also a discussion of life cycle
costs which covering the trade offs between the initial investment and long-term cost economics.
Although intended for use by the federal court system, the guide is valuable for many state and
local general trial courts, especially in midsized communities with three to ten judges. Many of
the issues covered by the guidelines would not apply to many special jurisdiction courts such as
traffic, juvenile, or misdemeanor.
Alfini, James J. and Glenn R. Winters. eds. Courthouses and Cout-ti.oonzs: Selected Readings. (Chicago: American Judicature Society, 1972).
Although nearly 20 years old, this collection of articles contains a number of worthwhile
readings that remain quite timely. Here are discussions of the traditional courtroom design and
an exploration of the rationale for innovative designs such as the courtroom in the round. The
article by Sym Van der Ryn, An Analysis of Courtroom Design Criteria, explores the factors
in the courtroom that affect the vision of the participants.
Bucklen, Mary Kegley and Larrie L. Bucklen. County Courthouses of Virginia: Old and New.
(Charleston, WV: Pictorial Histories Publishing Company, 1989).
Excellent brief histories of each of Virginias county and city courthouses. Current and historic
photos of each courthouse are included.
Bums, Robert P. 100 Courthouses: A Report on North Carolina .ludicid Facilities. vols. I and 11.
(Raleigh, NC: Administrative Office of the Courts, 1978).
Volume 1 contains discussions on court facility planning and design guidelines for North
Carolinas courthouses. Also included is a chapter on financing of courthouse construction
projects, which covers many financial issues that are just as applicable to other jurisdictions.
Volume I1 is a comprehensive inventory of North Carolinas courthouses.
Colorado Judicial Facilities, Annual Report. (Denver: Office of the State Court Administrator, 1990).
149

Prepared annually, the report contains planning and design guidelines for Colorados courts.
Also contained is a county by county inventory of court facilities, a summary of space needs in
each county, and staffing projections for each county.
Court facilities study of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, vols. 1-5. (University Park, PA: Department of Architecture of the Pennsylvania State University, I980 -1982).
This comprehensive inventory and evaluation of all of Pennsylvanias courthouses is an excellent
source of information for those seeking further information on evaluation criteria and court
facility standards. Each courthouse was evaluated on its space allocation, environmental comfort, handicapped accessibility, general convenience and accessibility to the public, use of
signage, functional adjacency, historical significance, security and safety, records and information management, and growth flexibility. The publication lists space guidelines for each area of
the courthouse as well as provides recommended illumination levels, temperature and ventilation
criteria, and noise levels.
Court Services Division, Los Angeles County Sheriffs Department. Construction RequirementsforSuperior and Municipal Court Faciliries. (Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Sheriffs Department,
1988).
This is a design manual that specifies minimum security standards that must be met whenever
new court facilities are constructed in Los Angeles. The standards are a compilation of materials
gained from many sources, including applicable codes enforced by the California State Board of
Corrections, the L.A. County Health Department, the City and County Fire Departments, and the
City and County Building Departments. Areas covered include lockups and holding cells,
officers waiting rooms, security and information booths, sheriffs offices in the courthouse,
offices for court service officers, court liaison officers, and courtrooms.
Craig, Lois, et al. (Federal Architecture Project). The Federal Presence: Architecture, Politics, and
Symbols In United States Government Buildings. (Boston: MIT Press, 1978).
A photographic essay providing a complete history of American national buildings, such as post
offices, courthouses, and customhouses, from the founding of the country to the 1970s.
A Courthouse conservarion handbook. (Washington D.C.: Preservation Press, 1976).

The handbook was a project of the National Trust for Historic Preservation in cooperation with
the National Clearinghouse for Criminal Justice Planning and Architecture and was
prepared for use at the National Conference on Historic Courthouses held March 31April 2, 1976, St. Louis, Mo. One of the few references pertaining to the preservation
and renovation of historic courthouses.
Greenberg, Allan. Courthouse design: a handbook for judges and court administrators. (Chicago:
American Bar Association, Commission on Standards of Judicial Administration, 1975).
This book explores the process of creating a new courthouse. Greenberg discusses the architectclient relationship, reviews various states of the preparatory phase, and analyzes the basic
150
BIBLIOGRAPHY
characteristics of the modem courthouse. Also included is a testing procedure to evaluate
courtroom performance and a discussion of security.
Greenberg, Allan, Selecting a Courtroom Design, Judicature. April 1976, p. 422.
In this article, Greenberg argues the importance of symbolism in the courtroom layout. he
believes that a serious consideration of the unique set of relationships present in the United
States judicial system should serve as a prerequisite for the evaluation of courtroom layout.
Greenberg, Allan, Raising Temples of Justice, 59 Judicature 484 (1 976).
Here Greenberg stresses the importance of aesthetics in courthouse design. Courthouses he
argues, should be designed in a manner that expresses the importance of their role in our
society while providing comfort, and visual and intellectual stimulation.
Jordan, Robert H. and J. Gregg Puster. Courthouses in Georgia. (Norcross, GA: Hamson Co., 1984).
This is a photographic essay of Georgias county courthouses. Each entry contains a current
photograph and history of each courthouse. Also included is a list of Georgias courthouses on
the National Registry.
Kimme, Dennis A. et al. Small jail special issues. (Champaign, IL: Kimme Planning & Architecture,
1986).
This pamphlet contains nine issue papers, each regarding a planning issue identified as problematic. Some of the issues covered are lawsuits and liability, operation costs, modes of
supervision, transition planning, maintenance, and using an architect.
Kimme, Dennis A. et al. Small jail design guide: a planning and design resource for local facilities of
up to 50 beds. (Champaign, Ill.: Kimme Planning & Architecture, P.C., 1988).
The guide was the product of a National Institute of Corrections grant and represents an
excellent example of facility guidelines in an area different from courthouse design. It identifies and describes issues and architectural considerations that directly assist the development of
an efficient and functionally effective jail design. Contained in the book is a concise chapter
on the nature and importance of planning and a chapter on major design considerations such as
site selection, image and appearance, law enforcement interface, security perimeter, and the
impact of staffing on design. While the functional areas have little application for courthouse
design, the guide is included because of the similarity in the planning process, the complexity
of the design issues related to both jails and courthouses, and the need for close interface
between the two types of facilities.
King, Jonathan. Ernest 0. Moore and Robert E. Johnson. The Michigan Courthouse Study. Vols I-VII.
(Ann Arbor: Architectural Research Laboratory, University of Michigan, 198 1).
Prepared for the Judicial Coordinating Committee of the Supreme Court of the State of Michigan, these seven volumes summarize the results of a two-year inventory and evaluation of
151
THECOURTHOUSE: A Planning
and Design Guide
Michigan court facilities by the Architectural Research Laboratory of the University of

Michigans College of Architecture and Urban Planning. Volume I contains statistical evaluations and guidelines for the design of court facilities. Volumes 11-VI1contain photographs and
plans of each building in which a Michigan state court is located.
Kitchell CEM. More for Less: Jail Construction Cost Management Handbook. (Sacramento, Ca:
Board of Corrections, 1987).
This handbook was designed for use by local governing bodies in California in planning for the
construction, renovation, or remodel of jail facilities. It provides the administrator with a tool
to ensure that such projects are initiated and completed in a timely manner and are cost efficient. Although designed for jails, because of the complex nature of jails many of the same
concepts and techniques apply equally to courthouse renovation or construction. Among the
topics discussed are the facility development process; need for assessment studies; master
planning; the architectural program; schematic design phase; design development; construction
documents; and construction. This is not a book that describes the features of a jail, but one on
how to manage a complex construction project that will serve just as well in the construction of
court facilities.
McMahon, James L., Project director. Court security: A manual of guidelines and procedures. (Washington, D.C.: National Sheriffs Association, 1978).
McMahon examines a wide range of security issues including records preservation, fire protection, and prisoner security and suggests architectural, manpower, and equipment solutions. The
manual also contains design guidelines and a building security checklist.
Moore, Ernest, Ed. Nebraska courts: standards and facility planning guidelines. (Lincoln NE: State
Court Administrators Office, 1987).
Written at the request of the Nebraska Supreme Court, this book contains a list of standards for
courthouses, courtrooms, and ancillary facilities. Also included are facility planning guidelines,
a list of typical court facility problems, and checklists for analyzing these problems and evaluating space management.
National Center for State Courts. Virginia Courthouse Facility Guidelines. (Richmond, VA: Judicial
Council of Virginia, 1987).
This was designed as a planning and design guide to be used by local trial court managers and
judges during the planning and design of locally funded trial courts. Included are planning
procedures, general planning considerations such as site selection, parking, circulation, handicapped access, information and signage, building codes, and security; and functional and space
standards for each office or space in the courthouse.
National Clearinghouse for Criminal Planning and Architecture. District of Columbia Superior Court
Model Courtroom Evaluation. (Champaign, IL: University of Illinois, 1976).
A hard to find but important document that presents the results of the research done for the
design of the D.C. superior court model courtroom in-the-round. Conducted by the National
Clearinghouse, the evaluation tested not only the design criteria for the circular courtroom, but
152
BIBLIOGRAPHY
also tested the use of sophisticated audio/visual equipment for the recording of courtroom
proceedings and displaying evidence. The results of the testing and survey of participants gave
the circular model courtroom a favorable rating and led many others during the late 1970s and
early 1980s to adopt the design for their courtrooms.
National Clearinghouse for Criminal Justice Planning and Architecture. Guidelines for the Planning and
Design of State Court Programs and Facilities. (Champaign, Illinois: University of Illinois, 1976).
These are a series of monographs on courthouse and courtroom reorganization and design. This
comprehensive study, characterized by innovative planning ideas, covers all physical aspects of
judicial facilities. The guidelines are organized in six volumes, with each section published as a
separate monograph. Each monograph begins with a general discussion of principles and policies and ends by presenting corresponding design guidelines. Sketches and diagrams accompany
the text and alternative plans are presented to provide the reader with a number of architectural
possibilities. Monograph B4 Trial Court Management covers the management and planning
problems of a trial court facility. Some of the issues covered are judicial management, information management, jury management, and court reporting management. The monograph also
contains a in-depth discussion of staffing and equipment decisions. B8 Clerk of Court covers
such topics as work flow operation, record storage and filing, and clerical work design area. C4
Grand Jury Complex presents a variety of design possibilities for the grand jury complex
including reception areas, witness waiting areas, and grand jury room, lounges, and attorney/
client conference rooms. D3 Appellate Defender Office suggests several possible plans for this
office and supporting staff offices. D4 Trial Defender Office covers background information
including scope of representation as well as a discussion of delivery systems, the issue of fulltime versus part-time staff, and information management. The monograph also provides a
number of design possibilities for the components of the trial defender office. E l Juvenile and
Family Court Systems Overview provides information on the background, philosophy, history,
structure, administration, and operations of the juvenile and family courts.
Office of the State Court Administrator. Facility Plan, 1990-199.5. (Hartford, CT: Judicial Department,
State of Connecticut, 1989).
A comprehensive list of Connecticut court facilities and facility projects.

Panero, Julius and Zelnik, Martin; AIA, ASID. Human Dimension and Interior Space :A source book of
design reference standards. (New York, N Y Watson-Guptill Publications, 15I5 Broadway, New York,
NY, 1990).
This is a comprehensive overview of anthropometrics, the study of human body measurements
on a comparative basis, which is applicable to the design process because of the interface of the
human body and interior spaces. The book consists of three sections. The first describes the
theory and application of anthropometrics. The second contains illustrated anthropometric
tables. In the third section, hundreds of dimensional drawings illustrate the proper relationship
between user and space.
Pare, Richard, Ed. Court house: a photographic document. (New York: Horizon Press, 1978).
This largely photographic book relates changes in judicial policy to changes in architectural style.
Pare presents a chronological series of illustrations and explanations of architectural styles as
153
I'
BIBLIOGRAPHY
they appeared in courthouse architecture. Also included is a discussion of the functional
differences between courthouses in rural and urban areas.
Sobel, Walter, FAIA and the Vaughn Organization, P.C. Court Facility Guidelines, State of New
Jersey. (Trenton, NJ: Administrative Office of the Courts, 1989).
Offers guidelines to state and local facility planners and court managers for the planning and
design of courthouses. It opens with discussions on building design objectives or issues
related to courthouse planning. Topics include acoustics, building code compliance, eficiencies, expansion and flexibility, image, location, parking, sectoring, security, and technology.
Space and functional criteria are recommended for each of the spaces found in courthouses,
and there is a chapter listing potential funding sources. Among the funding sources covered
are general obligation bonds, revenue bonds, property tax increases, sales tax, public building
authority, lease purchase agreements, user fees, and funding for historic preservation. Also
included are sample courtroom and judges' chamber floor plans.
Thomas, Michael E Courthouse Security Planning: Goals, Measures, and Evaluation Methodology.
(Columbia, SC: Justice Planning Associates, Inc., 1991).
The past 20 years has seen the emergence of court security as a major element affecting court
design. The present work seeks to update earlier efforts at court security planning and provides local jurisdictions, court planners, and security professionals with a comprehensive and
systematic approach to courthouse security planning. Chapter 1 identifies specific measures
of court security in terms of primary and secondary goals. Chapter 2 describes the relative
importance of specific measures that can be used in evaluating security conditions. Chapter 3
provides a means of applying these measures of courthouse security to evaluation of specific
facilities. The monograph may be obtained by contacting Justice Planning Associates, P.O.
Box 2843, Columbia, SC 29202.
Thomton, Marlene, Robert W. Tobin, and David C. Steelman. New Jersey State Financing of Courf
Facilities. (North Andover, MA: National Center for State Courts, Northeastern Regional Office,
1989).
Good summary of court facility financing methods. The monograph provides an overview of
some basic steps in state-level funding of court facilities, including methods used to finance
public buildings; provides information on approaches taken by state governments that have
assumed full funding for court facilities; and reviews various facility financing options
applicable to New Jersey.
University of Michigan Law School. The American Courthouse: Planning and Design for the Judicial
Process. (Ann Arbor, MI: Institute of Continuing Legal Education, 1973).
An historic although now somewhat dated publication that sets forth standards and planning
procedures for the construction and renovation of mainly local and state courthouses.
69744012
18/16/97- .3
154
HHRB

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THECOURTHOUSE

A Planning and Design Guide for Court Facilities

The National Center for State Courts

This Project is supported by a grant (No. 88-05X-6-072)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationData

Hon. Philip M. Saeta

Hunter Hurst, Executive Director

F. Michael Wong, Ph.D., AIA

Fred Moyer, AIA

Juvenile and Family Court Design

Hon. Charles B. Schudson

Hon. Catherine Stayman Evans

Hunter Hurst, Executive Director

William C. Stephens, President

Sylvia Pizzini, Director

Hon. Richard N. Ware

American Bar Association Jury Panel

Rob Lowry, Executive Director

Hon. Philip Saeta

E. Eean McNaughton, AIA

Walter H. Sobel, FAlA

Andrea Leers, AIA

Dale A. Nederhoff, AIA

JUDICIAL FACILITY RENOVATION AND CONSTRUCTION

B . JUDICIAL FACILITY DEVELOPMENT PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I1. JUDICIAL FACILITY DESIGN ISSUES

Accessibility of Justice and Accommodation of the Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

B . SPECIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I11 SPECIFIC COURTHOUSE DESIGN COMPONENTS

General Overview of the Trial Courtroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

B. COURT SUPPORT ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Trial judges Chambers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

C. COURT ADMINISTRATION AND CLERK OF COURT ...............................

Prosecuting Attorneys Office . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Adult Probation, Parole, Pretrial, and Community Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

E. BUILDING SUPPORT FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

IV FINANCING COURT FACILITY PROJECTS

E. DETERMINING FACILITY-FINANCING NEEDS ....................................

Use of Facility Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Maintenance of Existing Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Estimates of Operating Costs for Inclusion in Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

F. VARIOUS GOVERNMENTAL APPROACHES TO FACILITY FINANCING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A . COURTHOUSE FACILITY CHECKLIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

judicial Facilities Project Staff

JUDICIAL FACILITY RENOVATION AND CONSTRUCTION

Degree of substantial agreement on major philosophical issues involving court operations;

A. PREPARING TO DEVELOP JUDICIAL

Degreeof general project consensus and mechanisms for ensuring communication;

Functions Addressed by a Project Manager

and the local government as a result of the courts

2. ADVISORY COMMITTEE. The decision to

the jurisdiction. In any case, it is very important that

Advisory Committee Relationships

THECOURTHOUSE: A Planning and Design Guide

B. JUDICIAL FACILITY DEVELOPMENT

Design strength for institutional or private-sector

Project Phases and Tasks

Once the magnitude of future need is estimated

gets are established; and facility planning and design

a. Evaluation of Existing Resources.

Cost Control Opportunities

THECOURTHOUSE: A Planning and Design Guide

trical systems efficient and effective?; And does it