Introductory Lecture: What is Environment? What is Ecology?

Dr.M. C.Dash
Environment- Includes water, air and land and the interrelationship which
exists between water, air, land and human beings and other living creatures,
plants, micro-organisms and property. [Section 2(b) of Environment
(Protection) Act-1986, Government of India).
Biosphere:
Life in the planet-earth has become possible due to very favourable
interactions between soil (Pedosphere), water (hydrosphere), and the air
(atmosphere) in a zone, we call Biosphere. Biosphere includes these three
spheres, and the biodiversity.
The Pedosphere
Earth has three layers; (a) the crust, which is in the solid state and has
thickness varying from 16 to 50 km.The crust, contains soil of thickness
ranging from few inches to a few feet. Soil is the abode of numerous
organisms like bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, protozoa and invertebrate
fauna such as earthworms, collembola, mites, millipedes, centipedes,
mollusks etc; b) The mantle, which is about 2900 km thick and made of hard
rock containing mainly iron and magnesium, which respectively form 84%
and 67 % of earths volume and weight; (c) The core, which is made of
mainly iron and nickel with a temperature of about 8,000 C.

In a normal mineral soil, the profile has three horizons, usually termed A, B,
and C layers. These soil horizons are differentiated by texture, physical
structure, colour, porosity, and root growth, nature of organic material and
distribution of biodiversity. The A horizon includes the top soil, containing
organic matter. The activity of microorganisms and soil fauna is greatest in
this zone of soil. After breakdown of organic matter into smaller particles and
undergoing decomposition, it forms humus, which gets mixed up with
mineral particles. In some soils, such as coniferous forest soil the organic
matter occurs in various stages of decomposition and forms a distinct zone
called the O zone. The B zone is called subsoil and is more brightly coloured
than the A zone. The brightness is usually due to present of iron oxides. This
zone may contain clay. In poorly drained soils, water logging may happen.
This may cause alternate reduction, mobilization and reoxidation of iron
compounds. In such condition the B horizon may appear grey in colour.
The unchanged parent material is called the C -horizon. Soil texture depends
upon the particle size of the constituent parts.

The atmosphere, which surrounds the earth, can be divided into five
distinct layers:
(i)

troposphere;

(ii)

(ii) stratosphere;

(iii)

(iii) mesosphere;

(iv)

(iv) ionosphere; and

(v)

exosphere, which is the uppermost layer extending to space

Hydrosphere

Proportions of different types of water available in

hydrosphere

Source of Water

% Occurrence

Ocean

97.389

Glaciers & polar ice caps

Ground water & soil moisture

0.58

Rivers & lakes

0.02

Atmospheric water as vapour

0.001

Total fresh water

02.01

2.611

the

Biodiversity
The living microorganisms, plants and animals, and microorganisms
such as bacteria, fungi etc have specific requirements for existence,
continuance and perpetuation. They interact among themselves
(intra-specific and inter-specific interaction) and with the
environment. All the living forms including man get their
requirements of gases, other matter, and energy from the
environment where they live.

Ecology: 1876 Ernst Haeckel (German Zoologist) Coined the word ecology
(Oikos-home/house, logos-discourse). A.G.Tansley (British Ecologist)(1935)
enumerated the concept of Ecosystem within the Biosphere. The concept
was known to the people of India since Vedic Time.
Ecology deals with the understanding the natural order, which keeps so
many living organisms in a dynamic coexistence. This raises many
fundamental questions in human mind. What are the fundamental features of
these natural systems? How the nutrients circulate and energy flow in
natural systems? How efficient are the natural systems in comparison to
manmade systems? Is there something called carrying capacity of an
ecosystem? How can this knowledge be utilized to increase food, fodder and
fuel production, to protect environment (landscape) from erosion, pollution
etc. and manage the resources? The functioning of natural systems is based
on certain principles. Understanding these principles will help man to solve
many problems of the management and maintenance of natural and manmade systems. Ecological Science has three aspects namely (i) Theory ;(ii)
Field and Lab observations; (iii) Socio-cultural- economic- aesthetic aspects.
All forms of life owe their existence to the mother Earth and to the
maintenance of ecological order (ecological balance) in nature. This
balance is maintained by ( laws of Ecology) .(i) Rich bio-diversity,
(Plants, Animals, Microbes,& Man ),(ii) Interdependence among the
different life forms,(iii) Sustained productivity and food chain
relationships,(iv) Maintenance of natural processes of nutrient
cycling, energy, flow, homeostatic mechanisms and evolutionary

process,(v) Adapted potentiality of the living forms to the changing

environment, In the modern concept, principles of Ecology include:
(i) Nothing comes from nowhere, everything comes from
somewhere. And
(ii)

Nothing ever goes away, everything goes somewhere .

The environment of an organism has 2 components,

( i) Biotic, : Organism is in the state of dynamic equilibrium with environment
,which is in constant state of flux. Internal environment-stable, external
environment- changes.- Tolerance graph. Adaptation concept (two graphs).
Convergence & Divergence concept-Adaptive radiations.
Allen, Bergman, Glogers observations (rules): Allens Rule states that
Tails, bills, ears etc of animals are relatively shorter for a species in cooler
region of the range of the environmental gradient than in the warmer
regions, Bergmans Rule states that Races of species having a larger body
size are generally found in the cooler parts of the range while those having a
smaller body size are found in the warmer parts. This rule is applicable to
both poikilotherms and homothermic animals. Glogers Rule states that in
homotherms, black pigments increase in warmer and humid climatic
conditions,red and brown-yellow pigments in arid climates. These pigments
over the skin are greatly reduced in cold climates,
Abiotic (nonliving): (i) Atmosphere ;(ii) Hydrosphere,(iii) Pedosphere(Soil)
Biotic (living): Diverse organisms, Interactions ( Interspecific, Interspecific
interactions,- Associations- competition, favourable and unfavourable

associations like symbiosis,commensaliosm and parasitism etc)- Genotype-&

Phenotypes
Concept of Stress and Strain
Environmental Scientists/Ecologists agree that any environmental factor that
is potentially unfavorable to organism functioning can be called stress.
Pollutants can be classified as stress factors. An organisms ability to survive
in a particular environmental complex depends upon its evolutionary history.
Resistance to stress is defined as the ability of living organisms to survive
and grow in the presence of unfavorable factors.
If a body X exerts force on body Y, then Y must also exert a counter force on
X. In Newtonian terms, these two forces are termed action and reaction.
Taken together, they may be called stress. A body remains in a state of strain
if subjected to stress. The magnitude of stress can be measured as the force
per unit area. The magnitude of strain is measured as the change in
dimensions such as length or volume of the body.
The elastic strain produced by a body is proportional to the stress applied on
it. Therefore the Modulus of elasticity (M) of the body is defined as:
M = Stress / Strain,
A higher M implies more elasticity. A body is considered sensitive for a stress
factor, if little stress is required to produce a unit strain.

The upper and lower limits of tolerance are the intensity levels of an
environmental factor at which only 50% of the organism can survive.
Species vary in their limits of tolerance to the same factor and these limits
are usually difficult to determine. The prefix steno means that an
individual or a species population has a narrow range of tolerance,
while the prefix Eury means that it has a wide range of tolerance.
Thus, the terms stenothermal and Eurythermal have been
developed with regard to temperature, stenohaline and Euryhaline
in respect of salinity and stenoecious and euryoecious in the
context of habitat or niche have been developed.
Terminology

Environmental Factors

Steno & Eurythermal

Temperature

Steno & Euryhaline

Salinity

Steno & Euryhydric

Water

Stenobathic & Eurybathic

Water depth

Stenocious &Euroecious

Habitat selection/distribution

Stenophagic &Euryphagic

Food selection

Concept of law of minimum, limiting factors, interacting factors etc

(Liebig, 1840, Shelford, 1952, Blackman, 1905, Taylor,1930.The
practical importance of ecology results from the presence of man in
the ecosystem.
Mans evolution, its dependence on environment and environmental
phenomena, his relationship with nature and the development of his
position from one of struggle against natural forces to the recent
influence, control and use of environment for human welfare are
included in ecology.Pre-agricultural human society, Agriculture
based Society, Urban-industrialized Society, The Current atomic age
and the electronic age society, and The global warming- climate
change have brought the science of ecology to the forefront of
human knowledge.
Population increase and demand for food and other resources
necessitate the need of increased food productivity.
Landscape Ecology
Diversity of Landscape- mountains, hills, valleys, plateau, plains and
other physical landscapes- cumulative effect of geological,
geomorphological and meteorological processes of millions of years.
These have been formed along with Earths evolution and along
water resources. They have sustained Biodiversity including human
settlements and civilization for thousands of years. Definition:
German geologist, Carl Troll(1971) defined it as The total natural
and human living space -Three dimensional- space,time,biodiversity
& human interactions. Alexander Van Humboldt, German
Geographer defined it as The total character of a region.The basic
unit is the Ecotype.Socio-cultural aspects have also shaped
landscapes.
Landscapes-Tangible Gestalt Systems of total Human Ecosystem
Indias land area is about 329 million ha., Population 1230 million,
per capita land area- 329/1230=0.267 ha,
Assuming 50% productive area, per capita productive lansd-0.134
ha.
What is the significance?

1.The biosphere including all the ecotypes are dependent on solar

energy for functioning.2.The human modified semi-natural ecotypes
are dependent on solar energy & on fertilizer & pesticides,3.The
intensive agro-industrial ecotypes are dependent on fossil
fuels(subsidized),4.The urban-industrial techno-sphere ecotypes
and their techno-systems ( Highway, flyover,bridges,mines,power
plants etc),Landuse policy, Forest policy,(33% forest cover),Ecocity
concept(the theme of the World Habitat Day in 1999-The cities for
all,-20% tree cover, Housing energy conservation, soil waste
management etc.
Recent Trends of Study (1) Understanding of the pattern and
functioning of natural systems along with life cycle analysis of
biodiversity. 2. Impacts of modern technological developments
(Agriculture, Industry,etc chemicals, energy use) on natural
systems. Adoption of Green Technology,3.Conservation of natural
systems vis-a--vis resource conservation, to increase
production,discourge consumerism, population control, sustainable
Development & science-technology input to achieve sustainable
development.
Environmental Movements/Consciousness

In the Last century unprecedented deterioration in the state of

Environment occurred mainly due to loss of habitats, unscientific
land use, industrialization and Urbanization. This led to discharge of
high volumes of effluents and municipal sewage to water bodies and
polluted the rivers and water bodies. Huge quantity of Industrial
emissions to the atmosphere causing environmental pollution and
health hazards.The extent of deterioration could be judged due to
pollution, global warming, ozone depletion in stratosphere, acid
rain, eutrophication, loss of habitat, vegetal cover and biodiversity,
excessive concentration of harmful chemicals and magnification
through food chain, growing risk of environmental accidents, and
threat to Life support systems.
Government of India actively participated in1972conference and
follow-up conferences. The Indian Parliament enacted many
environmental laws to prevent and control pollution, conserve
biodiversity and wild life etc.(The Water Act-1972,The Air Act1981,The Environmental Protection Act-1986, etc, and the Forest
Act-1980,amended 1988,Wildlife Act-1972 etc.