RAFFLES INSTITUTION PHYSICS DEPARTMENT

1.

Year 5
2012

MEASUREMENT
Content

SI units
Errors and uncertainties
Scalars and vectors

Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) recall the following base quantities and their units: mass (kg), length (m),
time (s), current (A), temperature (K), amount of substance (mol).
(b) express derived units as products or quotients of the base units and use the
named units listed in Summary of Key Quantities, Symbols and Units as
appropriate.
(c) show an understanding of and use the conventions for labeling graph axes
and table columns as set out in the ASE publication SI Units, Signs, Symbols
and Abbreviations, except where these have been superseded by Signs,
Symbols and Systematics (The ASE Companion to 16 19 Science, 2000).
(d) use the following prefixes and their symbols to indicate decimal submultiples or multiples of both base and derived units: pico (p), nano (n),
micro (), milli (m), centi (c), deci (d), kilo (k), mega (M), giga (G), tera (T).
(e) make reasonable estimates of physical quantities included within the
syllabus.
(f) show an understanding of the distinction between systematic errors
(including zero errors) and random errors.
(g) show an understanding of the distinction between precision and accuracy.
(h) assess the uncertainty in a derived quantity by simple addition of actual,
fractional or percentage uncertainties (a rigorous statistical treatment is not
required).
(i) distinguish between scalar and vector quantities and give examples of each.
(j) add and subtract coplanar vectors.
(k) represent a vector as two perpendicular components.

1.1

S.I. Units

Physical Quantities

The laws of Physics are expressed as mathematical relationships among physical

quantities and are verified through measurements of these quantities.
All physical quantities consist of a numerical magnitude and a unit. E.g. in a
force of five newtons, force is the physical quantity, five is the numerical
magnitude and newtons is the unit.
unit
F=5N
physical quantity

numerical magnitude

The Summary of Key Quantities, Symbols and Units used in the A-Level
examination is given in the syllabus, which can be found in Ten Years Series or
online at URL: http://www.seab.gov.sg/aLevel/2013Syllabus/9646_2013.pdf
Note to students: You should use the symbol(s) specified in the abovementioned summary for a particular physical quantity to represent that
quantity. If you choose to use some other symbol, you must state what
physical quantity is represented by that symbol.
Base quantities and
base units

Physical quantities are divided into base quantities and derived quantities.
Base quantities are physical quantities that are fundamental and are not defined in
terms of other physical quantities. Base quantities are arbitrarily chosen.
In 1960, the international scientific community has adopted a number of
conventions about physical quantities and their units. The Systme Internationale
dUnits (International System of Units) is based on seven base quantities and
their corresponding units, called base units.
Quantity

Unit name

Unit symbol

Length

metre

Mass

kilogram

kg

Time

second

Current

ampere

Temperature

kelvin

Amount of substance

mole

mol

candela

cd

Luminous intensity*
*out of syllabus

Appendix 1 lists the definitions for these base units.

Derived units

Derived quantities/units are obtained from the base quantities/units according to a

defining equation.
distance
speed
time and hence, the unit of speed
E.g. The defining equation for speed is
1
is metre-per-second (m s ).
[Note the space break between the m and the s 1. This is standard in separating
unit symbols in writing or in print. Otherwise, we get ms 1, which is an inverse
millisecond!]
Most derived units are given special names for convenience.
Quantity

Expressed in base units

Special name

Symbol

Volume

m m m = m3

Velocity

m s = m s1

Force

kg (m s s) = kg m s2

newton

Work done

kg m s2 m = kg m2 s2

joule

Since derived units depend on base units, their size may change if these base units
become re-defined or get adjusted in value.
Derived units are defined in a logical sequence.
Example

In the study of electricity, note how each physical quantity is defined

from the previous quantity.
Unit
(symbol)

Definition

Current

ampere
(A)

Charge

coulomb
(C)

the steady current flowing in two straight,

infinitely long and parallel conductors of circular
cross-section, placed one metre, apart in a
vacuum, which will produce a force of 2 107 N
acting on a metre length of conductor.
the amount of electrical charge that flows per
second through any cross-sectional area of a
conductor which carries a current of one ampere.
the potential difference between two points, when
one joule of work is done (or one joule of energy
is expended) to bring one coulomb of charge from
one point to the other .
the resistance of a circuit component, so that
when one ampere is flowing through it, it
generates a potential drop of one volt across it.

Quantity

Potential
difference

volt
(V)

Resistance

ohm
()

Based
on
kg,
metre,
second

ampere,
second
joule,
coulomb
ampere,
volt

FAQ: Explain why a volt should not be defined as the potential drop across a resistance
of one ohm when one ampere of current is flowing through it.
Ans: The ohm is defined in terms of the ampere and the volt. Since the ohm depends
on the size of the volt, it would be illogical to define the volt as the potential difference
across one ohm when one ampere flows through it.
3

Homogeneity of
Equations

Every term on both sides of the equal sign of an equation should have the same
units, for the equation to be called homogeneous or dimensionally consistent. This
is just plain common sense, as when Z = X + Y, we expect all quantities, Z, X and
Y to represent the same item.
Testing s = ut + at2
Example

Unit of s = m (metre)
Unit of ut = (unit of velocity) (unit of time) = m s1 s = m
Unit of at2 = m s2 s2 = m
Equation is homogeneous.

Example

Testing v = u2 + 2as2
Unit of v = m s1 (metre per second)
Unit of u2 = (unit of velocity)2 = (m sl) 2 = m2 s2
Unit of as2 = m s2 m2 = m3 s2
Equation is not homogeneous.

However, an equation that is found to be homogeneous need not be true or

correct.
Example

Testing s = ut + at2
As shown earlier (see above), the equation is dimensionally
consistent.
However, we know for a fact that the correct equation is
s = ut + at2.

Checking the homogeneity of an equation using base units is a powerful way of

establishing if the physical equation is reasonable. It narrows the numerous
combinations that may exist.
Example

The period T of a simple pendulum is thought to depend on its

length l, its mass m and the acceleration due to gravity g
according to the equation T = k lx my gz , where k is a
dimensionless constant (i.e. a constant with no unit). Find the
indices x, y and z.
Base units of T = s
Base units of k lx my gz = mx kgy (m s2)z = mx+z kgy s2z
Comparing the indices of
kg : y = 0
s:
2z = 1 z =
m:
x + z = 0 x = z =
T k

l
g

A possible equation is: T = k l g

Note that it is not possible to deduce the value of k through this
4

analysis.
Decimal
submultiples and
multiples

Prefix
Symbol
Multiple

The following prefixes and their symbols can be used to indicate decimal submultiples or multiples of both base and derived units:
pico
p
1012

nano
n
109
Example

micro

106

milli
m
103

centi
c
102

deci
d
101

kilo
k
103

mega
M
106

giga
G
109

tera
T
1012

0.0000674 J can be expressed as 67.4 J

1993200 V can be expressed as 1.9932 MV

Standard form expresses a number as N 10n where n is an integer, either

negative or positive, and N is any number such that 1.000 < N < 9.999.

Standard form

Example

Conventions for
labeling table
columns and graph
axes

All table columns and axes of a graph must be labelled appropriately, applying
the correct use of the decimal submultiples/multiples and the standard form
format.
Example

Example

0.0004 0.0005

0.000834 J can be expressed as 8.34 104 J

297000 m can be expressed as 2.97 105 m

0.0006

In the table below, columns 2 and 3 correctly tabulated the

1
values for T but column 3 has a better presentation.
1
1
T/K
/ K 1
/ 103 K 1
T
T
273
0.00366
3.66
283

0.00353

3.53

293

0.00341

3.41

Although the two examples shown below are correct, the latter
X/V
has a better presentation.

0.0007

0.0008

0.0009

0.0010

0.0011

0.0012
X/mV

0.4

0.5

Estimates and
Order-of-Magnitude
Calculations

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

1.1

1.2

To estimate a quantity or the result of a physical problem means to compute an

approximate answer even when the input data is incomplete or uncertain. This
skill is necessary for quality problem solving. The estimated answer can serve as
5

a reality check on a calculation or it can be used to determine whether or not a

more precise measurement or calculation is necessary.
In making an approximation, it is usually necessary to make some assumptions,
which must be modified if greater precision is needed. We will sometimes refer to
an order of magnitude of a certain quantity as the power of ten of the number that
describes that quantity.
Estimate each of the following quantity:

Example

Volume of a coffee cup

Weight of an adult

Energy required to bring to

the boil a kettleful of water

Question modified from GCE A-Level J99/II/1

1.2

Errors & Uncertainties

Readings &
Measurements

A reading is a single determination of the value of a quantity.

A measurement is the result of analysis of a series of readings.
The measurement of a length, L, is made up of two readings, R1
and R2, i.e. L = (R1 R2).

Example

L = (2.40 0.80) = 1.6 cm

10
R2 = 0.80 cm

Measuring
instruments in a
standard school
laboratory

Quantity

Length

Volume
Time
Mass

30 mm

20

R1 = 2.40 cm

Measuring instrument
Metre rule, half-metre rule,
30-cm plastic ruler

Sensitivity
0.1 cm

Vernier calipers

0.01 cm

Micrometer screw-gauge

0.01 mm

Measuring cylinder

Burette

0.05 cm3

Stop-watch

0.1 s or
0.01 s

Electronic balance

*
6

Current, Voltage

Multimeter

* Depends on sensitivity of instrument

The Vernier Callipers

Description

It consists of a steel bar with a permanent jaw and a sliding jaw. The movable jaw
carries a vernier scale that moves alongside the main scale. This instrument can
measure the internal and external dimensions of tubes, and the tail can measure the
depth of holes.
Principle

The vernier scale carries ten divisions that coincide with nine divisions of the main
scale. The whole idea is to have intervals of length on the vernier which are 0.9 of
the millimetre interval on the main scale. The difference of 1.0 0.9 mm is called the
least count. All readings therefore become integral multiples of the least count.
0

main scale

0
Example

10
vernier scale

The diagrams show the vernier scales when the instrument is closed and when it is
open to measure an objects diameter.

3
0

0
0

Closed
Zero error = 0.02 cm
pitch
scale

head
scale

10

10

Opened
Observed Reading = 2.6 + (4 x 0.01) = 2.64 cm

Corrected
Reading = Observed Reading Zero error = 2.64 (0.02) = 2.66 cm
ratchet
0

head

anvil

spindle

thimble

Diameter of object = 2.66 cm

The Micrometer Screwgauge

Description

Principle

The object to be measured is placed between the anvil and the spindle. The
ratchet is turned until clicks are heard. This indicates that the hold is now of the
correct pressure and any further movement of the spindle will compress the
length of the object. The pitch scale is graduated
in 0.5 mm and there are 50
0
divisions on the circular head scale.
The diagrams below show the circular head scale on the thimble when a
micrometer without zero error is fully closed and when it is opened by one turn.

Closed
Opened by one turn
The least count of the micrometer corresponds to the distance moved when the
thimble is turned through one division on the head scale and is given by

Example

0.5 mm
0.01 mm
Least count = 50
The diagram on the left below shows the micrometer scale when the
instrument is fully closed. As the zero on the head scale does not coincide
8

20

with the horizontal line on the pitch scale, the instrument has a zero error.
The diagram on the right below shows the scale when the same micrometer
is used to measure an object. What is the length of the object?
15

0
0

Zero error = +0.03 mm

Observed Reading = 2.5+(170.01) = 2.67

mm

Length of object = Corrected Reading = 2.67 0.03 = 2.64 mm

Errors

In the process of taking measurements, we may encounter errors, sometimes

knowingly and sometimes unknowingly, that give rise to false readings.
Errors arise due to many reasons:

the instruments may not be properly set up or calibrated,

they may not be working properly,
the scales are misread,
the experimenter took down readings wrongly,
disturbances may have taken place.

The errors fall into two broad categories. They are either systematic errors or
random errors.
Random Errors
Random errors produce readings that scatter about a mean value. These errors have an equal chance of
being positive (making the readings too large) or negative (making readings too small). They can be
reduced by taking more readings and averaging.
Examples of random errors:
i.
parallax error
ii.
fluctuation in the count-rate of a radioactive decay
Parallax error

Parallax error takes place when the line of sight of the experimenter is not
perpendicular to the scale. The randomness in the error may occur when the
angle of the line of sight varies when repeated measurements are taken.
To reduce parallax error, the experimenter should:
Place an attached pointer or the object being measured as close to the
scale as possible.
Repeat the measurement and find the mean of the repeated
measurements.

Count-rate of a
radioactive source

The expected value predicted for a particular long-lived isotope may be 100
counts per minute. Repeated counts would reveal the data to scatter around the
value of 100 due to the random nature of radioactive decay.
However, the more counts the experimenter takes, the more accurate the average
becomes (i.e. closer to 100). The random errors tend to cancel each other out,
and the residual error is divided by the number of readings, so it gets shared out
among many readings. (useful statement to remember!)

Systematic Errors
A systematic error will result in all the readings taken differing from the true value by a fixed positive
amount (or negative amount). A systematic error can be eliminated only if the source of the error is
known and accounted for. It cannot be eliminated by averaging but by correct laboratory practice.
Examples of systematic errors:
i.
zero error
ii.
personal error of the observer, e.g. a mistimed action
iii.
background radiation
Zero error

An instrument is said to have a zero error when the scale reading is non-zero
before any measurement is taken. Where appropriate, instruments should be
checked for zero error and adjustment be made if possible. The
presence/absence of zero error should be recorded.
Students have a tendency to forget to record the absence of zero error.

Mis-timed Action

Human reaction time

Another example of a systematic error is when a scientist keeps doing a mistimed action. The scientist always starts his stopwatch 0.5 s too late and stops it
on time. Whatever time he records is always 0.5 s too small. He cannot correct
for this if he is not aware of what he has done. He will always carry this
systematic error in all his time experiments.
The delay between the experimenter observing an event and starting a stopwatch
is known as his reaction time. The reaction time of a normal human being is
between 0.2 s to 0.4 s.
The effect of reaction time may be reduced by
starting and stopping the stopwatch to the same stimulus. For example,
use a fiducial marker when measuring the period of a pendulum. The
experimenter is to react (start or stop) when the bob passes the marker.
10

making the time interval between starting and stopping the stopwatch as
long as possible. This reduces the percentage error.

Think: Is reaction time a systematic error or a random error?

Precision &
Accuracy

Precision is the degree of agreement of repeated measurements of the same

quantity.
Accuracy is the degree of closeness these readings are to the actual true value.
Here are some
precise readings:

2.10

2.12

2.09

2.11

2.10

2.10

2.08

2.10

2.10

2.09

2.10

2.09

2.11

2.10

Notice they have agreement to two significant figures. Only the third figure
changes. The readings show little scatter, hence they can be said to be precise.
Precision can be obtained by using the proper instruments that allow you to
measure to this number of figures.
The figures in the table on the previous page represent the diameter of a steel ball
in mm, measured with a micrometer screw-gauge. The number N of readings for
each measurement is plotted against the measured values.
N

Each reading taken is indicated by one arrow.

d / mm
1.8

1.9

2.0

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

Now, the steel ball is placed on a ruler and measured by looking against the scale.
As the eye can judge to only within half a millimeter, the readings are not as
precise and are more spread out. However, they are accurate as the average gives
a correct value for an answer.
N

Each reading taken is indicated by one arrow.

d / mm
1.8

1.9

2.0

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

What can you say about these readings taken of the same steel ball?
11
d / mm
1.8

1.9

2.0

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

How would you describe these readings?

N

d / mm
1.8

Sensitivity

2.0

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

Sensitivity is defined as the change in the response to the change of the quantity
measured.
Example

Absolute Errors &

Uncertainties

1.9

A mercury-in-glass clinical thermometer is more sensitive than

a mercury-in-glass laboratory thermometer when measuring
temperatures between 36 oC and 42oC.
This is because the length of the mercury column in the clinical
thermometer changes more per unit change in temperature.

All measurements are approximations. No measuring device can give perfect

measurements without experimental uncertainty.
The uncertainty of a measurement is an indication of the range within which the
measurement is most likely to lie. All measuring instruments have built-in
uncertainties that limit their precision. However, when repeated readings are
taken of a quantity, the fluctuation of the data needs to be considered in the
determination of the uncertainty. (SPA related)
Example

When a ruler (coupled with a caliper) is used to measure the

diameter of a spherical plastic ball, the uncertainty is taken as
0.1 cm or 1 mm. This corresponds to the least count of the
instrument.
The measurement is written as D1 = (20.3 0.1) cm.
However, good laboratory procedure requires more
measurements to be taken:
D1 = (20.3 0.1) cm, D2 = (20.1 0.1) cm, D3 = (20.4 0.1) cm,
D4 = (20.0 0.1) cm, D5 = (20.6 0.1) cm, D6 = (20.2 0.1) cm.
We then notice that the readings vary between the range of
20.0 and 20.6. In this case the uncertainty is taken as half the
range of fluctuations, which is 0.3 cm. Therefore, the
12

measurement is written as <D> = (20.3 0.3) cm.

Significant figures

The number of significant figures in a result is simply the number of figures that
are known with some degree of reliability.
0.200 g has 3 significant figures
5.060 104 J has 4 significant figures
All uncertainties are rounded off to 1 significant figure. The measured quantities
are then rounded off to the same d.p. as the uncertainties.
Example

Reliability

Reliability is a measure of confidence that can be placed in a set of

measurements. There are several ways to gauge reliability:

Evaluate whether the data collected follows a particular trend as predicted

by a theory. In particular, the scatter of the points around the line of best
fit provides evidence of reliability.

Perform statistical analysis to obtain quantitative assessment of reliability.

Evaluate the closeness of the replicates of the measurements.

For simplicity, a set of measurements is reliable if it is both accurate and precise.

Uncertainties of
derived quantities

The uncertainties of derived quantities (perimeter, area, volume, density, etc) may
be calculated using the following formulae:

1
.

Addition

Q = aX + bY

Absolute error is

Q = aX + bY

2
.

Subtraction

Q = aX bY

Absolute error is

Q = aX + bY

3
.

Product

Q=XY

Fractional error is

Q X Y

Q
X
Y

4
.

Division

X
Q= Y

Fractional error is

Q X Y

Q
X
Y

13

5
.

Product with
powers

Q = X m Yn

Fractional error is

Q
X
Y
m
n
Q
X
Y

6
.

Quotient with
powers

Xm
n
Q= Y

Fractional error is

Q
X
Y
m
n
Q
X
Y

Appendix 2 shows the derivation of the formulae for calculating uncertainties.

Absolute, Fractional
& Percentage Errors

Absolute error of Q = Q

Q
Fractional error of Q = Q
Q
Percentage error of Q = Q 100%
Example

The length of a rod is measured and recorded together with its

uncertainty as L= (3.15 0.05) cm.
(a) State the absolute uncertainty of L.
(b) Determine the fractional and percentage uncertainty of L.
(a) Absolute uncertainty in L = L = 0.05 cm

(b)

Fractional uncertainty in L

L 0.05

0.0159
L 3.15

Percentage uncertainty in L

L
100% 1.59%
L

Note:
Absolute uncertainty must be given to 1 s.f. whilst fractional
and percentage uncertainty should be given to 2 or 3 s.f.

14

Example

A rectangle has a length l = (34.3 0.6) cm and breadth

b = (21.8 0.5) cm. Calculate the perimeter P and area A of the
rectangle and express their values with their absolute
uncertainties.
P = 2l + 2b = 2 (34.3+ 21.8) = 112.2 cm
P = 2l + 2b = 2 (0.6 + 0.5) = 2.2 cm = 2 cm (to 1 s.f.)
P = (112 2) cm
A = lb = 34.3 21.8 = 747.74 cm2 = 7.4774 102 cm2

A l b 0.6 0.5

0.0404
A
l
b 34.3 21.8
A = 0.0404 747.74 = 30.2 cm2 = 0.3 102 cm2 (to 1 s.f.)
A = (7.5 0.3) 102 cm2
Note:
The absolute uncertainty should always be expressed to one s.f.
and the value should be expressed up to the decimal place of
the uncertainty.
Example

1.3

A metal cube of side L has a mass of M. Its density can be

calculated from the formula = M/L3. If M = (0.065 0.001) kg
and L = (0.200 0.001) m, express the value of with its
associated uncertainty.

Scalars & Vectors

15

Scalars & Vectors

All physical quantities can be divided into scalar and vector quantities.
A vector quantity has both a magnitude and a direction. A scalar quantity has a
magnitude only.
Below are examples of each type of quantity:
Scalar Quantity
distance
mass
speed
charge
temperature
time
volume
energy

Representation of a
Vector

Vector Quantity
displacement
force
velocity
torque
momentum
acceleration

Whereas scalars are represented only by a number representing its magnitude, and
a unit, vectors are represented by a number, a unit and a direction.
ur
A vector is denoted by A , a%or in most books A.
A vector is represented by an arrow:
the direction of the arrow represents the direction of the vector,
the length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector.

Vector Addition

ur
A

2 or more vectors may be summed up to form a resultant vector.

ur
ur
Consider the vector addition of two vectors A and B :

u
r
A

ur ur
A B

u
r
B

u
r
B

The above diagram is called a vector triangle.

ur
ur
It can be seen that if A and B u
form
r ur the
sides of a parallelogram, then A B is
the diagonal of the parallelogram.
This is called the parallelogram method
of vector addition and it is equivalent to
the vector triangle.

ur ur
A B

u
r
B
u
r
A
16

Vector Subtraction

A
Here are two vectors, A and B .

Reversing them give A and B

If vector B is to be subtracted from vector A , the resultant vector is A B .

A B can be rewritten as A + ( B ). We can now use vector addition.

u
r
B

u
r
A

Example

B
ur
ur
A ( B )

An object was initially moving with a constant speed of 20 m s -1

towards the east. Then it moved with a constant speed of
10 m s-1 in the north-easterly direction. Using vector analysis,
determine the change in velocity. [Note: the change in velocity
is a vector quantity.]

u
45o
%

v
%
v ( u )
% %

u
r
A

)
The change in velocity = v% ( u%

v
%

The magnitude is found using cosine rule.

v u 2 v 2 2uv cos
20 2 102 2 20 10 cos 45o
14.7 m s 1

Using sine rule,

v
v

o
sin 45
sin
10sin 45o
sin
14.74
o
28.7
The change of velocity is 14.7 m s1 in the direction of 28.7o North of West.

17

In the previous example, the equation

change of velocity,
can be re-written as:

v v u
% % %

v u v
% % %

Hence, the vector diagram representing u , v and v can also be drawn as shown
v
below:

u
%
%

v
%
45o
v can be calculated using cosine rule, after which can be calculated using sine
rule.
The problem can also be solved by drawing a scale diagram.

Resolution of
Vectors

Vectors can be resolved into components in any direction. Usually, the directions
chosen are the vertical and horizontal directions.

u
r
A

A cos
u
r
r A sin
A u
A

Example

A horse pulls on a rope that is attached to a barge, with a force

o
of 60 N. The rope makes an angle of 30 with the banks of the
river. Determine the magnitude of
(a) the force that pulls the barge forward and
(b) the force that pulls it sideways?

18

Example

Show the component of the weight acting along the slope and
perpendicular to the slope.

mg

The diagram30obelow shows three forces acting at a point.

Determine the
45o resultant force by resolving each force in two
perpendicular directions.
y
12.0 N

3.0 N

Example

x
7.0 N

19

APPENDIX 1 Definitions of S.I. Base Units

The metre is (299 792 458)1 of the distance light travels in one second.
The kilogram is equal to the mass of the International Prototype kilogram (a platinum-iridium cylinder) kept in
Sevres, Paris.
The second is defined in terms of 9 192 631 770 periods of a particular wavelength of light emitted by a caesium
atom.
The ampere is the steady current flowing in two straight, infinitely long and parallel conductors of circular crosssection, placed one metre apart in a vacuum, which will produce a force of 2 107 N acting perpendicularly on a
metre length of conductor.
One kelvin is exactly (273.16)1 of the temperature interval between absolute zero and the triple point of water.
One mole is the amount of any substance containing the same number of elementary units (atoms or molecules) as
there are atoms found in 0.012 kg of carbon-12.
The candela is the luminous intensity, in the perpendicular direction, of a surface of 1/600 000 square metre of a
blackbody at the temperature per square metre.
The kilogram is the only base unit defined by a physical object. The rest of the base units are based on stable
properties of the universe. For example, the metre is defined by stating that the speed of light, a universal physical
constant, is exactly 299 792 458 metre per second. This physical definition allows scientists to reconstruct metre
standard anywhere in the world without referring to a physical object kept in a vault somewhere.

APPENDIX 2 Derivation of Formulae for Calculating Uncertainties

Addition of Quantities

Subtraction of Quantities

If Q = aX + bY

If Q = aX bY

a(X X) + b(Y Y) = (aX + bY) (aX + bY)

a(X X) b(Y Y) = (aX bY) aX m bY

= (aX bY) (aX + bY)

Hence Q = aX + bY

Hence Q = aX + bY

Product of Quantities
m

X
Y

X 1 . Y n 1
X
Y

If Q = Xm Yn , (X X)m (Y Y)n =
Expanding binomially & taking first order approximation,
X
Y

X mY n 1 m 1 n
X
Y

(X X)m (Y Y)n
m

X
Y
X Y 1 1
X
Y

=
m

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X
Y
X Y
X mY n 1 m
n
mn

X
Y
Y
X

[last term ignored for small X & Y ]

Y
X
X mY n m
n X mY n
X
Y

Y
X
Q m
n X mY n
X
Y

Since

Q
m

X
Y
n Q
X
Y

Q
X
Y
m
n
X
Y
Therefore, Q

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