asaql qlull paLHaJuoJ aq IIII!\ {ooq slql 'arn?

Ia
-dura1 uooJ lB q13uar1s alqeuosuar aleq pue sprlos a.re
qeql scrlsuld asoql pue sle?aru lsotu sapnlrur slDHaJDla
Suuaaut?ua tuJal aql Jo uorlelardralur luasard

'suor?Bc

-11dde /r,rau

a.re

ur pasn ro sarpadord ra??aq qlurr padolanap

faql su '1sr1 aql tuorJ papnlJxa ,tlsnornard

aABq +Bql slelJa+pur

uaaq

uala pue 'sarlsqd 'suorluurqtuoc

crlls+oru Mau Jo uor?rppB aq+ q+Ir!i\ mor8 o1 sanurluoJ

slelJa?"tu Sur.raaur8ua palpJ-os Jo ?q aq;, 'pacnp
-o.rd spoo8 1o adrtl ur acuaraJJrp B pue 'sluaura.nnbar

w acuaraJJrp e 'sarlradord yo uor?BurqruoJ

aq+ u.r acualaJJrp B Jo asnBcaq slerJa+Btu IBm?Jn4s
asaq? tuo4 papnlcxa uaaq dlunsn aABq 'suorleaqddu
dueur ur s1elatu qlrr* aladuoc deru ,{at11 q8noqlp
'sa1lxal pue 'alarcuoc 'poorlL ,scnueJac ,sse1g .r(1Uq
-Ernp pue 'ssauq8nol ,q15uar1s ,ssaupreq q8rq d1anr1
-BIaJ Jo sarlradord aq+ ar" dnor8 slq?
Jo cr+srralce.reqC
spualDu Suuaau8ua se o? paraJar ualJo sr luq? sselc
B ul IIeJ slerral"tu raq?o atuos pue sl+oru yo f1rroleur
aq; 'srr+seld puu slelaru ;o spoo8 alqernp ;o Burrleur
aq+ qll^{ pauraJuoc frlsnpur go sasuqd lurr?snpur pr.re
pcruqJar.u aql q padolanap al"q slsaralur prcadg
'sl?lJaletu
IBrnlBu ;o sarl.radold Jo 'urJo; 'adeqs Jo uo$raluoJ
oql /tq alqesn aJour ro alqesn apeur Furql^rftale ,1ce;
ur 'puu 'spcruraqc 'sep1xa1 ,sEnrp .spoo; ;o Suquur
oql stro^oc lJ 'o^rsnlculll" sl uor?rurJap B qcns
,,'.draurqceru r{q dlpnsn
pu? roqBl Jo uorsr^rp qlr.ril, ./ilou rtlprcadsa ,roqe1 ,{q
acnpo.rd o1 ifcue8u .raq1o dq lo ,,{raurqceu z{q ,puet{
rtq a>1eur ol,, sB ((a.rn+ceJnueru,, saulJap Ja?sqa6
Sutssacord

rt6oloutlcol
6uUnlcelnuBru

ol uollcnporlul

10

Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

materials and the processes that are used to shape

them or change their properties to a more usable
form.
HISTORY
The growth of industry in the United States is typical

of industrial development throughout the world. Early

settlers were concerned primarily with food and shelter.

Most manufactured goods were imported but

some
Eventualfamily
units.
in
the
done
was
manufacturing

ly, as conditions were stabilized, efficiency improved

and excess goods were available for sale and trade. The
factory form of industry finally resulted, under control

of single families. Some of these still exist but most

have changed to corporate enterprises under ownership

of many individuals.

Early Manufacturing. The first manufacturing was

devoted mainly to agricultural and military needs. One
of the earliest industrial operations to grow to large size
was the reduction of ore to metal. By its very nature,
particularly for ferrous metals, this process is not
adaptable to very small operations. The trend in this industry to increasing size has continued to the present.
A few very large corporations produce nearly all of the
basic metals, even though there are many small fabricators.
Interchangeability. The Civil War and the expanding frontier created much incentive for the manufacture
of firearms. Many will remember that the first example
of true interchangeability and the development of better transportation following the Civil War resulted in
rapid growth of production goods. Many of the products were considered luxuries at the time but since
have become necessities to the modern life style.
Importance of Manufacturing. Manufactured products are an integral part of everyone's life, but most
persons do not realize the great amount of investment
and labor that makes those products possible. Realization comes with thought that almost every activity, regardless of field, is in some way dependent on hardware
produced by the manufacturing industry. Approximately 25Vo of the gross national income is spent for
manufactured goods and about the same proportion of
the United States' working force is employed in the
manufacturing industry.

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONSHIPS
COMPETITION IN INDUSTRY
In the American way of life, the profit motive is
the root of most business, including manufacturing.
The system presumes direct competition, so that if a
number of companies are engaged in the manufacture
of similar products, the sales volume will be in proportion to the product quality, promotional activities, service policies, and price. The cost of manufacturing therefore becomes of prime importance, for

the company that can produce at the lowest cost and

maintain quality can spend more for sales activities,
can'sell at a lower cost, or can make a larger profit
per sale than competitors in a less fortunate position.
For this reason industry is continually engaged in a
battle to Iower production costs and to gain this
favored position.
Direct Competition Limited. Because of the
complexity of the overall manufacturing operation,
many decisions are, of necessity, rather arbitrary. For
nearly all products, there are many altematives of
design, materials, and processing that will satisfy the
function the product is to have. For many products,
direct sales-price comparisons are not adequate, for
different demands for similar products made of different materials or having different designs may exist.
The purchaser is truly the final decision-maker, which
makes advertising and sales promotion a most important phase of the business.
Adequate time is often not available to study the
effect of a design on the market or to investigate all
the possible processes of manufacture, particularly
for new products. Sometimes, to determine the exact
material that would serve best even for a fixed design
is too time consuming. In any case, reasonable decisions must be made, and when absolute knowledge is
not available, they are based on past experiences of
similar nature. Because of the interrelationships existing in manufacturing, accurate decisions will depend
not only on exact knowledge of a specific area but
also on knowledge of interaction from related areas.
PERSONNEL
Several kinds of workers are needed in any manufacturing operation. Some work directly with the
product, and some are only indirectly connected with
the product but are more concemed with the organization producing the goods. Those directly connected
with the product include the designer, those responsible for choosing the processes, establishing control
over the operation, and supervising the manufacturing, and the machine and equipment operators who
perform the actual work of converting raw material
into useful objects. Each of these, to function effectively in his job, must have varying defrees of
knowledge concerning the product requirements, the
material properties, and the equipment limitations.
Most jobs directly connected with the product call
for specific knowledge in depth concerning certain
phases of the work and more general knowledge of
related areas.
Products, from the simplest single part items to the
most complex assemblies costing millions of dollars
each, go through a series ofchosen steps ofmanufacture
as they proceed from raw material to completed useful

products. In order to conserve energy, material, time,

effort, and to reduce cost, it is necessary at each stage of

-do;d aq1 Jo IIe ro atuos .slerJa?Bu 1e1uatuala raq?o

IIB Jo asoq? tuory ?ualaJJrp sarpadord atuos ?seal l

ss(i leualuru Iluetuola qoeg .suor?Bue1 ,{gador4

'spol u8rsap roJ uorlelnduroc ur .,{11oarrp pasn
aq (uoplas uec san1el raqunu aL{? lnq ,prraleru ualrF
e ro; q18uaJ?s alrsual qlr./{ alelarroo ,{eru sJaqunu
ssaupJEq Jo 'slrJa?tu ?uaJaJJrp JoJ aclrelsrsar rBa^t

alrlelal Jo uor?eJrpur ue

aArF

,tetu sluaruarnsea'.u ssau

-preq 'aldruuxa Jod 'sleualetu raq?o tuorJ slsa? relrr.urs

tuoJJ paurelqo elep qJr.\ suosr.redruoc alernccu JoJ
.Jala.troH .olqls
^,{liunlroddo aq1 aprnord Ilrls stsa? aq?
-soclutr ro llncrJJrp uorlulnclec JoJ s?lnsal
?sa1 aql Jo

osn aql salru qclq,t\ 'Jauuur.u dre4rqre alour ul lnq

d11ecr;rcads ssal ou paurJap are sarlradord i{uuru ,pueq

raqlo aql uo 'speol u.l(ou{ rapun lueaq azrs-ureFac

e Jo uorlJalJap aq+ dlalerncce

lcrpard o? an1el srq? asn

uec rau8rsap e pu 'paurruralap aq deru lerJaletu B Jo

dlrcrlsela Jo snlnpour aql 'lsal a1sual plpu?s e ruoq
'alduruxa Jod 'elep u8rsap se [11eanp pasn aq feru
s?lnsar aql leql qcns 'slsa? dq paurgap are sarpadord
aruos 'paJnseatu pue paurJap are sarlradord rrroq ;o
Sutpuelsrapun uE pu pasn srural aql JO s8uruearu asrc
-erd uo spuadap slerJaltu ;o uosrreduroc 1ua8r11a1ur
uV 'uor?"cr1dde aq1 roJ raqqnJ a{rl lerJaleru e asooqc
o1 dressacau aq deu 1r '1sara1ur yo ,{padord lrmgodurr
aq? sl ,{1rcr1se1a gr 'ranamo11 .lua}xa al'uos ol Jrlsela
sI Iaals 'suoseal asaql JoJ lrJaltu Surrnlae;nuuu u
se uasoqc aq ,{eu pue 8uor1s puE prBq sr Iaals ,s1erra1

-eru Jar41'o fuuu o1 pareduo3 .sarpadord Jo suor?

-EurquoJ to satyado;d rraql ur sr sluualeru snorJEA
uaa.{r}aq sacualaJJrp pcrlcerd aql .sarpador4
'uasoqc pual"[u
rulncrlred aql ,{q palplcrp aq ,{eu ssaJord aql pue
'pa?lurll .{ran are sarlrlrqrssod Surssacord aq1 'sprraleur
r{ueur ro; 'ranalroll 'sdem luaraJJlp Jo raqunu e ur
passacord aq uec ?soru pue 'lcnpord due roy pannbar
are slerJa?eru aJour ro auo 'ampacord 8unn1cJnueru
fue o1 luegodrur sr sleualetu ;o Furpuelsrapun uV

STVIUSJVNI

'luawdrnba pue acuarradxa

pazrprcads Jo asnecaq a8uef ?qFra^/tt urFac Jo
s8urlsea uorr dluo acnpord .{eu frpunoy e ,aldurexa
Jo.{ 'suorlerado Surrnlce;nueru .rulncrlred uo aleJl
-uaJuoc lauuosrad puu luaurcftnba aq1 qclqr\ ur seale
olur papwp dlpurou are s1ue1d Burrnlce;nueur ,rt1.re1
-tturg 'scrdol crgrcads sB seare crSrcads lar? ol dressa
-cau llrls sr 1r 'ra11eur 1calqns;o ssaual8urs srql
^roqs
o? >looq slql q aperu uaaq seq lduage aql q8noqlly
'uor+cunJ atuos IIrJlnJ ol paln?csJnuBr.u oq
?snur lBrll
lcnpord pua aql p.re^,o? sr uorssncsrp Jo uorlpluarJo
aq? uaq.e\ laafqns a18urs u ,{1ru1 st sassacotd BuunpoJ
-nuDur puD slDlralDu.r ;o lcafqns aql .slcnpord alqsn
olur ap?r.u arB slBrraltsIu osaq? qslqr\{ dq sassacord
pdrcur.rd aql pue Furmlceynuuur ur pasn s1erJaleru
aq+ Jo uorssncsrp peorq e luasard ol aq IIr/$, lxal
slr{l Jo alrtlcalqo pdrcurrd aql .lflxa ra?.luru lcatqns ;o

II

dSolouqce;, Surrnlce;nuetr41 01 uollrnpor?ul

uorlezrueFro pu lualuoc Jo suorlerrA alqrssod duetu

'lxal srql ur asn roJ sassaroJd SutmlcolnuDza :dJ.J.al a\r1
uo paceld uaaq aABq leql suorl"lrrurl atrt '.'_

USJIVIAI ICSfBNS
'lauuosrad raq?o pue uorlanpord q1r.t
-runruruoc lsntu Iouuosred ;q1q,fpegurrg'a?uudordrl
uaq/!\ sarueu>loru prre srural pcol Sursn ;o lurod ;r
ol uala 'd8o1oururra1 .radord Surpnlcur 'a8en8uel a1r,
-lrns uo paseq aq lsnur Surpue?sJapun srql (.{?rssaJar.i

yg

'sdnor8 o^{l aq+ uaarlr?aq slsrxa Surpuelsraprn-.

IInJ B uaqa ,t1uo paureS aq uuc 'suralqord uorlcnpoJcl
Jo uor?nlos radord aq? roJ fressacau ,slolerado
asaql Jo uorsrtradns ro; lcadsar pue ,uorleradoor
'f1p.{o1 oq;, 'srolerado luarudrnba pue aurqcur
aql Jo sualqord aq? aworaq lcnpord u yo uorlcnpord
aql Jo sualqord aq1 'srs{pue IEUrJ aql uI 'sarlrlr(l
-edec naql go Surpuelsrapun atuos a^q pue pasn aq
Ir{8lur lql sloo} pue saurqcur snorrel ar.ll Jo saurBrr
aql ?seal 1e ll\ou>l ol spaau aq 'sasec Jsotu uI .utu
uorlcnpord aq? Jo a8enFuel aql asn pue pulsJapun 01
alq aq lsntu 'uorlcnpord Jo lsoJ pue poqlau aq? uo
se8ueqc u8rsap snorrA Jo s?caJJa aql uetu uorlcnpord
B q?lrrr .{11ue8rga1ur ssncsrp o1 'rau8rsap

'uJacuoJ Jo

aql ur pasn amlelJuaruou aql yo a8pal.,uou{ ilaq?

"ar
uo ^,{11calp puadap IIrl!\ BaJe raqlou" uo4 aldoad
qlr.&r sualqord puelsrapun pue ssncsrp o1 Suunlceg
-nu?ul Jo eare auo tuorg lauuosrad yo [1r1qe aq;
TUOJ,VTCNgI ION
'd1r1cu; Surrnlce;
-nueur aql pue lcnpord aql Jo Surpuelsrapun peorq
paau op,{aq1'aro;araqJ'slcnpord aq1 uo lcay;e ur 8ur
-qceaJ-.reJ a.r +Br{l suorsrJap a>Ieru llrls deur faql ,rala
-.rrroH 'aJnlJBJnuBru slr JO lJnpord aq1 ;o aSpayrrou>1
Fcruqcal alrsualxa paau ?ou op faq; .plarJ urto
rlaqS ul paureJl ro pallDIS ftq8lq aq ,{eur sBaJ asaql
uI {ro.r oqll' Iauuosrad aq;, .seaie lroddns reqlo
pu?'acrlJas IrpolsnJ'Surseqcrnd,acueurg:,Eurlunocce
'uollrlsrurrup ur $a{rom lsciur apnlJur asaql .uorl
-erado Surrnlce;nuur aql ro lcnpord aq? qll^l pa?Jau
-uoc ^,t11carrpur dluo arp Iauuosred raqlg .lJarrpul
'lJnpoJo e Illsur ua^a
pue 'looqsalqnoJl 'areduroc ,puauruoca.l o1 uodn
pallec are daq;, 'aJnlceJnuetu sJr pu" lcnpord aq? q?l^\
dluerguu; alalduroc alq lsntu dlpnsn lauuosrad
saps 'roqu1 lcalrp s" passBIJ dlprurou 1ou q8noqlly
'1cnpo;d flqunb qEq e aprrrord 1eql sluouarrnbe.r aq1o1
sruroJuoc lI tuql aos ol Irra?Btu aql Jo uorlcadsur;o aarE

flurluessg .lueurdolanop lrnp

-ord aql ol Eurppu puu l"rralutu Eur{;rpou ol uolllppe
ur sr aroJorer{l UoJJa Eur.rnlcu;nu"u aqt Jo UBd aErBI V
-ap a armba.r slcnpo.rd 1u

'uElsap aql uo.r; palaedxa flqrquqe.r puu {1qenb oql seq

lcnpo.rd IBUrJ aqt luql alnsur o? I"rJoluru pessecold eq1
oulruexa leuuos.red par;gunb 1uq1 luaurdolalap lcnpo.rd

12

Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

erties of an element may be changed by the adclition

of even small parts of another element. In many cases
the properties obtained from the combination will be
better than those of either element alone. In a similar
manner, the properties of elements or combinatious
can be varied by the type of treatment given the
material. The treatments that affect properties are
often intentionally selected for this purpose. However, the properties are no less affected, often in an
undesirable way, by the processes being used with the
objective of shaping the material. Sufficient knowledge of the relationship between the properties and
the processing of materials may permit the improvement of the properties as a natural result of the
processing for a different main objective. Reducing
the cross-sectional size during the shaping of most
metals results in an increase in hardness and strength
that may be undesirable if the metal must undergo
further deformation processing. In many cases, this
increase in hardness and strength that occurs as a
result of the processing can be beneficial and part of
the product design.
PROCESSES

Manufacturing consists of converting some raw

material, which may be in rough, unrefined shape,
into a usable product. The selection of the material
and the processes to be used seldom can be separated.
Although in a few cases some unusual property
requirements dictate a specific material, generally a
wide choice exists in the combination of material and
processing that will satisfy the product requirements.
The choice usually becomes one of economic comparison. In any case, a material is usually selected
first, sometimes rather arbitrarily, and a process must
then be choscn. Processing consists of one or many
separate steps producing changes in shape or properties, or both.
Shape Changes. Shape changing of most materials
can be accomplished with the material in one of several different forms or states: liquicl, solid, or plastic.
Melting of a material and control of its shape while it
solidifies is referred to as casting. Reshaping of the
material in the plastic or semisolid form is called
molding, forging, pressworhing, rolling, or extrusion.
Shaping by metal removal or separation in t]-re solid
state is comtnonly performed to produce product
shapes. If the removed rnaterial is in chip form, the
process is machining. The joining of solid parts by
welcling usually involves small localized liquid areas
that are allowed to soliclify to produce a con-Iplete
union between solicl parts.
Energy Form. The materiai condition and the
energy form used to effect these shape changes may
vary. As noted, the material may be in a liquid, solid,
or plastic form. The energy may bc supplied in the
form of heat, mechanical power, chemical reactiou,

electrical energy, or, as iu one of the newest procedures, Iight. In nearly every instance, one prir-rcipal
objective is shape changes, bub usually part of thc
energy is consumcd in property changes, particuiarly
in those processes involving state changes or solici
deformation. Different materials react differently to
the same energy system, and the same materials react
differently to different energy systems.
Process Effect on Properties. Many concepts and
fundamentals in reference to materials are common
to different kinds of processes. Wl-ren studied in connection with the material, these concepts, then, can
be applied regardless of tl-re kind of process by which
the material is treated. The metallurgical changes that
take place during solidification during casting are of
the same nature as those that take place in fusiorl
welding.

Auxiliary Steps. The completion of a product for

final use generally includes the various finishing procedures apart from basic shape-changing processes.
The dimensions and properties that are produced by
any process are subject to variation, and, in practically all cases, some inspection of nondestructive type
is necessary for controlling the process and for assuring
that the final product meets certain specifications as to
size and other properties. As one of the final steps, or
sometimes as an intermediate step, control of properties by heat treatment or other means may be
necessary. Tl-re final steps may also require surface
changes for appearance, wear properties, corrosion
protection, or other uses. These steps may involve
only the base material or may require the addition of
paints, platings, or other coatings.
Few finished products are constructed of single
pieces of material because of the impracticality of
producing them at a reasonable cost. Also, it is frequently necessiuy that properties that can be obtained only from different materials be combined
into a single unit. The result is that most manufactured articles consist of assemblies of a number of
separate parts. The joining of these parts can be
accomplished in many ways, with the best method
being dependent on all the factors of shape, size, and
material properties involved in the particular design.

ECONOMICS

The private ownership systems of business and

industry in the United States are profit motivated. In
a competitive market, the manufacturer who makes
the most profit will be the one who has the best

combination of design, materials choice, and manufacturing processes. lJltimately, most decisions
become a compromise between the most desirable
from a design, life, and function standpoint and the
most practical from a production and cost standpoint.

'pal"rJossB sr 1I
qcrqa rllr/{ lsnpord aq? o? uor?BIoJ slr uodn ?uapuadep dI
-eJr?ua sr osBc pnpr^rpur u3 ur ssacoJd {uBJo acu"?Jodrur

pu" 'auolu ?slxa uBr BaJB auo ou ?"ql qJns oJB sdrqs
-uorlelarJalq aqt ?nq .sJoqlo u"ql ?uepodurr e.roru sr
aq?

Eurrnlau;nueruJo BarB ouo ?Bql JoIIoq e o? sp"al {11uanb

-ar; spnprlrpul dueur Jo socuarJadxa aq;, .lauuos.rad

ION of acuulrodrur puu asn Jroq? q?I^t o?BJnsuaruruoc
qldap pue q13ue1ur srseqdua u q?rrrr passnrsrp eq
ilI,lr
Surqsrury pue 'Sururqceur ,Furplarn ,Furdeqs uorlru
-roJap '8ur1sec Jo sassacoJd rofeur aq; .sassaJord
'uraq?
slcoJJe ssacord aq+ w pu aJroqJ ssacord aq?
lcaJJu
,rtaq1 se .,{1uo passncslp aq
IF^r slualetu crgrcads Jo sarl

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pasn .{luoturuoc aql o1 ,{1dde faql se f8rnlelaur yo
s1eluatuepunJ aql .{q pamolloy ,dlradord aql arnseau
o1 pasn ampacord lsal aqt ;o uorldrrcsap e
Jo lsrsuoc
.{11eraua8 qclq,r ,suorlrur;ap
4aql qll^ ,sarlradord
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+ouuec
pue luelrodurr dran aru slerraleru Jo sarpadord aq1
'raldeqc slql ul pa?eJrpur uaaq seq sV .sFualBIAI
'eare palcrJlsal Jnq prcads fue ur qldap
yo luaurdola^ap aq? ueqq. luelJodurr arou sr ualsr{s
Surmlaegnuew IIBraAo aq+ Jo a8paynou4 peoJq
{ooq
slql Jo asodrnd aq+ roJ ?Eq1 Jarlaq aq? ul gelap lear8
olur oF lou saop uorssnJsrp aq;, .Fuureal runturxstu
ol a^rcnpuoc pue ieco1 uaas II^t JapJo aql ?eq+
adoq aq1 qlr,r\ uasoqJ uaaq a^eq looq flql yo sraldeqc
8ur,t.o11og aq;,.a8eraloc pu qldap yo sear8ap Furfren
uI passncsrp aq uec sessacord Furmlcegnuetu ?noqe
alqBFe^B aFpalmoul go ^,{1r1uenb snoturoua aq;

utrouo
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slJnpord
r1eq1 qcgirr ol suor?rpuoc acrlras aq? puu
IIr^,t
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;o punotftleuq alenbapu ue eABr{ lsnru suosred qcng
's?so? olrlJnrlsapuou dq paprrro.rd suorlecrpur
?coJrp
-q aql uro.ry Eurururals ,slaefqo lsa? eq? Jo .r(lrTrqeacwas
pue d1rl3a1q aql Surp.ruEar sassaco.rd uorsrcap ar{l o?
lndul eppo.rd ol papaau aru spnprlrpur elqedu3 .Iauuos
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alqrssod lou sr suorluJrpur ?sa? Jraq?
;o .rorlela.rdrag
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-no11 '8ur1sa? olrlenJ?sapuou JoJ papoou
luarudrnba
uorlaadsur qrnu pacnpo.rd suq d8olouqcel uropory

gI

dSolouqce;, Fur.rn1cegnue141 01 uorlrnporlul

'suor?BloJ Joruolsnc ano.rdrur o_

pue 1nd1no lcnpord z(?rrcnb ral?aq eJnsse ol
ler?uassa sr
lI'lceJ ur isfed ,Eursrl.razrpp a)H ,asuas Joqloue ,lnq
1r

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-ls IIr.e\ uorlrladuoc ,par;r1sn[ ?ou
JI .putuap +a{JBLu
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