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Chapter
11 Superposition
Syllabus Content
Learning Outcomes
Stationary waves
Diffraction
Interference
Two-source interference patterns
Diffraction grating
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11.1
Introduction
Principle of
Superposition
Fig. 1. When two waves meet, the resultant disturbance is vector sum of the
disturbance of disturbance due to each of the waves.
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11.2
Stationary Waves
What is a Stationary
Wave
Imagine two similar waves of exactly the same amplitude, same frequency and
same wavelength moving toward each other as shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2
They eventually meet each other and start to overlap. We then have a situation
in which the superposition of the two waves is observed along the line of
propagation. The principle of superposition applies at each point and at a
particular instant of time we may get a resultant waveform such as Fig. 3:
At t = 0:
Wave moving to
the right
Resultant
wave
Wave moving to
the left
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Properties of a
Stationary Wave
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Comparing
Stationary Waves
and Progressive
Waves
Progressive Wave
Waveform
The disturbance
propagates across space.
Energy
Transports energy
Amplitude
Phase
Example 1
Stationary Wave
(J90/P1/13)
Progressive waves of frequency 300 Hz are superimposed to
produce a system of stationary waves in which adjacent nodes
are 1.5 m apart. What is the speed of the progressive waves?
Solutions
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11.3
Stationary Waves in
Stretched Strings
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Modes of
Vibration
Fundamental
mode/frequency
st
1 overtone
Graphical
Representation
Wavelength
L 1 1
2
1 2L
2
L 2
2 L
Frequency
Also known
as
v
2L
1st harmonic
2L
2nd harmonic
f1
f2 2
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L 3
2nd overtone
2L
3
L n
th
(n 1)
overtone
2L
n
n
2L
3rd harmonic
2L
nth harmonic
f3 3
fn n
Note:
At the fixed ends, there must be nodes (since the string cannot vibrate at
these points).
Example 2
(N95/P3/3(b))
In order to investigate stationary waves on a stretched string, a
student set up the apparatus shown in Fig. 5 below.
pulley
weights
mechanical oscillator
Fig. 5
(i)
(i) Since the tension of the string is fixed, the velocity of the
wave on the string is fixed. Stationary waves will only be
formed (i.e. resonance occurs) when the length of the
string is equal to certain fixed multiples of half-wavelength
of the wave. Hence, it is necessary to adjust the length of
the string to fit multiples of half-wavelength, or adjust the
frequency (and thus wavelength) to fit the length of the
string.
(ii) A node is a point on the stationary wave where the particle
is always at rest. A node must exist at the pulley as the
pulley, and hence the string, is fixed in position.
Note: The end of the string which is attached to the oscillator
can also be considered as a node as the amplitude of
vibrations is considered small compared to the antinode.
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Example 3
(J83/P2/12)
A taut wire is clamped at two points 1.0 m apart. It is plucked
near one end. Which are the three longest wavelengths present
on the vibrating wire?
Solutions
Stationary Waves in
Air Columns (or
Pipes)
Fig. 6
When a sound wave is sent into a closed pipe, the wave propagates to the end
of the pipe and is reflected. The reflected wave superposes with the incident
wave and a stationary wave is formed. A displacement node is formed at the
closed end of the pipe while a displacement antinode is formed at the open
end:
L
Graphical representation of a
stationary wave in closed pipe
Arrows indicate the amplitude
of vibration of air molecules of
the stationary wave
Fig. 7
Stationary Waves in Closed Tubes
Modes of
Vibration
Graphical
Representation
Wavelength
Frequency
Also known
as
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L 1 1
4
1 4L
Fundamental
frequency
L 3
1st overtone
4L
3
3
5
L 5
2nd overtone
4L
5
th
(n 1)
overtone
Open Pipes
f1
2 n 1
L 2n 1
2n 1
4L
2n 1
v
4L
1st harmonic
v
f3 3
4L
3rd harmonic
v
f5 5
4L
5th harmonic
4L
f2 n 1 2n - 1
(2n 1)th
harmonic
When a sound wave is sent propagating in a open pipe, the stationary waves formed
will have displacement antinodes at both ends as shown in Fig. 8.
Fig. 8
Stationary Waves in Open Tubes
Modes of
Vibration
Fundamental
frequency
st
1 overtone
Graphical
Representation
Wavelength
L 1 1
2
1 2L
2
L 2
2 L
2nd overtone
L 3
2L
3
Frequency
f1
v
2L
Also known
as
1st harmonic
v
f2 2
2L
2nd harmonic
v
f3 3
2L
3rd harmonic
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L n
(n 1)th
overtone
End Correction
2L
n
2L
fn n
nth harmonic
The antinode at the open ends of the pipes are actually located slightly outside
the pipe as shown in Fig. 9. This results in a small end correction to be
included in the calculation of the wavelength.
c
Fig. 9
Example 4
(N76/P2/3)
An organ pipe, 0.33 m long, is open at one end and closed at the
other. The speed of sound in air is 330 m s1. Assuming that end
corrections are negligible, calculate
(a) the frequencies of the fundamental and the first overtone,
(b) the length of a pipe which is open at both ends and which
has a fundamental frequency equal to the difference of
those calculated in (a).
Solutions
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Example 5
Solutions
11.4
Diffraction
What is Diffraction?
narrow aperture
wide aperture
Fig. 10
Diffraction depends on the relative value of the wavelength and the size of
aperture.
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(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 11. Ripple tank images of water waves emerging from an opening. As the
wavelength is increased from (a) to (c), the effect of diffraction becomes more
and more pronounced.
11.5
Interference
Coherence
Interference
two lasers
Constructive
Interference
12
Fig. 12
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A common misconception:
Constructive Interference occurs only
when wave crests meet wave crests or
wave troughs meet wave troughs.
It should be: Constructive interference
occurs whenever two waves meet in
phase.
Destructive
Interference
11.6
Two-source Interference
Conditions for
observable
interference
13
Fig. 14
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Path Difference
Path difference is the difference in the distances that each wave travels
from its source to the point where the two waves meet.
We can also look at path difference to analyse whether two waves meet in
phase or out of phase, and hence whether constructive or destructive
interference results.
Consider wave sources S1 and S2 and points P & Q where the two waves meet:
Fig. 15a
Fig. 15b
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Now, consider wave sources S1 and S2 and points R & T where the two waves
meet:
At point R, the two waves meet out of phase (i.e. destructive interference),
Path difference, x = S2P S1P =
At point T, the two waves also meet out of phase (i.e. destructive
interference),
Path difference, x = S2Q S1Q = 1
Hence in general, for destructive interference to occur,
Path difference, x = (n + ) (where n is an integer)
Note that the above scenarios happened when the two waves sources are
generating the waves in phase.
Fig. 16a
Fig. 16b
Question: What happens at P, Q, R and T if the two sources are rad out-ofphase?
Answer:
Waves arrive at P & Q rad out-of-phase destructive interference at P & Q
Waves arrive at R & T in phase constructive interference at R & T
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Path Difference
Summary
x = n
x = (n + )
Constructive Interference
(maxima)
Destructive Interference
x = (n + )
x = n
(minima)
Example 6
(N88/P1/8)
Two wave generators S1 and S2 produce water waves of
wavelength 2 m. They are placed 4 m apart in a water tank and a
detector P is placed on the water surface 3 m from S1 as shown in
the diagram.
When operated alone, each
generator produces a wave at
P which has an amplitude A.
When the generators are
operating together and in
phase, what is the resultant
amplitude at P?
S1
4m
S2
3m
Solution
11.7
Set up
A setup for viewing the two source interference pattern with light is the Youngs
double slit experiment. The experimental setup is shown below.
At points of constructive interference (maxima), bright fringes are observed.
At points of destructive interference (minima), dark fringes are observed.
16
Fig. 17
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Equations
Let us now try to derive an equation for the fringe separation, i.e. the spacing
between two successive bright (or dark) fringes.
Notations:
Fig. 18a
Fig. 18b
Consider at P where nth order bright fringe (maximum) is obtained.
If a << D, the rays from S1 and S2 are almost parallel and A 90o.
path difference x S2 P S1P S2 A a sin n (Fig. 18a)
Since the waves passing through slits S1 and S2 are in phase, for constructive
interference,
a sin n n
n
sin n
a
where n = 0, 1, 2,
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a
D
Hence, constructive interference takes place at these positions
n D
xn
where n = 0, 1, 2,
a
Spacing between successive bright fringes,
n D (n 1) D D
x xn xn 1
a
a
a
Fringe separation
Intensity
Distribution of
Interference
Fringes
D
a
pd
pd
Fig. 19
Take note
pd
pd
pd
D
is applicable only if
a
a << D (assumed that rays are parallel)
< 10o (assumed that sin tan )
For interference of light, the typical values for slit width w ~ 0.2 mm , slit
separation a ~ 0.5 mm , slit-screen distance D ~ 1 m , wavelength of light
~ 500 mm .
The purpose of the single slit is to ensure waves exiting from the double slits
are coherent. The single slit acts like a point source of light.
If two coherent sources are used and they have a phase difference of rad,
the conditions for constructive and destructive interference would be
interchanged.
The formula x
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Example 7
Solution
Example 8
red
light
double slit
screen
(a) State a suitable separation for the two slits in the double
slit.
(b) State and explain what change, if any, occurs in the
separation of the fringes and in the contrast between
bright and dark fringes observed on the screen, when
each of the following changes is made separately.
(i) increasing the intensity of the red light incident on the
double slit.
(ii) increasing the distance between the double slit and
the screen.
(iii) reducing the intensity of light incident on one of the
double slit.
Solution
(a) 0.5 mm
(b) (i) The contrast is improved because the bright fringes
become brighter.
(ii) The fringe separation increases (use x = D/a)
(iii) Contrast decreases because the dark fringes are not
completely dark.
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11.8
Diffraction Grating
Diffraction Grating
A diffraction grating consists of a large number of fine, equally spaced lines (or
slits) of equal width. A diffraction grating typically consists of 10 lines to 1000
lines per mm.
When a narrow beam of monochromatic light is incident on a diffraction grating,
sharp maxima are obtained at various angular positions n as shown in Fig.
20b.
Fig. 20a
Equation
Fig. 20b
Consider a narrow beam of monochromatic light incident on a diffraction
grating of N lines per metre. At angular position of n where nth order bright
fringe (maxima) is obtained. The path difference between adjacent slits (Fig.
20a) is
1
x BX d sin n
where d slit separation
N
Since the waves passing through all the slits are in phase, for constructive
interference,
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d sin n n
Take Note
where n = 0, 1, 2,
1. Since N is typically 300 to 1000 per mm, d is of the order of 106 m. Since d
is very small, in fact only a few times more than the wavelength of visible
light (about 0.4 106 to 0.75 106 m), the angle of diffraction of even the
first order (n = 1) is quite big.
n
, we see that the larger the value of n, the larger the value
d
of . Since n < 90,
sin n 1
2. From sin n
n
1
d
d
n
Solution
Example 10
Solution
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Example 11
Solution
Slit separation, d
1 103
2.0 106 m
500
380 109
0.19
d 2.0 10 6
11.0
sin 1V
1V
For red light,
780 109
0.39
d 2.0 10 6
23.0
sin 1R
1R
Note that the longer wavelength deviates the most from the
central fringe, which remains white as all colours fall on it.
grating
red
23.0
violet
11.0
violet
red
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Appendix A
2 x
t and y 2 a sin
t
y1 a sin
where y1 and y 2 are travelling toward the right and left respectively.
Using the principle of superposition of waves, the resultant wave can be represented
by the equation
y y1 y 2
2 x
2 x
t a sin
t
2 x
2a sin
cos t
2 x
2a sin
cos t
A cos t
a sin
2 x
is the amplitude of the resultant stationary wave for a point at a
x 0, , , K
2
At the antinodes, the amplitude is maximum and equals 2a. This occurs when
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2 x 3 5
,
,
,K
2 2 2
3 5
x ,
,
,K
4 4 4
We find that the distance between two successive nodes or antinodes is always
Appendix B
.
2
The speed of sound in air can be measured either using a cathode-ray oscilloscope
or a resonance tube.
Using Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope
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L2
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L2 L1
Appendix C
The following diagram shows the actual position of the particles in a longitudinal
stationary wave. Dark regions represent areas of maximum compression
(highest pressure) while light regions represents areas of maximum
rarefaction (lowest pressure).
Notice that both the maximum compressions and maximum rarefactions occur at the
nodes. This means that the displacement nodes are also the pressure antinodes
and vice versa.
t=0
t = T/8
t = T/4
t = 3T/8
displacement
t = T/2
t = 5T/8
t = 3T/4
position
t = 7T/8
t=T
excess pressure p
25position
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Appendix D
A parallel beam of monochromatic light, after emerging from the collimator, is incident
normally on the diffraction grating. As a result, bright fringes are produced at various
angular positions.
The telescope is first rotated such that the nth order bright fringe is at the centre of the
crosswire in the telescope and its angular position 1 is noted. It is then positioned on
the opposite side of the normal to the grating and its angular position 2 is noted.
The angular position of the nth order bright fringe is
1
n 2 1
2
Hence,
d
sin n
n
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Appendix E
Microphones are a type of transducer - a device which converts energy from one
form to another. Microphones convert acoustical energy (sound waves) into electrical
energy (the audio signal).
Different types of microphone have different ways of converting energy but they all
share one thing in common: The diaphragm. This is a thin piece of material (such as
aluminium) which vibrates when it is struck by sound waves. In a typical hand-held
mic like the one below, the diaphragm is located in the head of the microphone.
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