Rochel Lou F.

Caduyac
GENETICS
1. A gene for which at least two alleles exist is said to be polymorphic. Instances in which
a particular gene may exist in three or more allelic forms are known as multiple allele
conditions. It is important to note that while multiple alleles occur and are maintained
within a population, any individual possesses only two such alleles (at
equivalent loci on homologous chromosomes).
2. Antigen-antibody interaction, or antigen-antibody reaction, is a specific
chemical interaction between antibodies produced by B cells of the white blood
cells and antigens during immune reaction. It is the fundamental reaction in the body by
which the body is protected from complex foreign molecules, such as pathogens and
their chemical toxins. In the blood, the antigens are specifically and with high affinity
bound by antibodies to form an antigen-antibody complex. The immune complex is then
transported to cellular systems where it can be destroyed or deactivated.
Chemical bond[edit]
Antibodies bind antigens through weak chemical interactions, and bonding is essentially
non-covalent. Electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonds, van der Waals forces, and
hydrophobic interactions are all known to be involved depending on the interaction sites.
[3][4]

Affinity[edit]
Antigen and antibody interact through a high affinity binding much like lock and key. [5] A
dynamic equilibrium exists for the binding. For example, the reaction is a reversible one,
and can be expressed as:

where [Ab] is the antibody concentration and [Ag] is the antigen concentration, either in
free ([Ab],[Ag]) or bound ([AbAg]) state.
The

equilibrium

association

constant

can

as:
where K is the equilibrium constant.

Reciprocally the dissociation constant will be:

where ratio of ka and kd describes the binding affinity:

therefore

be

represented

However, the equation is applicable only to a single epitope binding, i.e. one antigen on
one antibody. Since the antibody necessarily has two paratopes, and in many
circumstances complex binding occurs, the multiple binding equilibrium can be summed
up as:

= r/c(n-r)
where, at equilibrium, c is the concentration of free ligand, r represents the ratio of the
concentration of bound ligand to total antibody concentration and n is the maximum
number of binding sites per antibody molecule (the antibody valence).
This overall binding capacity of antibody is called its avidity.[6][7]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen-antibody_interaction
3. The ABO blood group system is the most important blood type system (or blood
group system) in human blood transfusion. Found on platelets, epithelium, and cells
other than erythrocytes, AB antigens (as with other serotypes) can also cause an adverse
immune response to organ transplantation.[1] The associated anti-A and antiB antibodies are usually IgM antibodies, which are produced in the first years of life by
sensitization to environmental substances, such as food, bacteria, and viruses. ABO
blood types are also present in some other animals, for example rodents and apes, such
as chimpanzees, bonobos, and gorillas.[2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABO_blood_group_system
4. The ABO system consists of A, B, AB, and O blood types. People with type A
have antibodies in the blood against type B. People with type B have antibodies in the
blood against type A. People with AB have no anti-A or anti-B antibodies. People with
type O have both anti-A and anti-B antibodies. People with type AB blood are called
universal recipients, because they can receive any of the ABO types. People with type O
blood are called universal donors, because their blood can be given to people with any of
the ABO types. Mismatches with the ABO and Rh blood types are responsible for the
most serious, sometimes life-threatening, transfusion reactions. But these types of
reactions are rare.
http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/blood-transfusion-blood-types

5. The adult human body is home to trillions of red blood cells (also known as
erythrocytes or RBCs). These blood cells carry oxygen, iron, and many other nutrients to
the appropriate places in the body. When a woman is pregnant, its possible that her
babys blood type will be incompatible with her own. This can cause a condition known
as erythroblastosis fetalis, where the mothers white blood cells attack the babys red
blood cells as they would any foreign invaders.

Also known as hemolytic disease of the newborn, this condition is highly preventable.
Catching it early can ensure a successful pregnancy for mother and child. If left
untreated, this condition can be life-threatening for the baby.
There are two main causes of erythroblastosis fetalis: Rh incompatibility and ABO
incompatibility. Both are associated with blood type. There are four blood types: A, B, AB,
and O. And blood can be either Rh positive or Rh negative. If a person is type A and is Rh
positive, they have A antigens and the Rh factor antigens on the red blood cell
membrane surface. If a person has AB negative blood, they have both A and B antigens
without the Rh factor antigen.
Rh Incompatibility
Rh incompatibility occurs when an Rh-negative mother is impregnated by an Rh-positive
father. The result can be an Rh-positive baby. In such a case, the babys Rh antigens will
be perceived as foreign invaders, the way viruses or bacteria are perceived. The
mothers blood cells attack the babys as a protective mechanism that can end up
harming the child.
If the mother is pregnant with her first baby, Rh incompatibility is not as much of a
concern. However, when the Rh-positive child is born, the mothers body creates
antibodies against the Rh factor, which will attack the blood cells if she becomes
pregnant with another Rh-positive baby.
http://www.healthline.com/health/erythroblastosis-fetalis#Causes2

6. Blood groups are inherited from both parents. The ABO blood type is controlled by a
single gene (theABO gene) with three types of alleles inferred from classical
genetics: i, IA, and IB. The I designation stands for isoagglutinogen, another term
for antigen.[22] The gene encodes a glycosyltransferasethat is, an enzyme that modifies
the carbohydrate content of the red blood cell antigens. The gene is located on the long
arm of the ninth chromosome (9q34).
The IA allele gives type A, IB gives type B, and i gives type O. As both IA and IB are
dominant over i, only ii people have type O blood. Individuals with IAIA or IAi have type A
blood, and individuals withIBIB or IBi have type B. IAIB people have both phenotypes,
because A and B express a special dominance relationship: codominance, which means
that type A and B parents can have an AB child. A couple with type A and type B can also
have a type O child if they are both heterozygous (IBi,IAi) The cis-AB phenotype has a
single enzyme that creates both A and B antigens. The resulting red blood cells do not

usually express A or B antigen at the same level that would be expected on common
group A1 or B red blood cells, which can help solve the problem of an apparently
genetically impossible blood group.[23]

The table above summarizes the various blood groups that children may inherit from
their parents.[24][25] Genotypes are shown in the second column and in small print for the
offspring: AO and AA both test as type A; BO and BB test as type B. The four possibilities
represent the combinations obtained when one allele is taken from each parent; each
has a 25% chance, but some occur more than once.

Historically, ABO blood tests were used in paternity testing, but in 1957 only 50% of
American men falsely accused were able to use them as evidence against paternity.
[26]
Occasionally, the blood types of children are not consistent with expectationsfor
example, a type O child can be born to an AB parentdue to rare situations, such
as Bombay phenotype and cis AB.[27]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABO_blood_group_system
7. Blood typing is a test that determines a persons blood type. The test is essential if
you need a blood transfusion or are planning to donate blood. Not all blood types are
compatible, so it is important to know your blood group. Receiving blood that is
incompatible with your blood type could trigger a dangerous immune response.

Blood typing. http://www.healthline.com/health/blood-typing#Overview1