BeginningVibration

Analysis
ConnectionTechnologyCenter,Inc.
7939RaeBoulevard
Victor,NewYork14564
www.ctconline.com

DataCollection

Loop Power Output

Velocity (inches/second peak)

0.6
0.5
0.4

Fault
Alert

0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0:00:00

12:00:00

24:00:00

36:00:00

48:00:00

60:00:00

Time (minutes)

Portable
Route Based

2015

Permanent, Continuous, On-line

PortableDataCollectors
DataAnalysis
History
Trending
DownloadData
UploadRoutes
Alarms
Smartalgorithms

RouteBased
FrequencySpectrum
TimeWaveform
Orbits
Balancing
Alignment

2015

PermanentMonitoring
DataAnalysis
History
Trending
EthernetConnection
Alarms
SmartAlgorithms

Continuous
Measurement
PermanentSensors
FrequencySpectrum
TimeWaveform
Orbits

2015

WhatsThis?
1
0.0002
inch
Peak

Magnitude

0
0 Hz
2015

100 Hz
7

FFT,FrequencySpectrum,
PowerSpectrum
1

0.0002
inch
Peak

Magnitude

0
0 Hz
2015

100 Hz
8

ScalingX&Y
1
0.0002
inch
Peak

Magnitude

0
0 Hz

100 Hz

X
2015

ScalingX&Y
1

AMPLITUDE

0.0002
inch
Peak

Magnitude

0
0 Hz

2015

FREQUENCY
10

100 Hz

ScalingX&Y
1

How bad is it ?

0.0002
inch
Peak

Magnitude

0
0 Hz

2015

What is it ?
11

100 Hz

WhatsThat?
1
0.0004
inch

Real

-0.0004
0 s
2015

7.996094 s
12

TimeWaveform
1
0.0004
inch

Real

-0.0004
0 s
2015

7.996094 s
13

ScalingX&Y
1
0.0004
inch

Real

-0.0004
0 s

7.996094 s

X
2015

14

ScalingX&Y
1

AMPLITUDE

0.0004
inch

Real

-0.0004
0 s
2015

TIME
15

7.996094 s

ScalingX&Y
1

How bad is it ?

0.0004
inch

Real

-0.0004
0 s

2015

What is it ?
16

7.996094 s

TheXScale

What is it ?

2015

SingleFrequency
X:55 Hz
Pwr Spec 1
1
V
rms
Magnitude

Y:706.8129 mV

55 Hz

0
0 Hz
X:27.00806 ms
dX:18.18848 ms
Time 1
1
V

100 Hz
Y:3.579427 mV
dY:2.449082 mV

18.18 ms

Real
-1
2015

0 s

18

62.46948 ms

Frequency&Time

fHz =1/tSec
tSec =1/fHz
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19

Frequency&Time

FT = 1
If: F = 1/T and T = 1/F
Then: FT = 1

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20

Concept!
FT = 1
If:

F increases

Then: t decreases
If:

T increases

Then: f decreases
2015

21

SingleFrequency
X:55 Hz
Pwr Spec 1
1
V
rms
Magnitude

Y:706.8129 mV

55 Hz

0
0 Hz
X:27.00806 ms
dX:18.18848 ms
Time 1
1
V

100 Hz
Y:3.579427 mV
dY:2.449082 mV

18.18 ms

Real
-1
2015

0 s

22

62.46948 ms

MultipleFrequencies
X:55 Hz
Pwr Spec 1

Y:706.8129 mV

1
0 Hz
X:78 Hz
Pwr Spec 1

100 Hz
Y:706.9236 mV

1
0 Hz
X:21 Hz
Pwr Spec 1

100 Hz
Y:706.7825 mV

1
0 Hz
X:42 Hz
Pwr Spec 1

100 Hz
Y:706.9266 mV

1
0 Hz
2015

100 Hz
23

MultipleWaveforms
Time 55 1

55 Hz

1
V
0 s

62.46948 ms

Time 78 1

78 Hz

1
V
0 s

62.46948 ms

Time 21 1

21 Hz

1
V
0 s

62.46948 ms

Time 42 1

42 Hz

1
V
0 s

2015

62.46948 ms
24

RealLifeWaveform
55 Hz + 78 Hz + 21 Hz + 42 Hz = Trouble !
TIME 1
4
V
Real
-4
0 s

2015

62.46948 ms

25

FFTCapabilities
TIME 1

Complex time
waveform contains
frequencies of 21,
42, 55, & 78 Hz.

4
V
Real
-4
0 s

FFT separates &

displays individual
frequencies and the
amplitude of each
frequency.

62.46948 ms

X:21 Hz
X:42 Hz
X:55 Hz
X:78 Hz
FREQUENCY 1
1
V
rms
0 Hz

2015

Y:706.7825 mV
Y:706.9266 mV
Y:706.8129 mV
Y:706.9236 mV

100 Hz

26

LinesorBins
1

The FFT always has a

defined number of
lines or Bins.
100, 200, 400, 800,
1600, and 3200 lines
are common choices.

0.0002
inch
Peak

This spectrum has 800

lines, or the X scale is
broken down into 800
bins.

Magnitude

0
0 Hz

2015

100 Hz

27

LRF
The Lowest Resolvable Frequency is determined by:

Frequency Span / Number of Analyzer Lines

The frequency span is calculated as the ending frequency minus the
starting frequency.
The number of analyzer lines depends on the analyzer and how the
operator has set it up.
Typically, this is the value that can be measured by the cursor
Example: 0 to 400 Hz using 800 lines
Answer = 400 / 800 = 0.5 Hz / Line

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28

Bandwidth
The Bandwidth can be defined by:
(Frequency Span / Analyzer Lines) Window Function
Uniform Window Function = 1.0
Hanning Window Function = 1.5
Flat Top Window Function = 3.8

Example: 0 to 400 Hz using 800 Lines & Hanning Window

Answer = (400 / 800) 1.5 = 0.75 Hz / Line

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29

Resolution
The frequency resolution is defined in the following manner:

2 (Frequency Span / Analyzer Lines) Window Function

or
Resolution = 2 (Bandwidth)
Example: 0 to 400 Hz using 800 Lines & Hanning Window
Answer = 2 (400 / 800) 1.5 = 1.5 Hz / Line

2015

30

UsingResolution
The analyst wishes to measure two frequency
disturbances that are very close together.
Frequency #1 = 29.5 Hz.
Frequency #2 = 30 Hz.
A hanning window and 800 lines will be used.
What frequency span is required to accurately measure
these two frequency disturbances ?

2015

31

UsingResolution
Resolution Required = 30 - 29.5 = 0.5 Hz
Resolution = 2 (Frequency Span / 800) 1.5
0.5 = 2 (Frequency Span / 800) 1.5
0.5 = 3 (Frequency Span) / 800
400 = 3 (Frequency Span)
133 Hz = Frequency Span
Therefore, the frequency span must be 133 Hz or less to measure the
desired resolution of 0.5 Hz.

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32

DataSamplingTime
Data sampling time is the amount of time required to take one record or
sample of data. It is dependent on the frequency span and the number of
analyzer lines being used.

TSample = Nlines / Fspan

Using 400 lines with a 800 Hz frequency span will require:
400 / 800 = 0.5 seconds

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33

Average&Overlap
TR#1

Average On
OverlapPercent 50%
Overlapistheamountof
olddatathatisused

TR#2

TR#3

0% Overlap
50% Overlap

TR#1
TR#2
TR#3

How long will it take for 10 averages at

75% overlap using a 800 line analyzer
and a 200 Hz frequency span?

2015

34

75%Overlap?
10Averages
75%Overlap
800Lines
200Hz

Average #1 = 800 / 200

Average #1 = 4 seconds

Average #2 - #10 = (4 x 0.25)

Average #2 - #10 = 1 second each

Total time = 4 + (1 x 9)
Total time = 13 seconds

2015

35

FilterWindows
Windowfiltersareappliedtothetime
waveformdatatosimulatedatathatstarts
andstopsatzero.
Theywillcauseerrorsinthetimewaveform
andfrequencyspectrum.
Westilllikewindowfilters!

2015

36

Window Comparisons

Real Time

No Window
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37

Window Comparisons

Real Time

Hanning Window
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38

Window Comparisons

Real Time

Flat Top Window

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39

WindowFilters
Hanning(Frequency)

ForceExponential

WindowFactor1.5
AmplitudeAccuracy18%

Force/ExpoSetup
RequiresChannel1Input
Force(Hammer)
RequiresChannel2Response
(Sensor)
Response/Force(Channel
2/Channel1)
Normalizesdatabasedon
responsetoforce

FlatTop(Amplitude)
WindowFactor3.8
AmplitudeAccuracy1%

Uniform(Impacts)
WindowFactor1.0
AmplitudeAccuracy56%

2015

40

FilterWindows
UsetheHanningWindowfornormalvibration
monitoring(Frequency)
UsetheFlatTopWindowforcalibrationand
accuracy(Amplitude)
UsetheUniformWindowforbumptesting
andresonancechecks(NoWindow)

2015

41

TheYScale

How bad is
it ?

2015

Amplitude
Acceleration = gs rms. or peak
Velocity = inch/s rms. or peak
Displacement = mils peak to peak
Note: 1 mil = 0.001 inches

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43

PkPk(Peak Peak)

The Peak - Peak value is

expressed from the peak to
peak amplitude.
The peak to peak value is
measured in the time
waveform.

X:55 Hz
Pwr Spec 1

Y:1.999169 V

2
V
Pk-Pk
Magnitude
0
0 Hz

100 Hz

X:22.43042 ms
dX:9.094238 ms
Time 1

Y:-993.8563 mV
dY:1.994871 V

1
V
Real
-1
0 s

2015

Peak - Peak. = 2 V

44

62.46948 ms

Pk(Peak)
X:55 Hz
Pwr Spec 1

The time wave has not

changed. The Peak value is
expressed from zero to the
largest positive or negative
peak amplitude.
The peak value is measured in
the time waveform.

Y:999.5843 mV

1
V
Peak
Magnitude
0
0 Hz
X:27.00806 ms
dX:4.516602 ms
Time 1

100 Hz
Y:3.579427 mV
dY:997.4356 mV

1
V
Real
-1
0 s

62.46948 ms

Peak. = 1 V

2015

45

RMS(RootMeanSquare)
The time wave has not
changed.
The rms. value is expressed
from zero to 70.7% of the
peak amplitude for a single
frequency.
The rms. value is calculated
for the spectrum.
In a periodic time wave, the
rms. value must be calculated
in the FFT. It will represent
the overall energy of the
FFT.
2015

X:55 Hz
Pwr Spec 1
1
V
rms
Magnitude

Y:706.8129 mV

rms. = 707 mV

0
0 Hz
X:27.00806 ms
dX:2.288818 ms
Time 1

100 Hz
Y:3.579427 mV
dY:709.1976 mV

1
V
Real
-1
0 s

46

62.46948 ms

UnitComparison
X:27.00806 ms
dX:2.288818 ms
Time 1

RMS

Y:3.579427 mV
dY:709.1976 m

Magnitude

Real

0
0 s
X:27.00806 ms
dX:4.516602 ms
Time 1

62.46948 ms

X:55 Hz
Pwr Spec 1

100 Hz
Y:999.5843 mV

2
V
Peak

1
V

Magnitude

Real

0
0 s
X:22.43042 ms
dX:9.094238 ms
Time 1

0 Hz

62.46948 ms
Y:-993.8563 mV
dY:1.994871 V

X:55 Hz
Pwr Spec 1

100 Hz
Y:1.999169 V

2
V
Pk-Pk

1
V

Magnitude

Real

-1
0 s

2015

0 Hz

Y:3.579427 mV
dY:997.4356 m

-1

Peak - Peak

Y:706.8129 mV

2
V
rms

1
V

-1

Peak

X:55 Hz
Pwr Spec 1

62.46948 ms

47

0 Hz

100 Hz

ChangingUnits
Many times it is necessary to change between units.

Pk-Pk / 2 = Peak
Peak x 0.707 = RMS

(Peak / 1.414 = RMS)

RMS x 1.414 = Peak

(RMS / 0.707 = Peak)

Peak x 2 = Pk-Pk
2015

48

Convert the Unit

x2

Peak - Peak

Peak

x 1.414

2015

Peak

RMS

49

x 0.707

EngineeringUnits(EU)
Engineering units are used to give meaning to the amplitude of the
measurement.
Instead of the default volts, it is possible to incorporate a unit
proportional to volts that will have greater meaning to the user.

Examples:

2015

100 mV / g

20 mV / Pa

1 V / in/s

200 mV / mil

50 mV / psi

10 mV / fpm

33 mV / %

10 mV / V

50

EUstheHardWay
Sometimes we forget to use EUs, or just dont understand how
to set up the analyzer. The measurement is in volts!
There is no immediate need to panic if ????
You know what the EU is for the sensor you are using.
Example: An accelerometer outputs 100 mV / g and there is a
10 mV peak in the frequency spectrum.
What is the amplitude in gs ?
Answer = 10 mV / 100 mV/g = 0.1 g

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ThreeMeasures

Acceleration
Velocity
Displacement
2015

52

ConvertingMeasures
In many cases we are confronted with Acceleration,
Velocity, or Displacement, but are not happy with it.
Maybe we have taken the measurement in
acceleration, but the model calls for displacement.
Maybe we have taken the data in displacement, but
the manufacturer quoted the equipment
specifications in velocity.
How do we change between these measures ?
2015

53

ConvertingMeasures
Velocity=Acceleration/2 f
Displacement=Velocity/2 f
Displacement=Acceleration/(2 f)2
Where:
Acceleration=gs
Multiplyaccelerationingsby(386.1inches/second2)/g
Multiplyaccelerationingsby(9807mm/second2)/g

Velocity=inches/secondormm/second
Displacement=inchesormm
f =frequencyinHz.(cycles/second)
2015

54

Converting Measures
386.1

Acceleration (gs)

Acceleration
(inch/s2)

x 386.1
Acceleration
(inch/s2)

Standard Measures
x 2(Pi)f

2(Pi)f

Velocity
(inch/s)

Velocity
(inch/s)

x 2(Pi)f
2015

Displacement (inch)
55

2(Pi)f

Converting Measures
9807

Acceleration (gs)

Acceleration
(mm/s2)

x 9807
Acceleration
(mm/s2)

Metric Measures
x 2(Pi)f

2(Pi)f

Velocity
(mm/s)

Velocity
(mm/s)

x 2(Pi)f
2015

Displacement (mm)
56

2(Pi)f

Acceleration Velocity
Example: Find the equivalent Peak velocity for a 25 Hz
vibration at 7 mg rms.
Velocity = (g x 386.1) / (2

f)

Velocity = (0.007 x 386.1) / (6.28 x 25)

Velocity = 0.017 inches / second RMS
Answer = 0.017 x 1.414 = 0.024 inches / second Peak

2015

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Velocity Displacement
Example: Find the equivalent peak-peak displacement
for a 25 Hz vibration at 0.024 in/s Peak ?
Displacement = Velocity / (2

xf)

Displacement = 0.024 / (6.28 x 25)

Displacement = 0.000153 inches Peak
Answer = 0.000153 x 2 = 0.000306 inches Peak Peak
or 0.3 mils Peak - Peak

2015

58

Acceleration Displacement
Example: Find the equivalent Peak-Peak displacement
for a 52 Hz vibration at 15 mg rms.
Displacement = (g x 386.1) / (2

x f )2

Displacement = (0.015 x 386.1) / (6.28 x 52)2

Displacement = 0.000054 inches rms.
Answer = (0.000054 x 1.414) 2 = 0.000154 inches Peak-Peak
or 0.154 mils Peak - Peak

2015

59

Radians,Degrees,
orTime

2
900

3600 = 2 Radians
3600

/ 2 Radians

57.3250

1800

/ Radian

2700
3
2
2015

60

00

3600

Radians, Degrees,
or Time

2
900

1800

00 0
3600 2

2700
3
2
2015

61

Radians,Degrees,
orTime
2
900

00

1800
Period

3600
(seconds/cycle)

2700
3
2
2015

62

Sensors

Speed

Displacement
Frequency
2015

64

Accelerometers
IEPE

ChargeMode

IntegratedAmplifier
Industrial

2015

ExternalAmplifier
HighTemperature

66

Accelerometer
RequirementsandApplications
Requirements
Functionality
Durability
Affordability

Applications
Trending
Alarming
Diagnostics

Remember
Onesensordoesnotfit
allapplications
Fit,Form&Function
2015

67

AccelerometerAdvantages
Measurescasingvibration
Measuresabsolutevibration
IntegratetoVelocity
DoubleintegratetoDisplacement
Easytomount
Largerangeoffrequencyresponse
Availableinmanyconfigurations
2015

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AccelerometerDisadvantages
Doesnotmeasureshaftvibration
Sensitivetomountingtechniquesand
surfaceconditions
Difficulttoperformcalibrationcheck
Oneaccelerometerdoesnotfitall
applications

2015

69

Mass&Charge

Mass
Ceramic
Base

2015

Relative movement
between base & mass
creates shear in ceramic
producing a charge
output.

70

TypicalAccelerometer
Parameters/Specifications
Specification
Sensitivity

Value

AlternateValue

100mV/g+/5%

FrequencyResponse+/
3dB

30 900,000CPM

0.5 15,000Hz

Frequency Response+/
10%

60 420,000CPM

1.0 7,000Hz

FrequencyResponse+/
5%

120 240,000CPM

2.0 4,000Hz

DynamicRange
ResonantFrequency

2015

+/ 80gpeak
1,560,000CPM

71

26,000Hz

TypicalAccelerometer
FrequencyResponse

Amplitude

Transmission Region
The usable frequency range of the accelrometer

Amplification
Region

Isolation
Region

The natural frequency is

excited causing gain
around resonance

Phase between
sensor & machine
is shifted by 180
degrees and signal
rolls off to zero

based on acceptable amplitude limits

+/- 3dB

+/- 10%

+/- 5%

Frequency
2015

72

AccelerometerMounts

2015

73

RealisticMounting

2015

74

Sensitivity,Range
&Application
Sensitivity Range Output
10 mV/g

+/- 500 g

+/- 5 VAC

50 mV/g

+/- 100 g

+/- 5 VAC

100 mV/g

+/- 50 g

+/- 5 VAC

500 mV/g

+/- 10 g

+/- 5 VAC

2015

Application
A 10 mV/g accelerometer will have a
dynamic range of +/- 500 gs, and a
dynamic output of +/- 5 volts AC.
They are typically used for machinery
that is generating high amplitude
vibrations. With the large dynamic
range, they are much less likely to
become saturated as a result of the
high amplitude vibrations.

75

Sensitivity,Range
&Application
Sensitivity Range Output
10 mV/g

+/- 500 g
+/- 100 g

+/- 5 VAC

100 mV/g

+/- 50 g

+/- 5 VAC

500 mV/g

+/- 10 g

+/- 5 VAC

2015

A 50 mV/g accelerometer will have a

dynamic range of +/- 100 gs, and a
dynamic output of +/- 5 volts AC.

+/- 5 VAC

50 mV/g

Application

They are typically used for general

purpose machinery measurements,
and are sometimes offered as standard
sensors for data collectors.

76

Sensitivity,Range
&Application
Sensitivity Range Output
10 mV/g

+/- 500 g

+/- 5 VAC

50 mV/g

+/- 100 g

+/- 5 VAC

100 mV/g

+/- 50 g

+/- 5 VAC

500 mV/g

+/- 10 g

+/- 5 VAC

2015

77

Application
A 100 mV/g accelerometer will have a
dynamic range of +/- 50 gs, and a
dynamic output of +/- 5 volts AC.
Approximately 90% of all vibration
analysis and data collection is
accomplished with a 100 mV/g
accelerometer.
Some sensors are also available with
a +/- 80g dynamic range for measuring
larger signal amplitudes.

Sensitivity,Range
&Application
Sensitivity Range Output
10 mV/g

+/- 500 g

A 500 mV/g accelerometer will have a

dynamic range of +/- 10 gs, and a
dynamic output of +/- 5 volts AC.

+/- 5 VAC

This high output sensor is typically

used for low speed equipment, low
frequency measurements, and low
amplitude analysis.

50 mV/g

+/- 100 g

+/- 5 VAC

100 mV/g

+/- 50 g

+/- 5 VAC

500 mV/g

+/- 10 g

+/- 5 VAC

2015

Application

78

The high output provides a much

better signal to noise ratio for low
amplitude signals.

Mounting Locations
These mounting
locations also conform
the the right hand rule
for phase analysis.
(Cartesian Coordinates)

Vertical (Y)

Horizontal (X)

Load Zone
2015

Axial (Z)
79

MountingLocations
Load Zone
Axial (Z)
Radial
Vertical (Y)
Horizontal (X)

2015

80

VelocitySensors
SelfGenerating nopowersupply
required
Magnetinsidecoilgeneratesvelocity
proportionaltovibration
Springmasssystem
10Hz.to1000Hz.
Phasechange900
Directionalmounting
Large&Heavy
Output=mV/inch/sec

2015

82

PiezoVelocitySensors
Remembereverythingthatyoujustlearnedaboutan
accelerometer
Theoutputoftheaccelerometerhasbeenintegratedto
velocityandhasa900phasechange
100mV/inch/sec(4mV/mm/sec)
500mV/inch/sec(20mV/mm/sec)

2015

83

ProximityProbes,
Cables,&Drivers

2015

85

5,7and9MeterSystems

AA = No Thread Length
BB = Case Length
CC = Total Length
2015

86

5,7&9MeterSystems
Extension Cable

Probe Length + Extension Cable Length

must equal 5, 7 or 9 meters in system
length
2015

87

5,7and9MeterSystems
Driver

Electronics tuned for 5, 7 or 9 meter

systems
2015

88

Application
MeasureDisplacement
Plainbearingapplications
NonContactSensor
Idealformeasuring:
Shaftvibration
Shaftcenterlineposition(Gap)
Shaftaxialposition(ThrustBearing)
Roddrop
Speed(Gear)
Trigger(KeyorKeyway)
2015

89

CommonApplications
Compressors
SteamTurbines
Pumps
Fans
Blowers
Generators
GearBoxes

2015

PlainBearings
JournalBearings
FluidFilmBearings
BabbittBearings
SleeveBearings
TiltingPadBearings
Recips (crosshead)

90

DisplacementProbeAdvantages
Noncontact
Measurerelativeshaftvibration
Measureshaftcenterlineposition(DCgap)
Measureaxialposition(Thrust)
ProvideSpeedorTrigger
Flatfrequencyresponsedc 10KHz
Simplecalibration
Suitableforharshenvironments
2015

91

DisplacementProbeDisadvantages
Probecanmove(vibrate)
Doesntworkonallmetals
Platedshaftsmaygive
falsemeasurement
Plated shaft is
round, but core
Measurementisaffectedby
material is not..
scratches&toolmarksinshaft
Availablesystemlengths(probe,cable&driver)
5,7,or9meterarestandard
Musthavereliefatsensingtipfromsurroundingmetal
(counterbore)

2015

92

TechnicalBackground
Driver
Cable

The tip of the probe emits a radio

frequency signal into the surrounding
area as a magnetic field

Probe

Shaft

2015

As a conductive target intercepts the

magnetic field, eddy currents are
generated on the surface of the target,
and power from the radio frequency
signal changes
93

TechnicalBackground
Driver
Cable

Probe

Power varies with target movement

in the magnetic field creating a
variation in the output voltage of the
driver
- A small DC voltage indicates that the target is
close to the probe tip
- A large DC voltage indicates that the target is
far away from the probe tip

Shaft

2015

- The variation of DC voltage is the AC dynamic

signal indicating the vibration (displacement)
94

Sensitivity,Range,
&Response
Driver
Cable
Typical non-contact
displacement sensor for
measuring shaft vibration on
a sleeve or journal bearing.

Probe

Sensitivity
Eddy Currents

Dynamic Range

Shaft

Frequency Response
Journal/Sleeve

2015

95

200 mV/mil
(8 V/mm)
10 90 mils
(.25 2.3 mm)
DC 10 kHz

Linearity
Gap

Gap

Output

mils

mm

VDC

20

10

0.25

-2.00

18

20

0.51

-4.00

16

30

0.76

-6.00

40

1.02

-8.00

10

50

1.27

-10.00

60

1.52

-12.00

70

1.78

-14.00

80

2.03

-16.00

90

2.29

-18.00

100

2.54

-20.00

ProximityProbeLinearity
NomialOutput=200mV/mil(8V/mm)

VoltsDC

14
12

2
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

mils

2015

96

90

100

Materials&Sensitivity
Typical
200mv/mil
(7.87V/mm)
4140Steel

Note:
Iftheshaftortargetmaterialis
not4140steel,thenatestshould
beruntodeterminethesensitivity
ofthematerialbeingmeasured.

Dependsonprobe,
cable(length),and
driver.
Targetmaterialvaries
output.
2015

97

DurabilityisRequired
Proximity probes lead a
rough life. Installation,
maintenance and
overhauls require trained
analysts, technicians, or
mechanics to properly
install and remove the
probes. Some probes are
actually encapsulated
inside the fluid film
bearing, and are exposed
to the lubrication and
heat generated by the
bearing. Proper handling
and durability are key
performance factors.
2015

98

DrivertoDrivenOrientation

2015

99

APIStandard670

2015

Industry Standard for Proximity Probes

American Petroleum Institute

(5th Edition ) 01 November 2014

www.techstreet.com $200.00 USD/copy

100

ProbeOrientation
Vertical (Y)

900

(X) Horizontal

Probe orientation
based on facing
Driver to Driven

Gap
Shaft
Lubricant
Sleeve

2015

101

DCGap&DynamicAC
Time Record 1

DC Gap

-9.75
V

30 mV p-p VAC

A negative voltage
level proportional to
the gap spacing

Dynamic
-10.00

Dynamic AC

Real

Varying DC voltage
simulates dynamic
AC voltage for
vibration output

VDC
DC Gap
-10.25
0 s

2015

79.96092 ms

102

30 mV/(200 mV/mil)
= 0.15 mils p-p

DCGap&DynamicAC

Positive Peak =
- 48.57 mils
DC Gap =
- 56.08 mils
Negative Peak =
- 63.59 mils

2015

103

DynamicOutputs

Note: The shaft

diameter needs to be
greater than 2 inches to
prevent interference
between the two probes.

900

Vertical for
Amplitude

Horizontal for
Time Base

2015

104

TheOrbitDisplay
Y

2015

105

Machine
Vertical

RollingtheScope

Machine
Horizontal

450

Machine
Vertical

Orbit
Correction

Machine
Horizontal

Orbits&Instrumentation

Modern instrumentation can

compensate for the location of the X
and Y probes providing a true machine
vertical and horizontal measurement.

Clearancevs.Vibration
Diametrical Clearance

Peak - Peak Displacement

If the (Peak Peak Displacement / Diametrical Clearance) x 100% > 50% then
the vibration of the shaft is using more than half of the bearing clearance and
additional analysis may be required to identify and reduce the vibration amplitude.

2015

109

AbsoluteShaftDisplacement
Velocity

Displacement

1. Measure the
vertical shaft
displacement.

Vertical Measures
D = 2.85 milsp-p @1650

2. Measure the
vertical casing
velocity.

V = 0.24 IPSpk @ 2110

3600 RPM

3. Include phase

2015

110

GraphicalAddition
Vertical Measures

900

D = 2.85 milsp-p @1650

V = 0.24 IPSp @ 2110

3.86 milsp-p
@ 1520

Velocity leads
displacement by 900
2110 - 900 = 1210

1800

Dp-p = 2[0.24/(2f)]

1.27 milsp-p
@ 1210
2.85 milsp-p
@ 1650

Dp-p = 2[0.24/(6.28x60)]
D = 1.27 milsp-p @ 1210
2700
2015

111

00

MathematicalAddition
D = 2.85 milsp-p @1650
D = 1.27 milsp-p @

900

1210

y = 2.85 milsp-p x sin 1650

D=

1.832 + (-3.40)2

3.86 milsp-p

y = 1.27 milsp-p x sin 1210

y = 0.74 + 1.09 = 1.83 milsp-p

y2 + x2

D = 3.86 milsp-p

y = 0.74 milsp-p
y = 1.09 mils p-p

D=

1800

1.83 milsp-p

@ 1520
-3.4 milsp-p

x = 2.85 milsp-p x cos 1650

x = -2.75 milsp-p

900 + acos 1.83/3.86

x = 1.27 milsp-p x cos 1210

900 + 620 = 1520

x = -0.65 milsp-p

2700

x = - 2.75 + - 0.65 = - 3.40 milsp-p

2015

112

00

ShaftCenterline
Bore Dia.
On
Centers

Zero
RPM

2015

Shaft Dia.

Diametrical
Clearance

113

CCW
Rotation

CW
Rotation

PlottingShaftPosition
Y -450

X +450

At Running Speed
CCW Rotation
Y = -1 mil
X = +2 mils
Shaft Change = 2.24
mils @ 71.60

2015

114

AxialThrustorPosition

Shaft

Two axial oriented probes are used for

redundancy to monitor the axial movement
of the shaft or thrust collar.

RodDrop

2015

116

2015

117

NaturalFrequency
AresultoftheMass(m)andStiffness
(k)ofthemachinedesign
Resonanceoccurswhenanatural
frequencyisexcitedbyaforce
Criticalspeedoccurswhenthe
machinespeedmatchesthenatural
frequencyandcreatesresonance

2015

118

NaturalFrequency
X:164.0625 ms
dX:554.6875 ms
Time Record 1

Y:1.379613 G
dY:-729.2974 mG

Time Waveform

TIME1.63

2
G

Real

-2
0 s
X:109.125 Hz
Auto Pwr Spec 1

8 s
Y:214.7374 mG

Frequency Spectrum
HZ1.63

0.3
G
rms
Real

0
50.00001 Hz
2015

150 Hz
119

 INCREASEthe
stiffness(k)

INCREASEthe
mass(m)

INCREASEthe
frequency(f)

DECREASEthe
frequency(f)

2015

120

NaturalFrequency

10 lbs.

30 lbs.

50 lbs.

95 lbs.

Pull Strength
Frequency Response 2000 Hz.
k/m

2015

k/m

k/m

121

k/m

BumpTestingSetup

UNIFORMWINDOW

2015

Takeyourtime Bumparound
Donotoverrangeorcliptheinputsignal
800 1600linesofresolution
Trysomedifferentfrequencyspans
Only1bumpforeachtimerecord
About4averages(dependsonnoise)
122

UniformWindow

The Uniform window

should be used for
bump testing.

Uniform

If you use the

Hanning or Flat Top
windows, they will
filter out the response
from the impact

Hanning

Flat Top
2015

123

BumpIt!
X:23.4375 ms
dX:76.17188 ms
Time Record 1

Y:1.63297 G
dY:-1.36474 G

Time Waveform
TIME4.63

2
G

Real

-2
0 s

1 s

X:58.75 Hz
X:65.5 Hz
X:70.75 Hz
Auto Pwr Spec 1

Y:8.550765 mG
Y:12.23725 mG
Y:8.475402 mG

Frequency Spectrum
HZ4.63

0.015
G
rms
Real
0
0 Hz

2015

100 Hz

124

MentalHealthCheck!
X:23.4375 ms
dX:76.17188 ms
Time Record 1

Time Waveform
TIME4.63

76.17 msec/5 = 15.23 msec

2
G

The frequency
measured in the
time waveform
should be the
same frequency in
the FFT.

Y:1.63297 G
dY:-1.36474 G

Real

F = 1/0.01523 sec = 65.64 Hz

-2
0 s

X:58.75 Hz
X:65.5 Hz
X:70.75 Hz
Auto Pwr Spec 1
0.015
G
rms

1 s
Y:8.550765 mG
Y:12.23725 mG
Y:8.475402 mG

Frequency Spectrum
HZ4.63

65.5 Hz

Real
0
0 Hz

2015

100 Hz

125

TimeWaveform
X:23.4375 ms
X:99.60938 ms
Time Record 1

Y:1.63297 G
Y:268.2297 mG

TIME4.63

A0 = 1.633 G

2
G

Time Waveform
F = 1/0.01523 sec = 65.64 Hz

An = 0.268 G
n = 5 cycles
LN = natural log

Real

-2
0 s

1 s

1. Log decrement = (1/n)[LN(A0/An)] = (1/5)[LN(1.633/0.268)] = 0.36

2. Damping ratio = Log dec/2Pi = 0.36/2Pi = 0.36/6.28 = 0.057
3. Amplification factor = 1/(2*Damping) = 1/(2*0.057) = 8.68

2015

126

FFTorSpectrum
X:58.75 Hz
X:65.5 Hz
X:70.75 Hz
Auto Pwr Spec 1
0.015
G
rms

Y:8.550765 mG
Y:12.23725 mG
Y:8.475402 mG

Frequency Spectrum
F = 65.5 Hz

HZ4.63

f2 = 70.75 Hz

f1 = 58.75 Hz

Real

-3dB
0
0 Hz

100 Hz

1. Find the 3dB points = AF * .707 = 12.24 mG * .707 = 8.65 mG

2. Find the frequencies at the 3dB points (f1 and f2)
3. Amplification factor = F/ (f2 - f1) = 65.5/(70.75 58.75) = 5.46
2015

127

BumpTestingSummary
Takeyourtime
Chooseyourweapon
Bumparound
UniformWindow
Lookatthetime
waveform
Lookatthefrequency
spectrum
Doamentalhealth
check
2015

Calculatethe
amplificationfactor
Changethemass
Changethestiffness
Adddamping
Bumparound
Compareandverify
resultsafterchangesto
themachine
128

1x(RunningSpeed)
MassUnbalance1x

2015

CriticalSpeed1x
Misalignment1x,2x,3x
Looseness1x,2x,3x,4x,5x,.
Runout 1x

129

1xMassUnbalance
X:30 Hz
X:60 Hz
FREQ 1
0.7
inch
rms
Magnitude

Y:584.5464 minch
Y:88.18431 minch

1x

1600 Lines
Good resolution
& presentation
of the FFT

2x

0
0 Hz

100 Hz

TIME 1
1.5
inch
Real
-1.5
0 s
2015

15.99609 s
130

1xMassUnbalance
1600 Lines

FREQ 1
0.7
inch
rms
Magnitude
0
0 Hz

6.4 kHz

TIME 1
1.5
inch

Good resolution
& presentation of
the Time
Waveform

Real
-1.5
0 s
2015

249.939 ms
131

1xMassUnbalance
X:30 Hz
X:60 Hz
FREQ 1
0.7
inch
rms
Magnitude

Y:584.5464 minch
Y:88.18431 minch

1x
2x

0
0 Hz
TIME 1
1.5
inch

100 Hz

Primarily 1x

Real
-1.5
0 s
2015

249.939 ms
132

Two measurements
will provide good
resolution &
presentation of
both the FFT &
Time Waveform

1x,2x,3x Misalignment
1x
2x

1x
2x

2015

133

1x,2x,3x Misalignment

1x

2x

Angular

Offset

Misalignment

Misalignment

Look for a 1800 phase shift across the coupling in axial

vibration measurements. Be careful with the way you
mount the accelerometer. Dont create the 1800 phase shift
by flipping the accelerometer around.
2015

134

RollingElement
Bearings

2015

Rollingelementbearingswillnot generate
frequenciesthatareevenmultiplesofrunning
speed.Theyarenonsynchronous.
Theyoftengeneratelowamplitudes
Theyhavestagesoffailurestartingwithhigh
frequencystresswavesdeterioratingtolow
frequencycomponents.
Whenthevibrationgetsbetter shutthemachine
offimmediately!
135

RollingElementBearing
FrequenciesInnerRaceRotates
FTF = (Hz/2)[1-(B/P)cosCA]
BPFO = (N/2)Hz[1-(B/P)cosCA]
BPFI = (N/2)Hz[1+(B/P)cosCA]
BSF = (PHz/2B){1-[(B/P)cosCA]2}
Where:
Hz. = shaft speed in cps
Inner race and shaft rotate.
Outer race is held or fixed.

N = number of rolling elements

B = ball diameter
P = pitch diameter
CA = contact angle

RollingElementBearing
FrequenciesOuterRaceRotates
FTF = (Hz/2)[1+(B/P)cosCA]
BPFO = (N/2)Hz[1+(B/P)cosCA]
BPFI = (N/2)Hz[1-(B/P)cosCA]
No
Rotation

BSF = (PHz/2B){1-[(B/P)cosCA]2}
Where:
Hz. = shaft speed in cps

Inner race and shaft fixed.

Outer race rotates.

N = number of rolling elements

B = ball diameter
P = pitch diameter
CA = contact angle

RollingElementBearings(BPFI)
9 - CENTER ROLL
532E044D -MIH MOTOR INBOARD HORIZONTAL

1.2

Route Spectrum
21-Feb-04 08:37:46

SKF 6326
7.66 FTF
43.01 BSF
61.31 BPFO
95.26 BPFI

PK Velocity in mm/Sec

0.9

0.6

OVERALL= 5.20 V-AN

PK = 2.13
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 1174. (19.57 Hz)

0.3

0
0

2015

300

600
Frequency in Hz

900

138

1200

Freq: 589.03
Ordr: 30.10
Spec: .289
Dfrq: 94.91

RollingElementBearings(BPFI)
9 - CENTER ROLL
532E044D -MIH MOTOR INBOARD HORIZONTAL

20

Route Waveform
21-Feb-04 08:37:46

15

RMS = 3.52
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 1506. (25.09 Hz)

Acceleration in G-s

10

CF ALARM

PK(+) = 17.23
PK(-) = 17.94
CRESTF= 5.10

5
PK ALARM

Angel Fish !

PK ALARM

Impacts Create
Resonance of
Inner Ring

-5

-10

CF ALARM

-15

-20
0

2015

50

100
Time in mSecs

150

139

200

RollingElementBearings
Earlystageelectricalfluting

ft =1?
tisverysmall
Fisveryhigh
F max
2015

140

RollingElementBearings
Innerracepitting

ft =1?
tislonger
fislower
F max
2015

141

RollingElementBearings
Totalbearingfailure

ft =1?
Tisreallylong
fisreallylow
F max
2015

142

RollingElementBearings

Asthefrequencygetslowerbad
thingsarehappening!

RollingElementBearings
Nolubrication!
Novibration
program!
NoReliability!

2015

144

RollingElementBearings?
Youneedallofthe
rollingelements,inthe
sameorientation,a
goodcage,andasolid
innerracetohavea
qualitybearingand
goodvibration
measurement!

RollingElementBearings
Severe
Electrical
Fluting

2015

146

GearMesh
NumberofTeethxSpeedoftheShaftitis
mountedon.
Sidebandsaroundgearmeshwillbespaced
attheshaftspeedthegearismountedon.
Typicallythevibrationwillbeintheaxial
direction

2015

147

GearMesh&ShaftSpeeds
1770 RPM

27T

21T

(29.5 Hz)

13.18 Hz (790.85 RPM)

47T

2.42 Hz (145.25 RPM)

147T

Shaft Speeds

Gear Mesh

Inter Speed = 29.5(21/47) = 13.18 Hz

13.18 x 60 = 790.85 CPM
Output Speed = 13.18(27/147) = 2.42 Hz
2.42 x 60 = 145.25 CPM

GMH = 29.5 x 21 = 619.5 Hz

619.5 x 60 = 37,170 CPM
GML = 13.18 x 27 = 355.88 Hz
355.88 x 60 = 21,352 CPM

2015

148

GearMeshwithSidebands
ofShaftSpeed
X:30.59605 Hz
X:31.82788 Hz
X:33.05971 Hz

Y:31.80463 mpsi
Y:89.65971 mpsi
Y:25.62417 mpsi

1
0.1
psi
rms
Magnitude

Gear Mesh = 31.828

Hz
Sideband spacing = 1.232 Hz
1.232 Hz x 60 = 73.9 CPM
73.9 RPM = Shaft Speed

0
20 Hz

2015

Zoom Window

149

40 Hz

Fans
BladePass
NumberofBladesxSpeedoftheShaftthe
rotorismountedon.
Lookatthedamperandductworkforflow
andrestrictions.
Bladeclearance,dischargeangle,wear&tear

Unbalance,misalignment,bearings

2015

150

Pumps

VanePass
NumberofVanesxSpeedoftheShafttherotorismountedon.
Lookattheinputandoutputpressures
Vaneclearance,dischargeangle,wear&tear

Recirculation
RandomnoiseinFFT&TimeWaveform
Axialshuttling,Highbackpressure,Lowflowrate
Fluidbeingforcedbackintopump

Cavitation
RandomnoiseintheFFT&TimeWaveform
Audiblenoise,Lowbackpressure,Highflowrate
Airentrainedinfluid

2015

Unbalance,misalignment,bearings

151

Motors
SynchronousSpeed
(2xLineFrequency)/numberofpoles

Stator
2xLineFrequencyandMultiples

Rotor
SidebandsAroundRunningSpeed=Slip
FrequencyxNumberofPoleswith
Multiples

Unbalance,Misalignment,Bearings
2015

152

ThankYou!
Youcanfindtechnicalpaperson
thisandothersubjectsat

www.ctconline.com
intheTechnicalResourcessection
ConnectionTechnologyCenter,Inc.
7939RaeBoulevard
Victor,NewYork14564
Tel:+15859245900
Fax:+15859244680
2015

153