Operating System

A handbook of
Operating System
and
Network
With reference to
S.B.T.E Karachi
Specially designed for
Diploma in Information
Technology
Prepared and designed by:

Nasir Ali Shah
Vice
Principal
Published by
The Zenith Institute
of Computer Science
Shikarpur
Our Motive
Quality,
Honesty
&
Morality
The Zics Series: A handbook of Operating System and Network 2
By: Nasir Ali Shah nasir_ali_shah2003@yahoo.com
OPERATING SYSTEM–THE DEFINITION............................................................................4
FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM................................................................................4
TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS.........................................................................................8
COMPUTER NETWORK...........................................................................................................9
SERVER...............................................................................................................................................9
CLIENT................................................................................................................................................9
NETWORK CLASSIFICATION..............................................................................................10
CONNECTION METHOD........................................................................................................................10
WIRED TECHNOLOGIES.......................................................................................................................10
WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES...................................................................................................................10
SCALE.........................................................................................................................................11
TYPES OF NETWORKS..........................................................................................................................11
LOCAL AREA NETWORK.........................................................................................................................11
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK.............................................................................................................11
WIDE AREA NETWORK..........................................................................................................................11
GLOBAL AREA NETWORK.......................................................................................................................11
INTERNETWORK....................................................................................................................11
INTERNET..........................................................................................................................................11
INTRANETS AND EXTRANETS.................................................................................................................12
BASIC HARDWARE COMPONENTS....................................................................................12
NETWORK INTERFACE CARDS...............................................................................................................12

REPEATERS........................................................................................................................................12
HUBS................................................................................................................................................12
BRIDGES............................................................................................................................................12
SWITCHES..........................................................................................................................................13
ROUTERS...........................................................................................................................................13
TWISTED PAIR CABLES.......................................................................................................................13
UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR (UTP)......................................................................................................13
REGISTERED JACK.............................................................................................................................14
RJ45................................................................................................................................................14
CRIMPING TOOL.................................................................................................................................14
NETWORK TOPOLOGY.........................................................................................................14
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES......................................................................................................................14
PROTOCOL...............................................................................................................................15
TCP/IP.........................................................................................................................................16
IP ADDRESS...............................................................................................................................16
DHCP...........................................................................................................................................17
FTP..............................................................................................................................................17
HTTP...........................................................................................................................................17
IMAP...........................................................................................................................................17
POP..............................................................................................................................................17
SMTP...........................................................................................................................................17
UDP..............................................................................................................................................17
WAP.............................................................................................................................................17
Operating System–the definition

An operating system (OS) is an interface between hardware and user which is responsible for
the management and coordination of activities and the sharing of the resources of a computer,
that acts as a host for computing applications run on the machine. As a host, one of the purposes
of an operating system is to handle the resource allocation and access protection of
the hardware. It is the program that, after being initially loaded into the computer by
a boot program, manages all the other programs in a computer. The other programs are called
applications or application programs. The application programs make use of the operating system
by making requests for services through a defined application program interface (API) 1. In
addition, users can interact directly with the operating system through a user interface such as a
command language or a graphical user interface (GUI).
An operating system performs these services for applications:
• In a multitasking operating system where multiple programs can be running at the same
time, the operating system determines which applications should run in what order and
how much time should be allowed for each application before giving another application a
turn.
• It manages the sharing of internal memory among multiple applications.
• It handles input and output to and from attached hardware devices, such as hard disks,
printers, and dial-up ports.
• It sends messages to each application or interactive user (or to a system operator) about
the status of operation and any errors that may have occurred.
• It can offload the management of what are called batch jobs2 (for example, printing) so
that the initiating application is freed from this work.
• On computers that can provide parallel processing, an operating system can manage
how to divide the program so that it runs on more than one processor at a time.
All major computer platforms (hardware and software) require and sometimes include an
operating system. Linux, Windows 2000, VMS, OS/400, AIX, and z/OS are all examples of
operating systems.
Functions of Operating System
1. Memory Management: -
When an operating system manages the
computer's memory, there are two broad tasks to be accomplished:
• Each process must have enough memory in which to execute, and it can neither run
into the memory space of another process nor be run into by another process.
• The different types of memory in the system must be used properly so that each
process can run most effectively.
The first task requires the operating system to set up memory boundaries for types of
software and for individual application.
As an example, let's look at an imaginary small system with 1 megabyte (1,000 kilobytes)
of RAM. During the boot process, the operating system of our imaginary computer is
designed to go to the top of available memory and then "back up" far enough to meet the
needs of the operating system itself. Let's say that the operating system needs 300
kilobytes to run. Now, the operating system goes to the bottom of the pool of RAM and
starts building up with the various driver software required to control the hardware
subsystems of the computer. In our imaginary computer, the drivers take up 200
kilobytes. So after getting the operating system completely loaded, there are 500
kilobytes remaining for application processes.
When applications begin to be loaded into memory, they are loaded in block sizes
determined by the operating system. If the block size is 2 kilobytes, then every process
that's loaded will be given a chunk of memory that's a multiple of 2 kilobytes in size.
Applications will be loaded in these fixed block sizes, with the blocks starting and ending
on boundaries established by words of 4 or 8 bytes. These blocks and boundaries help to
ensure that applications won't be loaded on top of one another's space by a poorly
calculated bit or two. With that ensured, the larger question is what to do when the 500-
kilobyte application space is filled.
In most computers, it's possible to add memory beyond the original capacity. For
example, you might expand RAM from 1 to 2 gigabytes. This works fine, but can be
relatively expensive. It also ignores a fundamental fact of computing -- most of the
1
An application program interface (API ) is the specific method prescribed by a computer operating system
or by an application program by which a programmer writing an application program can make requests of
the operating system or another application.
2
A batch job is a program that is assigned to the computer to run without further user interaction.
Examples of batch jobs in a PC are a printing request or an analysis of a Web site log. Batch jobs are said
to run in the background and interactive programs run in the foreground.
information that an application stores in memory is not being used at any given moment.
A processor can only access memory one location at a time, so the vast majority of RAM
is unused at any moment. Since disk space is cheap compared to RAM, then moving
information in RAM to hard disk can greatly expand RAM space at no cost. This
technique is called virtual memory management.
Disk storage is only one of the memory types that must be managed by the operating
system, and it's also the slowest. Ranked in order of speed, the types of memory in a
computer system are:
High-speed cache -- This is fast, relatively small amounts of memory that are available
to the CPU through the fastest connections. Cache controllers predict which pieces of
data the CPU will need next and pull it from main memory into high-speed cache to
speed up system performance.
Main memory -- This is the RAM that you see measured in megabytes when you buy a
computer.
Secondary memory -- This is most often some sort of rotating magnetic storage that
keeps applications and data available to be used, and serves as virtual RAM under the
control of the operating system.
The operating system must balance the needs of the various processes with the
availability of the different types of memory, moving data in blocks (called pages)
between available memory as the schedule of processes dictates.
a. File System: - File system (often also written as filesystem) is a method of

storing and organizing computer files and the data they contain to make it easy to
find and access them. File systems may use a data storage device such as
a hard disk or CD-ROM and involve maintaining the physical location of the files,
they might provide access to data on a file server by acting as clients for
a network protocol (e.g., NFS, SMB, or 9P clients), or they may be virtual and
exist only as an access method for virtual data (e.g., procfs). It is distinguished
from a directory service and registry.
i. FAT: - The File Allocation Table (FAT) filing system, supported by all
versions of Microsoft Windows, was an evolution of that used in
Microsoft's earlier operating system (MS-DOS). FAT ultimately traces its
roots back to the short-lived M-DOS project and Standalone disk
BASIC before it. Over the years various features have been added to it,
inspired by similar features found on file systems used by operating
systems such as Unix. Older versions of the FAT file system (FAT12 and
FAT16) had file name length limits, a limit on the number of entries in the
root directory of the file system and had restrictions on the maximum size
of FAT-formatted disks or partitions. Specifically, FAT12 and FAT16 had
a limit of 8 characters for the file name, and 3 characters for the
extension (such as .exe). This is commonly referred to as the 8.3
filename limit. VFAT, which was an extension to FAT12 and FAT16
introduced in Windows NT 3.5 and subsequently included in Windows
95, allowed long file names (LFN). FAT32 also addressed many of the
limits in FAT12 and FAT16, but remains limited compared to NTFS.
exFAT (also known as FAT64) is the newest iteration of FAT, with certain
advantages over NTFS with regards to file system overhead. But unlike
prior versions of FAT, exFAT is only compatible with newer Windows
systems, such as Windows 2003 and Windows 7.
ii. NTFS: - NTFS, introduced with the Windows NT operating system,
allowed ACL-based3 permission control. Hard links, multiple file streams,
attribute indexing, quota tracking, sparse files, encryption, compression,
reparse points (directories working as mount-points for other file
systems, symlinks, junctions, remote storage links) are also supported,
though not all these features are well-documented. Unlike many other
operating systems, Windows uses a drive letter abstraction at the user
level to distinguish one disk or partition from another. For example,
the path C:\WINDOWS represents a directory WINDOWS on the
partition represented by the letter C. The C drive is most commonly used
for the primary hard disk partition, on which Windows is usually installed
3
Access control list (ACL) is a list of permissions attached to an object. An ACL specifies which users—
or system processes—are granted access to objects, as well as what operations are allowed to be performed
on given objects.
and from which it boots. This "tradition" has become so firmly ingrained
that bugs came about in older applications which made assumptions that
the drive that the operating system was installed on was C. The tradition
of using "C" for the drive letter can be traced to MS-DOS, where the
letters A and B were reserved for up to two floppy disk drives. Network
drives may also be mapped to drive letters.
2. User Interface: - User interface (UI) is everything designed into an information device
with which a human being may interact -- including display screen, keyboard, mouse,
light pen, the appearance of a desktop etc. In early computers, there was very little user
interface except for a few buttons at an operator's console. Later, a user was provided
the ability to interact with a computer online and the user interface was a nearly blank
display screen with a command line, a keyboard, and a set of commands and computer
responses that were exchanged. And, finally, the graphical user interface (GUI) arrived
by Microsoft in its Windows operating systems.
a. Command Line Interface: - Command-line interface (CLI) is a mechanism for
interacting with a computer operating system or software by typing commands to
perform specific tasks. This method of instructing a computer to perform a given
task is referred to as "entering" a command: the system waits for the user to
conclude the submitting of the text command by pressing the "Enter" key. The
CLI is indicated by the presence of the > prompt, which is preceded by a string
that defaults to the Drive and folder. For example:
C:\Program files>
b. Graphical User Interface: - A graphical user interface or GUI (sometimes
pronounced gooey) is a type of user interface item that allows people to interact
with programs in more ways than typing such as computers; hand-held devices
such as MP3 Players, Portable Media Players or Gaming devices; household
appliances and office equipment with images rather than text commands.
A GUI offers graphical icons, and visual indicators, as opposed totext-
based interfaces, typed command labels or text navigation to fully represent the
information and actions available to a user. The actions are usually performed
through direct manipulation of the graphical elements.
3. Multiprocessing: - Multiprocessing is the use of two or more central processing
units (CPUs) within a single computer system. The term also refers to the ability of a
system to support more than one processor and/or the ability to allocate tasks between
them. in a multiprocessing system, all CPUs may be equal, or some may be reserved for
special purposes. A combination of hardware and operating-system software design
considerations determine the symmetry (or lack thereof) in a given system. For example,
hardware or software considerations may require that only one CPU respond to all
hardware interrupts, whereas all other work in the system may be distributed equally
among CPUs; or execution of kernel-mode code may be restricted to only one processor
(either a specific processor, or only one processor at a time), whereas user-mode code
may be executed in any combination of processors.
4. Multitasking: - Multitasking is a method by which multiple tasks, also known
as processes, share common processing resources such as a CPU. In the case of a
computer with a single CPU, only one task is said to be running at any point in time,
meaning that the CPU is actively executing instructions for that task. Multitasking solves
the problem by scheduling4 which task may be the one running at any given time, and
when another waiting task gets a turn. The act of reassigning a CPU from one task to
another one is called a context switch5. Even on computers with more than one CPU
(called multiprocessor machines), multitasking allows many more tasks to be run than
there are CPUs.
5. Multiprogramming: - Multiprogramming is a rudimentary form of parallel
processing in which several programs are run at the same time on a uni-processor. Since
there is only one processor, there can be no true simultaneous execution of different
programs. Instead, the operating system executes part of one program, then part of
another, and so on. To the user it appears that all programs are executing at the same
time.
6. Time Sharing: - Time-sharing is sharing a computing resource among many users
by means of multiprogramming and multi-tasking. By allowing a large number of users to
4
Scheduling refers to the way processes are assigned to run on the available CPUs, since there are typically
many more processes running than there are available CPUs. This assignment is carried out by software known as
a scheduler or dispatcher.
5
A context switch is the computing process of storing and restoring the state (context) of a CPU such that
multiple processes can share a single CPU resource. The context switch is an essential feature of a multitasking
operating system.
interact concurrently with a single computer, time-sharing dramatically lowered the cost of
providing computing capability, made it possible for individuals and organizations to use a
computer without owning one, and promoted the interactive use of computers and the
development of new interactive applications.
7. Processor Management: -The heart of managing the processor comes down to
two related issues:
a. Ensuring that each process6 and application receives enough of the processor's
time to function properly
b. Using as many processor cycles as possible for real work
The basic unit of software that the operating system deals with in scheduling the work
done by the processor is either a process or a thread, depending on the operating
system. It's tempting to think of a process as an application, but that gives an incomplete
picture of how processes relate to the operating system and hardware. The application
you see (word processor, spreadsheet or game) is, indeed, a process, but that
application may cause several other processes to begin, for tasks like communications
with other devices or other computers. There are also numerous processes that run
without giving you direct evidence that they ever exist. For example, Windows XP and
UNIX can have dozens of background processes running to handle the network, memory
management, disk management, virus checks and so on.
A process, then, is software that performs some action and can be controlled -- by a user,
by other applications or by the operating system.
In order to give the appearance of lots of things happening at the same time, the
operating system has to switch between different processes thousands of times a
second. Here's how it happens:
A process occupies a certain amount of RAM. It also makes use of registers, stacks and
queues within the CPU and operating-system memory space.
• When two processes are multi-tasking, the operating system allots a certain
number of CPU execution cycles to one program.
• After that number of cycles, the operating system makes copies of all the
registers, stacks and queues used by the processes, and notes the point at
which the process paused in its execution.
• It then loads all the registers, stacks and queues used by the second process
and allows it a certain number of CPU cycles.
• When those are complete, it makes copies of all the registers, stacks and queues
used by the second program, and loads the first program.
8. Process Control Block: - All of the information needed to keep track of a process
when switching is kept in a data package called a process control block. The process
control block typically contains:
• An ID number that identifies the process
• Pointers to the locations in the program and its data where processing last
occurred
• Register contents
• States of various flags and switches
• Pointers to the upper and lower bounds of the memory required for the process
• A list of files opened by the process
• The priority of the process
• The status of all I/O devices needed by the process
Each process has a status associated with it. Many processes consume no CPU time
until they get some sort of input. For example, a process might be waiting for a keystroke
from the user. While it is waiting for the keystroke, it uses no CPU time. While it's waiting,
it is "suspended". When the keystroke arrives, the OS changes its status. When the
status of the process changes, from pending to active, for example, or from suspended to
6
A process is an instance of a computer program that is being executed. It contains the program code and
its current activity. Depending on the operating system (OS), a process may be made up of multiple threads
of execution that execute instructionsconcurrently. where thread of execution results from a fork of
a computer program into two or moreconcurrently running tasks. The implementation of threads
and processes differs from one operating systemto another, but in most cases, a thread is contained inside a
process. Multiple threads can exist within the same process and share resources such as memory, while
different processes do not share these resources.
running, the information in the process control block must be used like the data in any
other program to direct execution of the task-switching portion of the operating system.
This process swapping happens without direct user interference, and each process gets
enough CPU cycles to accomplish its task in a reasonable amount of time. Trouble can
begin if the user tries to have too many processes functioning at the same time.
So far, all the scheduling we've discussed has concerned a single CPU. In a system with
two or more CPUs, the operating system must divide the workload among the CPUs,
trying to balance the demands of the required processes with the available cycles on the
different CPUs. Asymmetric operating systems use one CPU for their own needs and
divide application processes among the remaining CPUs. Symmetric operating
systems divide themselves among the various CPUs, balancing demand versus CPU
availability even when the operating system itself is all that's running.
9. Device Management: - The path between the operating system and virtually all
hardware not on the computer's motherboard goes through a special program called a
driver. Much of a driver's function is to be the translator between the electrical signals of
the hardware subsystems and the high-level programming languages of the operating
system and application programs. Drivers take data that the operating system has
defined as a file and translate them into streams of bits placed in specific locations on
storage devices, or a series of laser pulses in a printer.
Because there are such wide differences in the hardware, there are differences in the
way that the driver programs function. Most run when the device is required, and function
much the same as any other process. The operating system will frequently assign high-
priority blocks to drivers so that the hardware resource can be released and readied for
further use as quickly as possible.
One reason that drivers are separate from the operating system is so that new functions
can be added to the driver -- and thus to the hardware subsystems -- without requiring
the operating system itself to be modified, recompiled and redistributed. Through the
development of new hardware device drivers, development often performed or paid for by
the manufacturer of the subsystems rather than the publisher of the operating system,
input/output capabilities of the overall system can be greatly enhanced.
10. Plug and Play: - Plug and Play (PnP) means that you can connect a device or insert
a card into your computer and it is automatically recognized and configured to work in
your system. PnP is a simple concept, but it took a concerted effort on the part of the
computer industry to make it happen. Intel created the PnP standard and incorporated it
into the design for PCI. But it wasn't until several years later that a mainstream operating
system, Windows 95, provided system-level support for PnP.
Types of Operating Systems

Within the broad family of operating systems, there are generally four types, categorized based
on the types of computers they control and the sort of applications they support. The categories
are:
• Real-time operating system (RTOS): - Real-time operating systems are used
to control machinery, scientific instruments and industrial systems. An RTOS typically
has very little user-interface capability, and no end-user utilities, since the system will be
a "sealed box" when delivered for use. A very important part of an RTOS is managing
the resources of the computer so that a particular operation executes in precisely the
same amount of time, every time it occurs. In a complex machine, having a part move
more quickly just because system resources are available may be just as catastrophic
as having it not move at all because the system is busy.
• Single-user, single task: - As the name implies, this operating system is
designed to manage the computer so that one user can effectively do one thing at a
time. The Palm OS for Palm handheld computers is a good example of a modern
single-user, single-task operating system.
• Single-user, multi-tasking: - This is the type of operating system most people
use on their desktop and laptop computers today. Microsoft's Windows and Apple's Mac
OS platforms are both examples of operating systems that will let a single user have
several programs in operation at the same time. For example, it's entirely possible for a
Windows user to be writing a note in a word processor while downloading a file from the
Internet while printing the text of an e-mail message.
• Multi-user: - A multi-user operating system allows many different users to take
advantage of the computer's resources simultaneously. The operating system must
make sure that the requirements of the various users are balanced, and that each of the
programs they are using has sufficient and separate resources so that a problem with
one user doesn't affect the entire community of users. Unix, VMS and mainframe
operating systems, such as MVS, are examples of multi-user operating systems.
It's important to differentiate between multi-user operating systems and single-user operating
systems that support networking. Windows 2000 and Novell Netware can each support hundreds
or thousands of networked users, but the operating systems themselves aren't true multi-user
operating systems. The system administrator is the only "user" for Windows 2000 or Netware.
The network support and all of the remote user logins the network enables are, in the overall plan
of the operating system, a program being run by the administrative user.
With the different types of operating systems in mind, it's time to look at the basic functions
provided by an operating system.
Computer Network
A Computer Network or simply Network is a collection
of computers and devices connected by communications
channels that facilitates communications among users and
allows users to share resources with other users.
Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of
characteristics.
A computer network allows sharing of resources and
information among devices connected to the network. The
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) funded the
design of the Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network (ARPANET) for the United States Department of Defense. It was the first operational
computer network in the world.[1] Development of the network began in 1969, based on designs
developed during the 1960s. For a history see ARPANET, the first network.
In computer networks, one computer is called server and all other computers that are connected
in the network are known as clients.
Server
A computer connected to a network that other computers may or may not access. Unlike other
computers on a network, a server is a dedicated computer set up for one or more purposes. For
example, a user may setup a server to authenticate and allow or prohibit users from accessing a
network, send/receive e-mail, manage print jobs, and/or host a website. To the right is an
example of cluster of rack mountable computers at the NCSA/University of Illinois.
Because servers commonly serve a need that's required 24/7 they're often never turned off and
when fail cause the network users or company a great deal of problems. Some server failures
can cause a company and its employees to come to a complete halt in their work until they return.
Client
A computer that retrieves information from and/or uses resources provided by server or main
computer is called client. Many corporate networks are comprised of a client computer at each of
the employees' desks. Each of these computers connects to a central server
or mainframe allowing the employees to work.
A client is also another name for a software program used to connect to a server.
A client can also be another term used to describe a businesses user.
Network classification
The following list presents categories used for classifying networks.
Connection method
Computer networks can be classified according to the hardware and software technology that is
used to interconnect the individual devices in the network, such as optical
fiber, Ethernet, Wireless LAN, Home PAN, Power line communication.
Ethernet uses physical wiring to connect devices. Frequently deployed devices include hubs,
switches, bridges and/or routers. Wireless LAN technology is designed to connect devices
without wiring. These devices use radio waves or infrared signals as a transmission medium. ITU-
TG.hn technology uses existing home wiring (coaxial cable, phone lines and power lines) to
create a high-speed (up to 1 Gigabit/s) local area network.
Wired technologies
 Twisted-pair wire is the most widely used medium for
telecommunication. Twisted-pair wires are ordinary telephone wires which
consist of two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs and are used for
both voice and data transmission. The transmission speed ranges from 2
million bits per second to 100 million bits per second.
 Coaxial cable is widely used for cable television systems, office

buildings, and other worksites for local area networks. The cables consist of
copper or aluminum wire wrapped with insulating layer typically of a flexible
material with a high dielectric constant, all of which are surrounded by a
conductive layer. The layers of insulation help minimize interference and
distortion. Transmission speed range from 200 million to more than 500 million bits per second.
 Fiber optic cable consists of one or more filaments of glass fiber

wrapped in protective layers. It transmits light which can travel over extended
distances without signal loss. Fiber-optic cables are not affected by
electromagnetic radiation. Transmission speed may reach trillions of bits per
second. The transmission speed of fiber optics is hundreds of times faster than
for coaxial cables and thousands of times faster than for twisted-pair wire.
Wireless technologies
 Terrestrial Microwave – Terrestrial microwaves use Earth-
based transmitter and receiver. The equipment looks similar to satellite
dishes. Terrestrial microwaves use low-gigahertz range, which limits all
communications to line-of-sight. Path between relay stations spaced approx. 30 miles apart. Microwave
antennas are usually placed on top of buildings, towers, hills, and mountain
peaks.
 Communications Satellites – The satellites use microwave

radio as their telecommunications medium which are not deflected by the
Earth's atmosphere. The satellites are stationed in space, typically 22,000
miles above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of
receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals.
 Cellular and PCS Systems – Use several radio

communications technologies. The systems are divided to different
geographic area. Each area has low-power transmitter or radio relay
antenna device to relay calls from one area to the next area.
 Wireless LANs – Wireless local area network use a high-

frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular and a low-
frequency radio technology. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum
technology to enable communication between multiple devices in a
limited area. An example of open-standards wireless radio-wave
technology is IEEE 802.11b.
 Bluetooth – A short range wireless technology. Operate at approx.
1Mbps with range from 10 to 100 meters. Bluetooth is an open wireless
protocol for data exchange over short distances.
 The Wireless Web – The wireless web refers to the use of

the World Wide Web through equipments like cellular phones,
pagers,PDAs, and other portable communications devices. The
wireless web service offers anytime/anywhere connection.
Scale
Networks are often classified as local area network (LAN), wide area
network (WAN), metropolitan area network (MAN), personal area network(PAN), virtual private
network (VPN), campus area network (CAN), storage area network (SAN), and others, depending
on their scale, scope and purpose. Usage, trust level, and access right often differ between these
types of network. For example, LANs tend to be designed for internal use by an organization's
internal systems and employees in individual physical locations (such as a building), while WANs
may connect physically separate parts of an organization and may include connections to third
parties.
Types of networks
Common types of computer networks may be identified by their scale.
Local area network

A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited
geographical area such as home, school, computer laboratory, office building, or closely
positioned group of buildings. Each computer or device on the network is a node.
The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to WANs (Wide Area Networks), include their
higher data transfer rates, smaller geographic range, and no need for leased telecommunication
lines. Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies operate at speeds up to 10 Gbits/s.
This is the data transfer rate. IEEE has projects investigating the standardization of 40 and 100
Gbit/s.
Metropolitan area network

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that connects two or more local area networks or
campus area networks together but does not extend beyond the boundaries of the immediate
town/city. Routers, switches and hubs are connected to create a metropolitan area network.
Wide area network

A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographic area such as a
province country, or even intercontinental distances, using a communications channel that
combines many types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and air waves. A WAN often
uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies.
Global area network

A global area network (GAN) is a model for supporting mobile communications across an
arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile
communications is handing off the user communications from one local coverage area to the
next.
Internetwork
An Internetwork is the connection of two or more distinct computer networks via a common
routing technology. The result is called an internetwork (often shortened to internet). Any
interconnection among or between public, private, commercial, industrial, or governmental
networks may also be defined as an internetwork.
Internet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected governmental, academic, public, and private
computer networks. It is based on the networking technologies of the Internet Protocol Suite. It is
the successor of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) developed by
DARPA of the U.S. Department of Defense. The Internet is also the communications backbone
underlying the World Wide Web (WWW). The 'Internet' is most commonly spelled with a capital 'I'
as a proper noun, for historical reasons and to distinguish it from other generic internetworks.
Participants in the Internet use a diverse array of methods of several hundred documented, and
often standardized, protocols compatible with the Internet Protocol Suite and an addressing
system (IP Addresses) administered by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority and address
registries. Service providers and large enterprises exchange information about the reachability of
their address spaces through the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), forming a redundant
worldwide mesh of transmission paths.
Intranets and extranets

Intranets and extranets are parts or extensions of a computer network, usually a local area
network.
An intranet is a set of networks, using the Internet Protocol and IP-based tools such as web
browsers and file transfer application that is under the control of a single administrative entity.
That administrative entity closes the intranet to all but specific, authorized users. Most commonly,
an intranet is the internal network of an organization. A large intranet will typically have at least
one web server to provide users with organizational information.
An extranet is a network that is limited in scope to a single organization or entity and also has
limited connections to the networks of one or more other usually, but not necessarily, trusted
organizations or entities (e.g., a company's customers may be given access to some part of its
intranet creating in this way an extranet, while at the same time the customers may not be
considered 'trusted' from a security standpoint). Technically, an extranet may also be categorized
as a CAN, MAN, WAN, or other type of network, although, by definition, an extranet cannot
consist of a single LAN; it must have at least one connection with an external network.
Basic hardware components

All networks are made up of basic hardware building blocks to interconnect network nodes, such
as Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers. In addition, some
method of connecting these building blocks is required, usually in the form of galvanic cable
(most commonly Category 5 cable). Less common are microwave links (as in IEEE 802.12) or
optical cable ("optical fiber"). An Ethernet card may also be required.
Network interface cards

A network card, network adapter, or NIC (network interface card) is a
piece of computer hardware designed to allow computers to
communicate over a computer network. It provides physical access to
a networking medium and often provides a low-level addressing
system through the use of MAC addresses.
Repeaters
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal, cleans it from the
unnecessary noise, regenerates it and retransmits it at a higher power
level, or to the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover
longer distances without degradation. In most twisted pair Ethernet
configurations, repeaters are required for cable which runs longer than 100 meters.
Hubs
A network hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it
is copied unmodified to all ports of the hub for transmission. The
destination address in the frame is not changed to a broadcast address.
Bridges
A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link
layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Bridges do send broadcasts to all ports
except the one on which the broadcast was received. However, bridges do
not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but learn which MAC
addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port and an
address, it will send traffic for that address to that port only.
Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of frames
that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source address is stored
and the bridge assumes that MAC address is associated with that port. The first time that a
previously unknown destination address is seen, the bridge will forward the frame to all ports
other than the one on which the frame arrived.
Bridges come in three basic types:
 Local bridges: Directly connect local area networks (LANs)

 Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between LANs.
Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have
been replaced with routers.
 Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs
Switches
A network switch is a device that forwards and filters OSI layer
2 datagrams (chunk of data communication) between ports (connected
cables) based on the MAC addresses in the packets.[8] This is distinct from a
hub in that it only forwards the frames to the ports involved in the
communication rather than all ports connected. A switch breaks the collision
domain but represents itself a broadcast domain. Switches make forwarding
decisions of frames on the basis of MAC addresses. A switch normally has
numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for devices, and cascading additional switches.
[9] Some switches are capable of routing based on Layer 3 addressing or additional logical levels;
these are called multi-layer switches. The term switch is used loosely in marketing to encompass
devices including routers and bridges, as well as devices that may distribute traffic on load or by
application content (e.g., a Web URL identifier).
Routers
A router is a networking device that forwards packets between networks
using information in protocol headers and forwarding tables to determine
the best next router for each packet.
Twisted Pair Cables

Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors (the forward and return
conductors of a single circuit) are twisted together for the purposes of canceling
out electromagnetic interference(EMI) from external sources; for instance, electromagnetic
radiation from Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cables, and crosstalk between neighboring pairs.
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

Twisted pair cables were first used in telephone systems
by Alexander Graham Bell in 1881. By 1900, the entire
American telephone line network was either twisted pair or
open wire with similar arrangements to guard against
interference. Today, most of the millions of kilometres of
twisted pairs in the world are outdoor landlines, owned by
telephone companies, used for voice service, and only
handled or even seen by telephone workers.
UTP cables are found in many Ethernet7 networks and
telephone systems. For indoor telephone applications, UTP is often grouped into sets of 25 pairs
according to a standard 25-pair color code originally developed by AT&T. A typical subset of
these colors (white/blue, blue/white, white/orange, orange/white) shows up in most UTP cables.
UTP cable is also the most common cable used in computer networking. Ethernet, the most
common data networking standard, utilizes UTP cables. Twisted pair cabling is often used in data
networks for short and medium length connections because of its relatively lower costs compared
to optical fiber and coaxial cable.
7
Ethernet is a family of frame-based computer networking technologies for local area networks (LANs). The name
comes from the physical concept of the ether. It defines a number of wiring and signaling standards for
the Physical Layer of the OSI networking model, through means of network access at the Media Access
Control protocol (a sub-layer of Data Link Layer), and a common addressing format.
Registered Jack
A registered jack (RJ) is a standardized physical network interface — both jack construction and
wiring pattern — for connecting telecommunications or data equipment to a service provided by
a local exchange carrier or long distance carrier.
The physical connectors that registered jacks use are mainly of the modular connector and 50-
pin miniature ribbon connector types. For example, RJ11 uses a 6 position 4 conductor (6P4C)
modular plug and jack, while RJ21 uses a 50-pin miniature ribbon connector.
RJ45
RJ45 is one of the many registered jacks, like RJ11, a standard from
which it gets the "RJ" in its name. As a registered jack, RJ45 specifies
both the physical connector and wiring pattern. The true telephone RJ45
uses a special keyed 8P2C modular connector, with Pins 5 and 4 wired
for tip and ring of a single telephone line and Pins 7 and 8 connected to a
programming resistor. It is meant to be used with a high speed modem, and is obsolete today.
RJ45 is often incorrectly used as the name for the 8P8C modular connector used to
terminate Ethernet cable.
Telephone installers who installed true telephone RJ45 jacks in the past were familiar with the
inner workings which made it RJ45, but their clients saw only a hole in the wall of a particular
shape, and came to understand RJ45 as the name for a hole of that shape. When they found
similar-looking connectors being used in entirely non-telephone applications, usually connecting
computers, they called these "RJ45", too. This was therefore the so-called computer "RJ45".
Crimping tool
A crimping tool is a tool designed to crimp or connect a connector to the
end of a cable. For example, network cables and phone cables are
created using a crimping tool to connect the RJ-45 and RJ-11 connectors
to the end of the cable. To the right is an example of what a crimping
tool looks like. This example shows a tool capable of crimping both RJ-
11 and RJ-45 connectors.
Network topology
Computer networks may be classified according to the network topology upon which the network
is based, such as bus network, star network, ring network, mesh network, star-bus network, tree
or hierarchical topology network. Network topology is the coordination by which devices in the
network are arrange in their logical relations to one another, independent of physical
arrangement. Even if networked computers are physically placed in a linear arrangement and are
connected to a hub, the network has a star topology, rather than a bus topology. In this regard the
visual and operational characteristics of a network are distinct. Networks may be classified based
on the method of data used to convey the data, these include digital and analog networks.
Network Topologies
A network topology refers to either the physical, or logical, layout of a network installation.
Physical Topology, when in the context of networking, refers to the physical layout of the
devices connected to the network, including the location and cable installation.
The Logical Topology refers to the way it actually operates (transfers data), as opposed to its
layout.
There are four main network topologies (and mixtures of the four) in common use today.
• Bus
• Mesh
• Ring
• Star
We will take a closer look at these topologies below.
The Bus Topology
This type of network topology is generally used with
Ethernet networks.
A Bus topology can be both Physical and Logical.
The Bus topology is one of the simplest of the four
network topologies to use. In its most basic form, it is
simply a case of running one cable (referred to as the backbone) from the first device/PC in the
network to the last device/PC, and then add any further devices/PCs to the existing cable
(backbone) between the first and last machines.
This topology is probably the cheapest network type of all to initially setup, as only one cable is
used the installation is fairly simple and economical.
The problems can come when trying to add a device to an existing Bus topology network. To add
a device requires physically linking it to the existing backbone, which can turn out to be a major
job.
Another consideration if using a bus topology for a network is fault tolerance, or the lack of it. This
type of network transfers data by passing messages through the same cable, so a break in any
part of the cable will bring the whole network down.
Each device will check to see if the message is intended for them, the device to which the data is
addressed will copy the contents to its network card's onboard RAM, and process it accordingly.
The Mesh Topology

This type of network topology boasts the highest fault tolerance of all of the network topologies, it
is also usually the most expensive.
In a mesh topology, each device/PC is connected to
every other device/PC in the network by its own cable
(see fig 1.2 below), which means vast amounts of
cables for any sizeable network.
The Mesh topology provides fault tolerance by having
separate cables for each connection, allowing any one cable to break without interfering with the
rest of the network.
Unfortunately, because each connection needs its own cable, a Mesh topology can get very
expensive.
Every time+-+ you add a client to a mesh network you have to run cables to each of the other
devices.
The Ring Topology
The physical ring topology is rarely used these days, a Ring topology networks the devices by
connecting each device to its two neighboring devices
(see fig 1.3 below).
Data is passed one way from device to device, fault

tolerance in a physical ring topology is non-existent, if one
device/cable fails then the whole network goes down.
Adding a new device to an existing physical Ring network
can be complicated, as any new device needs to go in between the existing devices.
The Star Topology
A physical Star topology connects the devices via a centralized unit, such as a Hub or Switch.
A Star topology gives great fault tolerance, as any
device/cable failure will not affect the rest of the network
(unless the centralizing device or server (if vital) fails).
Physically adding new devices to a Star network is very
simple compared to any of the other topologies; you simply
run a cable from the new device to the hub/switch.
Star topologies are very common, especially in Ethernet networks; also, they are commonly
mixed with one of the other topologies to create a hybrid topology.
Protocol
Sometimes referred to as an access method, a protocol is a standard used to define a method of
exchanging data over a computer network such as local area network, Internet,Intranet, etc. Each
protocol has its own method of how data is formatted when sent and what to do with it once
received, how that data is compressed and/or how to check for errors in data.
TCP/IP
Short for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, TCP/IP also commonly abbreviated
as TCP was developed in 1978 and driven by Danny Cohen, David Reed, and John Shoch.
Today TCP/IP is a language governing communications among all computers on the Internet.
TCP/IP is two separate protocols, TCP and IP, that are used together. The Internet Protocol
standard dictates how packets of information are sent out over networks. IP has a packet-
addressing method that lets any computer on the Internet forward a packet to another computer
that is a step (or more) closer to the packet's recipient. The Transmission Control Protocol
ensures the reliability of data transmission across Internet connected networks. TCP checks
packets for errors and submits requests for re-transmissions if errors are found; it also will return
the multiple packets of a message into a proper, original sequence when the message reaches its
destination.
IP Address
Short for Internet Protocol, IP is an address of a computer or other network device on a network
using IP or TCP/IP . For example, the number "166.70.10.23" is an example of such an address.
These addresses are similar to addresses used on houses and help data reach its appropriate
destination on a network.
There are five classes of available IP ranges: Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D and Class E,
while only A, B and C are commonly used. Each class allows for a range of valid IP addresses.
Below is a listing of these addresses.
Class Address Range Supports
Class 1.0.0.1 to
Supports 16 million hosts on each of 127 networks.
A 126.255.255.254
Class 128.1.0.1 to
Supports 65,000 hosts on each of 16,000 networks.
B 191.255.255.254
Class 192.0.1.1 to
Supports 254 hosts on each of 2 million networks.
C 223.255.254.254
Class 224.0.0.0 to
Reserved for multicast groups.
D 239.255.255.255
Class 240.0.0.0 to Reserved for future use, or Research and
E 254.255.255.254 Development Purposes.
Ranges 127.x.x.x are reserved for loopback tests, for example, 127.0.0.1. Ranges
255.255.255.255 are used to broadcast to all hosts on the local network.
All IP addresses are broken down into 4 sets of octets that break down into binary to represent
the actual IP address. The below chart is a basic example of the basic IP 255.255.255.255.
IP: 255. 255. 255. 255.
Binary value: 11111111. 11111111. 11111111. 11111111.
Octet value: 8 8 8 8
If we were to break down the IP "166.70.10.23", which is the IP address of Computer Hope, you
would get the below value.
166. 70. 10. 23

10100110. 01000110. 00001010. 00010111
128+32+4+2=166 64+4+2=70 8+2=10 16+4+2+1=23
There are several IP addresses used or automatically assigned on a network. For example:
166.70.10.0 0 is the automatically assigned network address.
166.70.10.1 1 is the commonly used address used as the gateway.
166.70.10.2 2 is also a commonly used address used for a gateway.
166.70.10.255 255 is automatically assigned on most networks as the broadcast address.
Users and/or companies who need to register an IP address or a valid range of IP addresses
must register that IP address through InterNIC.
DHCP
Short for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, DHCP is a protocol used to assign an IP
address to a computer or device connected to a network automatically. Routers, switches,
or servers that assign addresses to other computers using DHCP on a network make the setup
and management of the network easier by not requiring the user or network admin to have to
manually define each address for each computer and network device on the network.
FTP
Short for File Transfer Protocol, FTP was first proposed in 1971 for and developed for
implementation on hosts at MIT and was later defined by RFC 959 published in 1985. FTP is a
standard way to transfer files between computers. The method has built-in error checking. FTP
often refers to a standard way of transferring many types of files over the Internet. Below is a
short listing of some of the software programs you can use to connect to an FTP server from your
computer.
HTTP
Short for HyperText Transfer Protocol, HTTP is a set of standards that let users of theWorld Wide
Web to exchange information found on web pages. When a user wishes to access a web page it
is commonly required that http:// be placed before the address, allowing the browser to know it is
going through HTTP. For example, the full address for Computer Hope
is http://www.computerhope.com. However, today many Internetbrowsers allow users the ability
to specify the domain "www.computerhope.com" and default to HTTP.
IMAP
Short for Internet Message Access Protocol, IMAP was developed at Stanford University
in1986 and is a protocol that allows users to retrieve e-mail but still uses SMTP for sending e-mail
messages. IMAP4 is the latest version of IMAP that is similar to POP3; however, supports
additional features not found in POP3.
POP
Short for Post Office Protocol, POP is one of the most commonly used protocols used to receive
e-mail on many e-mail clients.
SMTP
Short for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, SMTP is a communications protocol that sends e-mail
messages from one server to another. The messages can then be retrieved from a server with
generally either POP or IMAP.
UDP
Short for User Datagram Protocol and defined in RFC 768, UDP is an alternative protocol to
the TCP/IP that runs on top of IP and is sometimes referred to as UDP/IP. Unlike TCP/IP, UDP
does not divide each transmission into packets, which allows for a faster transmission. However,
UDP does not provide error checking.
WAP
Short for Wireless Application Protocol, WAP is specifications for a set of communication
protocols used to allow wireless devices to access the Internet and other network utilities such
as e-mail, chat, etc...

Operating System

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A handbook of

Prepared and designed by:

OPERATING SYSTEM–THE DEFINITION............................................................................4

FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM................................................................................4

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS.........................................................................................8

BASIC HARDWARE COMPONENTS....................................................................................12

NETWORK INTERFACE CARDS...............................................................................................................12

Operating System–the definition

a. File System: - File system (often also written as filesystem) is a method of

Types of Operating Systems

 Coaxial cable is widely used for cable television systems, office

 Fiber optic cable consists of one or more filaments of glass fiber

 Communications Satellites – The satellites use microwave

 Cellular and PCS Systems – Use several radio

 Wireless LANs – Wireless local area network use a high-

 The Wireless Web – The wireless web refers to the use of

Local area network

Metropolitan area network

Wide area network

Global area network

Intranets and extranets

Basic hardware components

Network interface cards

 Local bridges: Directly connect local area networks (LANs)

Twisted Pair Cables

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

The Mesh Topology

Data is passed one way from device to device, fault

166. 70. 10. 23

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