Morals Digitalized: Reviews On Information and Computer Ethics

1
Running Head: Morals Digitalized

Morals Digitalized:
Reviews on Information and Computer Ethics

Eduardo Miguel H. Cueto
De La Salle – College of Saint Benilde
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution‐Commercial‐Share Alike 3.0 Philippines License

2
Table of Contents

Page no.
Title Page ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1
Table of Contents ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2
Dedication ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 3
Preface ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 5
Morals Digitalized: Essays ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 6
Formation of Information Ethics ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 7
Milestones in the History of Information and Computer Ethics …………………………………………………… 9
Moral Methodology and Information Technology ………………………………………………………………………. 11
Value Sensitive Design and Information Technology ………………………………………………………………….. 13
Personality‐Based, Rule‐Utilitarian, and Lockean Justifications of Intellectual Property …………….. 14
Informational Privacy Concepts, Theories, and Controversies ……………………………………………………. 16
Online Anonymity ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 17
Ethical Issues Invoking Computer Security: Hacking, Hacktivism, and Counterhacking ………………. 19
Information Ethics and the Library Profession ……………………………………………………………………………. 21
Ethical Interest in Free and Open Source Software …………………………………………………………………….. 23
Internet Research Ethics: The Field and Its Critical Issues …………………………………………………………… 25
Health Information Technology: Challenges in Ethics, Science, and Uncertainty ………………………… 27
Ethical Issues in Information and Business …………………………………………………………………………………. 29
Responsibilities for Information on the Internet ………………………………………………………………………… 31
Virtual Reality and Computer Simulation ……………………………………………………………………………………. 33
Genetic Information: Epistemological and Ethical Issues ……………………………………………………………. 35
The Ethics of Cyber Conflict ………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 37
A Practical Mechanism for Ethical Risk Assessment: A SoDIS Inspection …………………………………….. 39
Regulation and Governance on the Internet ………………………………………………………………………………. 41
Information Overload ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 43
Email Spam ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 45
The Matter of Plagiarism: The What, Why, and If ………………………………………………………………………. 47
Intellectual Property: Legal and Moral Challenges of Online File Sharing …………………………………… 49
Censorship and Access to Expression …………………………………………………………………………………………. 51
The Gender Agenda in Computer Ethics …………………………………………………………………………………….. 53
The Digital Divide: A Perspective for the Future …………..…………………………………………………………….. 55
Intercultural Information Ethics …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 57
3
Dedication

This book is dedicated to all those who have helped in its formation, knowingly or otherwise.
Special thanks to:
Mr. Paul Pajo, who was the driving force behind this book
To my ITETHIC classmates who made every class good enough to attend
And to God, who makes the study of ethics actually worth something
4
Preface

We all know about the study of ethics and how they can provide structure and rules for what we
do, but what makes this publication stand out from any book on ethics? For all we know, ethics has been
around ever since people started to live together as communities. Codes of ethics as old as time have
been written, and most have probably already been forgotten. So what’s so special about this one?

Ethics may have been around since the creation of societies but information technology is a
fairly recent development as compared to the mankind’s long history. Studies on information
technology has been limited to the past few decades; such a small fraction as compared to the
millennia‐worth of humanity’s history. This book focuses on information technology‐ and computer‐
related issues that warrant ethical notice. Many of the issues discussed here still haven’t been resolved
at the time of this writing which is why attention should be given to them so as to provide solutions
before things get out of hand, that is, if they haven’t already had.

The issues and topics contained in this book have been obtained from the publication, “The
Handbook of Information and Computer Ethics” by Kenneth Einar Himma and Herman T. Tavani.
5
Abstract

This book is a consolidation of essays and reflections on how the author has understood the meaning
and application of the ethical issues mentioned in the book, “The Handbook of Information and
Computer Ethics” by Kenneth Einar Himma and Herman T. Tavani. Each of the essays explores its
corresponding ethical issue in terms of the implications that they may have and whether each can be
classified as morally good or not or is still a gray area form an ethical standpoint.
6

Morals Digitalized: Essays
7
Chapter 1: Foundations of Information Ethics

Amazon Reference:
http://www.amazon.com/Handbook‐Information‐Computer‐Ethics/dp/0471799599

Quote:
“Moral life is a highly information‐intensive activity, and ICTs not only add interesting new
dimensions to old problems, but may lead us to rethink, methodologically, the very grounds on which
our ethical positions are based.”

What I expect to learn:
I expect to learn about the factors that forced information and computer ethics to arise and
why.

Review:

The rise of information and communications technology brought with it not only new
developments for the benefit of our communities, but also problems regarding morality on their
application. Rapid advancements and acceptance of society in general to information technology (in the
years after the 1980s, up to the present day) widened its reach to other people who otherwise would
have only had access to computers in universities and research organizations. This led a lot of people to
be exposed to information technology and its effects, which consequently posed a dilemma: what was
right or wrong when it came to this new technology?

Information ethics is part of macroethics, which basically defines ethical principles based on a
large group of similar people or even a society. Information ethics came to be developed around the
1990s when developments in information and communications technology were being widely accepted
in mainstream society. The problem with initial information ethics principles was that they were
borrowed from other professional fields, like corporate ethics and common professional ethics, which
didn’t give absolute definitions on right and wrong when it came to the new technology. What was
introduced were new technologies and processes that nobody had experienced before. Not everything
about IT was answered by these old ethical principles. Another problem that besieged early forms of
Information ethics was that it didn’t really conform to earlier ethical theories. For example, privacy
restrictions and copyright rules could be violated more easily and perpetrators could do so without
being caught. Hence, the advent of Information technology in the recent decades not only spawned the
great benefits that we see now, but also ethical problems that we must confront on a daily basis.

What I learned:
• The positive and negative effects brought about by IT.
• The conundrums faced by early developers of information ethics principles.
• The semi‐incompatibility of early Information ethics with the real ethical problems during
that time
.

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Integrative Questions:
1. What were some of the positive effects brought about by developments in IT?
2. What were some of the negative effects brought about by developments in IT?
3. Why was early information ethics not that effective?
4. What were some of the semi‐incompatibilities of early information ethics with common ethical
theories?
5. How could this be remedied?
9
Chapter 2: Milestones in the History of Information and Computer Ethics

Amazon Reference:

Quote:
“He predicted that, after the war, the new information technology would dramatically change
the world just as much as the Industrial Revolution had done in the nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries.”
I expect to learn about the big developments in the field of information and computer ethics
and the situations surrounding them.

Review:

Information ethics, like any other ethical principle, has been shaped by people and events either
intentionally or by accident. As is with most other things, information ethics is not immune to change.
The changes that have been enforced were born out of necessity; people saw that the current
information ethics principles were inadequate so they added new principles or changed old ones
altogether. Whether intentional or not, change can never be avoided especially when concerning
something that is as ever‐changing as developments in information technology.

The very first proponent of information ethics was mathematician and scientist Norbert Wiener.
He was working with other scientists and engineers during World War II to a new kind of anti‐aircraft
cannon that could detect and take out an enemy airplane virtually instantaneously. He predicted that
they were pioneering a new age that would produce never before seen technologies that would impact
all of society, much like how the Industrial Revolution impacted societies in the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries. He had also perceived that such a technology could be put to great use not only for
good purposes, but also for evil. In a few years after World War II, Wiener published two books that
talked of the new technology that he and his colleagues had developed (cybernetics) and the moral and
societal issues that could be raised from the new science. These two books paved the way for
information and computer ethics by laying down foundations that future ethicists and professionals
would follow and mold.

What I learned:
• The foundations of information and computer ethics.
• The situations surrounding the start of information and computer ethics.
• The possible implications brought about by the new technology developed by Wiener and
his colleagues.

.

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1. Who laid down the foundations of information and computer ethics?
2. What was the first application of information‐cybernetics technology developed by Wiener and
his colleagues?
3. What were the circumstances surrounding that development?
4. What were the implications of such a technological advancement?
5. Why was it important for Wiener to have laid down the foundations of information and
computer ethics?
11
Chapter 3: Moral Methodology and Information Technology

Amazon Reference:

Quote:
“I think the way we ought to proceed in the ethics of IT is not very different from the way we
ought to proceed in other departments of ethics of technology and engineering...”
I expect to learn about how ethical principles are made to co‐exist with each other in IT.

Review:

Information and computer ethics implies something that should be applied and does not remain
as just a set of theories on ethical principles. Practical ethics, like information and computer ethics,
implies that the set of principles should be made applicable in real life situations. With the very fast pace
of development of new technologies, the possibilities of encountering new ethical issues rises with each
new advancement. Sound ethical principles in IT should also be developed as quickly as the technologies
that they are based on. The use of computers and related technology, produces new ethical issues that
have never been faced before. For the best part of the last 2,000 or so years, ancient Greek philosophy
and ethics have been the basis for many ethical principles. Ethical principles relatively remained
unchanged until the time of the French and Industrial Revolutions when many philosophers and ethicists
provided new theories for the changing times. But even those changes were relatively gradual, the
Industrial Revolution even stretched for more than a century. This new age of information technology
however, represents a change that is unprecedented in human history.

Information and computer ethics, as an ethical theory, is similar as to the ethics concerning
other sciences or engineering principles. These fields also represent fields of knowledge that concern
quick changes and the need for answering the issues that arise from these changes. Although IT is
unique from the other fields, they are relatively the same in essence, they only differ in the type of
developments they are advancing and how they develop them.

What I learned:
• The need for philosophical coherence of ethical principles in information ethics.
• The similarities and differences between the ethical principles involved in IT and other fields
of science and engineering.
• That the use of computers and related technology increases the possibility of having new
ethical issues arising.

12

1. Why is there a need for philosophical coherence in ethical principles when it comes to
information ethics?
2. What is the classification of information and computer ethics as an ethical theory?
3. What are the similarities between the ethical study of IT with that of other sciences?
4. What are the differences between the ethical study of IT with that of other sciences?
5. Why does IT need its own branch of ethics?
13
Chapter 4: Value Sensitive Design and Information Systems

Amazon Reference:

Quote:
“There is a longstanding interest in designing information and computational systems that
support enduring human values.”
I expect to learn about how developments in IT are used in a way that accounts for human
values.

Review:

Value sensitive design calls for technology that is designed in a way that accounts for human
values in a principled and comprehensive manner. This means that technology should not only be
designed to carry out the purpose for which it was built but also take into account human values, i.e.
what a person or groups of persons consider important in life. Seeing as there is a human element in
value sensitive design, there are very significant differences in what people consider as valuable and
those that they can live without. The variety in what people consider as valuable could produce new
ethical issues that could be completely different from the one that was originally considered.

I believe that the development of value sensitive design is a very innovative idea that caters not
only to the technological needs of society but also its ethical needs. The rise of information technology
have provided us with technology that have made doing tasks easier, faster, and at more accessible
areas. But aside from these, Information technology has also brought about issues concerning piracy,
privacy, copyright infringement, and many more. What value sensitive design takes into account is not
only the output of technology but also by achieving such outputs in a way that is acceptable to people,
i.e. it doesn’t go against things that they value. But seeing as the human factor in value sensitive design
creates varying things that people consider as important, it still has a long way to go, which is why the
writer in this chapter chose to describe it in so much detail so as to have other people build on the idea.

What I learned:
• The principle of Value sensitive design.
• Its effect to IT when it comes to ethical issues.
• The implications of technology without value sensitive design to end‐users

1. What is value sensitive design?
2. How is value defined in this context?
3. Why is value sensitive design important?
4. What are the implications of the application of technology that wasn’t developed using value
sensitive design?
5. Why is there no definite set of values in IT?
14
Chapter 5: Personality‐Based, Rule‐Utilitarian, and Lockean Justifications of
Intellectual Property

Amazon Reference:

Quote:
“Care is needed so that we do not confuse moral claims with legal ones.”
I expect to learn about how moral claims on intellectual property are defined using personality
ethics, utilitarianism, and Lockean principles.

Review:

Intellectual property is generally defined as any non‐physical property that is produced by the
application of cognitive processes and whose value is based on an idea or in a collection of similar ideas.
But our common notion of intellectual property ownership is governed by legal principles, i.e. those laws
formulated by our governments, instead of those that are based on moral and ethical principles. This
chapter seeks to find ethical and moral justifications on intellectual property ownership rights and any
supporting ethical theories, most notably: personality ethics, utilitarianism, and Lockean ethics.

Personality‐based definitions of ethics defines intellectual property as an extension of the
maker’s individual personality. Thus, there is a natural affinity of the maker and the product, so there is
no need for legal intellectual ownership statutes. The problem with this theory is that it is not very
definite on what constitutes intellectual property. For example, feelings and thoughts are part of our
intellectual property due to the very loose definition. Rule‐utilitarianism entails the production of many
intellectual work which means that there is an optimal amount of good works produced. The problem
with rule‐utilitarianism in information ethics is that it can produce contradictions. Lockean principles, on
the other hand, basically say that the maker of the intellectual property should control the fruits of his
labor, thus justifying intellectual property ownership. The problem with Lockean principles is that it
doesn’t take into account unscrupulous work, such as pirated software. Thus, the Lockean ethical
principles also justify those intellectual property that is regarded as unethical.

What I learned:
• The definition of intellectual property.
• The justification of intellectual property ownership through three kinds of ethics.
• The problems affecting the three kinds of principles when it comes to intellectual property
ownership justification

15

1. What is intellectual property?
2. Why should moral claims on intellectual property be considered higher than legal claims?
3. What are three ethical principles that can be used to justify intellectual property ownership?
4. How do the three principles justify intellectual property ownership?
5. What are the problems encountered by the three ethical principles in justifying intellectual
property ownership?

16
Chapter 6: Informational Privacy: Concepts, Theories, and Controversies

Amazon Reference:

Quote:
“… Privacy is an evolving concept and that its content is often influenced by the political and
technological features of the society’s environment.”
I expect to learn about the concept of privacy and some controversies surrounding it.

Review:

Privacy is a very common term in the English language. We are very quick to use the term
regarding many things; it is not just limited to our use of the Internet or any other technology that
requires access to our personal information. But the problem with this is that we do cannot easily give a
definition for privacy, especially in its use in information technology. Privacy is too broad a term that we
apply in a specific field.

The reason why we talk of privacy very often is that we attach some value to it. As was
discussed to a small extent in the previous chapter, people attach value to something which they
consider important. With a wide range of people however, there is also a varying degree of value that
these people attach to their privacy. Thus, this in itself can present a controversy. People value their
privacy differently, thus IT solution providers have a dilemma on what kind of privacy protection feature
that they should offer. What is acceptable for some people may not be for others. This begs the
question: why do people value privacy in the first place? Many people believe that privacy is needed in
order to have freedom. Predominantly, people who value their privacy very highly come from Western
or Westernized countries or are citizens of a Democratic state. These people value their freedom very
highly and they believe that protecting their privacy is needed to preserve this freedom. In contrast,
people from communist societies, whose privacy is very limited thanks to an authoritative government,
are not as volatile as their democratic counterparts when it comes to privacy protection. This, again,
creates another controversy as to the extent of privacy protection measures.

What I learned:
• The concept of privacy.
• The value that people attach to privacy.
• Some controversies surrounding issues on privacy.

1. What is privacy?
2. Why do people attach value to privacy?
3. Why do people have varying degrees of value to their privacy?
4. What are some controversies surrounding privacy?
5. Why is privacy considered to be an evolving concept?
17
Chapter 7: Online Anonymity

Amazon Reference:

Quote:
“Anonymity can also be brought about in a variety of ways and there are many purposes, both
positive and negative....”
I expect to learn about the concept of online anonymity and the ethical issues surrounding it.

Review:

Anonymity is one of the main reasons why the certain technologies, most notably the Internet,
boomed. Being able to do virtually anything without being explicitly identified gives us a sense of
freedom that we may not be able exercise if we were limited to the physical world. For example, say we
have a certain college student who has his own views on a certain topic. For the sake of this example,
we shall say that that certain topic is politics, specifically he has managed to get evidence concerning the
corrupt practices of a high‐profile government official. Seeing as he is only your average college student,
he doesn’t have the means to be able to voice out his views through readily available media, e.g.
newspapers, TV, radio, etc. He could join his school newspaper, but that doesn’t assure him that he can
write about his preferred topic immediately, that would depend on his editor. Also, if he did join the
school paper, then that would limit his audience to his peers and mentors at school. What if he wanted
a wider audience to hear him out? And couldn’t all of these methods require him to give out personal
information, e.g. meet personally with TV/radio producers, if his story were to be treated seriously?

This is where the Internet comes in. The said student could publish his own blog under a
reputable blog site, i.e. one where he is sure that personal information will not be divulged. But even if
he were required to give out personal information (e.g. name and location), he could put in false data
and he would truly be untraceable. This is the presumed beauty of the Internet, where one can do
almost anything (legal and illegal acts) and not be identified. But in reality, many websites actually make
use of audit logs which track a person’s actions while on their website. This gives information on the
type of activities this person does, which can be interpreted to the type of preferences they have, their
interests, and even their age group. Google actually employs such a tactic where it gathers information
about a user’s preferences so that it can provide search results that it thinks is what the user prefers.
Many other technologies make use of similar tactics where activities of people are monitored and
analyzed to produce a desired result. This is an issue because anonymity doesn’t only entail that one’s
personal information remains unknown; one can be identified not only by name but also through what
one does. This practice can have both positive and negative manifestations. As with Google, it helps
their users find what they want based on their preferences, while on the extreme side, identity theft and
spying could be result of such a practice. There are many sides to anonymity, and there should be
answers to each instead of having just one general though inadequate policy.

18

What I learned:
• The concept of anonymity.
• The ethical issues surrounding it.
• The positive and negative effects brought about by the inadequate anonymity that is
provided by the Internet.

1. What is anonymity?
2. Why do some people value it very highly?
3. Is there absolute anonymity on the Internet?
4. What are some positive effects brought about the tracking of users’ activities?
5. What are some negative effects brought about the tracking of users’ activities?
19
Chapter 8: Ethical Issues Involving Computer Security:
Hacking, Hacktivism, and Counterhacking

Amazon Reference:

Quote:
“…all [hacking] are wrong because they constitute a digital trespass onto the property of
another person.”
I expect to learn about the concept of hacking and the ethical issues surrounding it and its
countermeasures.

Review:

The concept of hacking is closely linked to that of the right to property and privacy. If we were
to think of a file or a set of information as property, which is in fact true, then any person gaining
unauthorized access to such is violating our right of maintaining ownership. Also, if that piece of
information is supposed to be kept for the owner only, then any unauthorized access is not only an
infringement on property rights but also on privacy. Although hacking is fundamentally seen as
“unauthorized access”, it can also be an infringement on other rights depending on the situation.

Although hacking generally connotes a negative meaning, many actually defend the practice
depending on the scenario. Hacktivism, for example, is defined as the commission of an unauthorized
digital intrusion for the purpose of expressing a political or moral position. It is bent upon stimulating
discussion in a nonviolent way. Hacktivism generally involves changing the target organization’s website
in a sometimes comical way so as to incite attention and then discussion. It is generally used to express
dissatisfaction of the target’s actions, be it social injustice, over‐commercialism, and others.

Some organizations sometimes answer back when they themselves are hacked. This is called
active response or “counterhacking”. Counterhacking can have two forms: benign and aggressive.
Benign counterhacking generally involves non‐damaging action in confronting the hackers, an example
of which is tracing back the digital route of the hacking agent for the purpose of identifying the hacker
involved. The aggressive form on the other hand an intended action wherein the original hacker might
view the action as harmful or damaging. An example of this would be to redirect the packets of a Denial‐
of ‐Service (DoS) attack to the original sender.

Hacking is generally thought of as something wrong. It violates certain people’s rights and allows
the hackers to access something that they are not supposed to. But can there be instances where
hacking can be justifiable? This puts us in a moral tight spot. But also, when it comes to measures
against hacking, we are again faced with another moral dilemma. Doesn’t counterhacking involve the
violation of the hacker’s privacy and other rights? Doesn’t counterhacking generally entail the same
meaning as the “an eye for an eye” system which is generally deemed to be ineffective? Hacking, it
seems, is not as black and white as we originally thought.

20

What I learned:
• The concept of hacking.
• Possible justifications of hacking.
• The counter measures against hacking.

1. What is hacking?
2. What is hacktivism?
3. Why do people do it?
4. What are some counter measures that some organizations take when they have been hacked?
5. What moral dilemmas are presented by counter measures on hacking?

21
Chapter 9: Ethical Interest in Free and Open Source Software

Amazon Reference:
Quote:
“…more and more software was not free – not free in a financial sense, but free in a way that
allowed for its inspection, running, and modification.”
I expect to learn about the ethical issues concerning the free and open source software
movement.

Review:

Software, since it was first used on a massive scale, has always been proprietary, i.e. it has been
sold to serve the needs of others. Software development therefore does not only occupy an important
niche in today’s information technology world but it has become a business as well. One of the reasons
why software originally became proprietary was so that the developer or team of developers could
make money out of what they made; which in another sense can be described as their “property.”
Seeing as software is considered as someone’s property, that original developer would like to keep the
knowledge of how the software works to himself, but that is the exact opposite of the free and open
source software movement.

The free and open source software movement seeks to combine the best aspects of two
separate groups: free software and open source software. Free software is exactly what it name
suggests while open source software allows other developers to make improvements on the original
developer’s code to better suit it for the needs of other people. Bring both together and a big group of
heads definitely is better than just one in producing effective software.

Although I have nothing totally against free and open source software, I believe that certain
lines need to be drawn. First off is accountability which is present in most proprietary software but only
to some in free and open source. Also, one of the problems that many free and open source software
face is that they aren’t always as easy to use than their proprietary counterparts. Another point is that
software can be considered as the property of the original developer, thus he reserves the right to make
his own modifications unless he chooses otherwise. All in all, I see nothing wrong with free and open
source software; I think that it actually gives us more choices on what we can use.

What I learned:
• The concept of free and open source software.
• Software as a piece of property.
• The ethical issues surrounding free and open source software.

22

1. What is free and open source software?
2. How is software considered to be a piece of property?
3. What rights can be exercised by a developer on his software?
4. Is the free and open source movement wrong?
5. What positive effects does the free and open source movement bring about?
23
Chapter 10: Ethical Interest in Free and Open Source Software

Amazon Reference:
Quote:
“…more and more software was not free – not free in a financial sense, but free in a way that
allowed for its inspection, running, and modification.”
I expect to learn about the ethical issues concerning the free and open source software
movement.

Review:

Software, since it was first used on a massive scale, has always been proprietary, i.e. it has been
sold to serve the needs of others. Software development therefore does not only occupy an important
niche in today’s information technology world but it has become a business as well. One of the reasons
why software originally became proprietary was so that the developer or team of developers could
make money out of what they made; which in another sense can be described as their “property.”
Seeing as software is considered as someone’s property, that original developer would like to keep the
knowledge of how the software works to himself, but that is the exact opposite of the free and open
source software movement.

The free and open source software movement seeks to combine the best aspects of two
separate groups: free software and open source software. Free software is exactly what it name
suggests while open source software allows other developers to make improvements on the original
developer’s code to better suit it for the needs of other people. Bring both together and a big group of
heads definitely is better than just one in producing effective software.

Although I have nothing totally against free and open source software, I believe that certain
lines need to be drawn. First off is accountability which is present in most proprietary software but only
to some in free and open source. Also, one of the problems that many free and open source software
face is that they aren’t always as easy to use than their proprietary counterparts. Another point is that
software can be considered as the property of the original developer, thus he reserves the right to make
his own modifications unless he chooses otherwise. All in all, I see nothing wrong with free and open
source software; I think that it actually gives us more choices on what we can use.

What I learned:
• The concept of free and open source software.
• Software as a piece of property.
• The ethical issues surrounding free and open source software.

24

1. What is free and open source software?
2. How is software considered to be a piece of property?
3. What rights can be exercised by a developer on his software?
4. Is the free and open source movement wrong?
5. What positive effects does the free and open source movement bring about?
25
Chapter 11: Internet Research Ethics: The Field and Its Critical Issues

Amazon Reference:
Quote:
“Internet research ethics (IRE) is an emerging multi‐ and interdisciplinary field that
systematically studies the ethical implications that arise from the use of the Internet as a space or locale
of, and/or tool for, research.”

I expect to learn about Internet Research ethics and the ethical issues that it addresses.

Review:

The Internet as a medium and method of research has been a god‐send to many. Imagine the
countless high school and college students whose academic lives have been saved thanks to information
that they got from the Internet. Let’s face it, not everyone has the time or even the resources (for
extremely poor or hostile societies) to get information from a library. But there are certain issues
surrounding the use of the Internet as a research tool and medium. Some of these are accountability or
integrity of the material, copyright, and availability of information.

In many libraries, certain informational materials are banned from access to a select group of
people. For example, children cannot gain access to material that is considered to be unsuitable to their
age group, or certain materials that encourage freedom in society is banned in communist countries like
China. But on the internet, almost nothing is banned. As long as you can read and understand English,
which is the language used by most of the websites today, you can access and learn about almost
anything. But seeing as almost anyone can make use of the Internet, the material that you are reading
may or may not come from a legitimate source. Also, many people on the internet just directly copy the
material on the internet as it is and present it as their own. This is plagiarism and violates the right of the
original writer as the owner of the work. And what is probably the biggest issue when it comes to
information on the internet is censorship. Just recently, Google dropped its website in China because
the Chinese government was forcing it to censor a lot of information that it deemed was inappropriate
for their society. This goes against what Google wants which is a free and open internet where anyone
can access what they want. These are only some of the issues that Internet researchers face and will
probably remain amidst efforts to answer them.

What I learned:
• The internet as a research medium and tool.
• The ethical issues surrounding the internet as a medium and tool for research.
• Internet Research Ethics as an ethical principle

26
1. What is Internet Research Ethics?
2. How is it different from other ethical principles?
3. Why should there be a distinction of the internet as a research tool and medium from other
similar methods and tools?
4. What are some issues facing the use of the internet as a research tool?
5. Can the ethical issues be addressed? Why or why not?
27
Chapter 12: Health Information Technology:
Challenges in Ethics, Science, and Uncertainty

Amazon Reference:
Quote:
“It is sadly and too often the case that many professionals regard ethics as a source of codes for
the edification of the not‐yet‐virtuous.”

I expect to learn about the ethical issues surrounding the use of IT in the health professions.

Review:

The application of information technology in the health professions has had an overall positive
effect ever since it was first used as such. But it is not without its share of issues. Ethics in the health
professions is more complex seeing as they are directly involved in the preservation of human life;
couple that with the not‐so‐clear field of information ethics and problems arise. The chapter basically
focuses on three main problems arising from the use of IT in health: privacy and confidentiality, use of
decision support systems, and development of personal health records.

The use of medical health records in hospitals and other health care institutions poses a very
serious problem: privacy and confidentiality. Many patients need to disclose information that can be
both life‐threatening if not disclosed and potentially damaging if made known to many people. The
medical profession entails that any patient information should be held in the strictest confidence, i.e.
between the doctor and the patient only. But not everyone is thrilled to have their health records be
transferred to a digital format. Electronic health records increases the risk of having other people gain
access to sensitive information and not many patients are to keen to readily embrace the development.
The use of decision support systems is another issue in health. To what extent should doctors depend on
information systems to make potential life‐and‐death decisions instead of their own experience and
expertise? Many such systems take the place of doctors in making diagnoses and other important tasks,
which may not be acceptable to many. I, myself, find it quite weird and unconventional. Lastly, the
concern on electronic personal health records is that they are not readily available to the patients
themselves. Many believe that patients should control their doctor’s access to personal information and
the electronization and organization of such places their control on such matters to almost zero.

What I learned:
• The positive and negative effects brought about by IT to the health professions.
• The ethical issues surrounding IT in its use in the health professions.
• The importance of trust and confidence in the doctor‐patient relationship.

28

1. What are the positive effects brought about by the use of IT in the health professions?
2. What are the negative effects brought about by the use of IT in the health professions?
3. What are the three main issues surrounding the use of IT in the health professions?
4. Are any of the concerns justifiable?
5. What can be done to answer such concerns?

29
Chapter 13: Ethical Issues of Information and Business

Amazon Link:

Quote:
“Information is becoming increasingly important in most aspects of our lives, and this is
particularly true for our economic activities.”

I expect to learn about how developments in information technology have influenced business
ethics.

Review:
Business as a very diverse field requires a code of ethics as diverse, if not more diverse, in order
to facilitate operations that conform to moral standards. Business ethics is considered by some to be an
oxymoron, seeing as “business” and “ethics” are simply too different, much like how water and oil don’t
mix. But this view is erroneous, seeing as business activities are dictated upon by certain moral norms,
like honoring contracts and providing accurate product information. Certain moral norms like these are
what sustain economic transactions.

Information and computer ethics is also a very diverse field seeing as information technology
can be applied in a wide range of other fields. But when information technology is applied in business,
then a more diverse code of ethics is required in order for the union to conform to moral standards. The
main concern with the IT‐business union is that information is of great importance to the management
of the business. Businesses seek to maximize profits by either minimizing costs or maximizing revenue.
Seeing as information is needed to implement policies and practices that can achieve both, the business
value of information is equated to the financial gains that it can achieve.

Based on my previous statement alone, business ethics that cater to information issues is very
much needed. We need to have underlying rules that tell us what we should or should not do when it
comes to information in business applications. For example, what steps are acceptable when it comes to
maximizing employee productivity and which are not? Are measures like increasing working hours to 50
hours a week acceptable or aren’t they? Business and information technology mix but can ethics be a
part of the union too?

30
What I’ve learned:
• The need for a code of ethics for business applications of information technology.
• The value of information in business.
• Why ethics is integrally part of most if not all business activities.

1. Why is ethics an integral part in most business activities?
2. Why is there a need for a code of ethics for business that includes information technology?
3. Why is information valued very highly by businesses?
4. How can ethics help resolve information‐related business issues?
5. Would it be possible to have an ethical code that could suit the information problems of
businesses?
31
Chapter 14: Responsibilities for Information on the Internet

Amazon Link:

Quote:
“This is all the more astonishing as the global phenomenon of the Internet lacks a unique
governance core, hierarchy, and central control mechanisms.”

I expect to learn about the ethical issues that could arise from the use of the Internet as an
information provider.

Review:
The Internet is such a unique information provider because it doesn’t have set organizational
and control mechanisms but it is still able to be so and in such an effective way. But seeing as no one
controls the Internet, what can stop individuals from posting information that is morally sensitive to
some people? Also, what can stop a person who is deemed to be unsuited to access certain sensitive
information from doing so? The answer to both questions is most probably: absolutely nothing. So, can
anyone be blamed for any wrong access to information?

There is only one group of people who can really control a normal person’s access to the
Internet: Internet Service Providers. They are the ones who allow regular people access to the Internet,
which of course includes children. The Internet is filled with information, sometimes graphic in nature,
which can be racist, sexual, or offensive to some people. This information is readily available to many of
the ISPs clients, including children. Should ISPs be blamed for any wrong access to information?

The Internet is supposed to be free and ISPs are delivering their service as such. But when is this
freedom too much? Should ISPs be held responsible for any wrong access to information on the
Internet, especially those made by children? The problem here is that there are two conflicting sides to
the issue and both offer perfectly sound arguments when it comes to making their case. I personally
believe that ISPs should not be held responsible, rather I believe that parents should be the ones who
should discipline their children on what to do or not to do while on the Internet. This is because what is
considered unacceptable to some people may be the opposite for others. ISPs aren’t responsible to
know that, rather it is the individual families that are.

32

• The ethical issues concerning the use of the Internet as an information provider.
• The role of ISPs in providing information through the Internet.
• The problem of information access that can’t probably be solved.

1. What is peculiar about the Internet as an information provider?
2. What is the role of ISPs in providing information?
3. What is the main problem about information access that involves the Internet?
4. Can this issue be solved?
5. How can this issue be acted upon?

33
Chapter 15: Virtual Reality and Computer Simulation

Amazon Link:

Quote:
“Virtual reality and computer simulation have not received much attention from ethicists.”

I expect to learn about the ethical issues that could arise from virtual reality and computer
simulation.

Review:
The rise of new technologies usually involves the need for ethical principles that specifically
target the new developments and how they are applied. This is especially true when it comes to
technology that has never been seen before. Although virtual reality and computer simulations are
specifically designed to help individuals in specific activities, like flight simulators to help aviation
students learn how to operate an airplane, certain ethical issues can arise. These issues include
misrepresentations, biased representations, and indecent representations.

The problem with virtual reality and computer simulation is when they substitute false images of
what is seemingly real. The problem is oftentimes completely missed by the ones who create the
substitute reality but is quickly picked up by those who find it offensive or inappropriate.
Misrepresentation occurs when the simulation inaccurately depicts the features of a real world scenario.
This is because a simulation must adhere to standards of accuracy. Biased representations on the other
hand occur when a simulation represents a scenario wherein certain individuals or groups are put in a
disadvantageous position or some interests are prioritized over others. This is probably a more obvious
problem when it comes to virtual reality and computer simulation as opposed to the previous one.
Lastly, indecent representations occur when a simulation portrays something that is offensive and does
not conform to moral sensibilities.

When it comes to virtual reality and computer simulation, ethical problems arise at almost every
opportunity. Especially when it comes to gaming, ethical issues arise with almost every game that comes
out. Issues like “this game is too violent” or “this game is too graphic”, are too commonplace. The
problem here is that the line between what should be portrayed accurately and what should be
portrayed to conform to moral sensibilities is blurred in too many areas.

34

• The ethical issues concerning virtual reality and computer simulation.
• The three main problems when it comes to representation in virtual reality and computer
simulation.
• The conundrum faced when it comes to accurate representation and toning them down.

1. What is virtual reality?
2. What is computer simulation?
3. What general purposes do they serve?
4. What are the three main problems that concern virtual reality and computer simulation?
5. What is the problem concerning accurate representation and toning them down?

35
Chapter 16: Genetic Information: Epistemological and Ethical Issues

Amazon Link:

Quote:
“At a higher level, molecular biologists claim that cells and molecules are machinery similar to
computers...”

I expect to learn about the ethical issues concerning genetics and its connection with
information ethics.

Review:
Information in the context of genetics pertains to a sequence of data that is contained in a piece
of DNA or amino acid in a protein. The “Central Dogma of Genetics” generally pertains to the replication,
transcription, and translation of this information. This usually allows for the information to be replicated
in a piece of DNA, transcripted in a piece of RNA, and is translated into proteins. This central dogma tells
of a cell’s ability to store, express, replicate, and change information.

The main theme of this essay is about the ethics concerning genetics and information, which can
be loosely related to the central dogma of genetics that was mentioned in the preceding paragraph.
Seeing as genetic information among family members is generally similar, especially among siblings,
then an issue arises. If a person were to be diagnosed with a certain genetic disease or abnormality, he
or she might want to keep the diagnosis private so as to not jeopardize the reputation of his family. This
is perfectly reasonable but if the genetic disease or abnormality was detrimental to the welfare of
others, then the family concerned may need to take measures to avoid such things to happen which
would result in the loss of privacy regarding the matter.

Genetics on its own is such a touchy matter to many people. But seeing as it is inherently linked
to information, more ethical issues arise. Ethical codes to facilitate conduct when it comes to genetics
may not be really needed anyway. Even if a code of ethics for genetics did exist, would that stop other
people from criticizing it still?

• The ethical issues concerning genetics and information.
• The inherent connection of genetics and information.
• The possible needlessness for a code of ethics for genetics.

36
1. What is genetics?
2. What is the central dogma of genetics?
3. Why can’t genetics and information be treated separately?
4. What are some of the ethical problems concerning genetics and information?
5. Why is there a possible lack of need for a code of ethics for genetics?

37
Chapter 17: The Ethics of Cyber Conflict

Amazon Link:

Quote:
“…most cyber attacks appear to be unethical as well as illegal.”

I expect to learn about cyber conflict and the ethical issues concerning it.

Review:
Cyber conflict, as the term implies, is about attacks that are conducted on the Internet. Most
cyber attacks are usually considered unethical although things do get blurry when it comes to what they
seek to achieve. Are cyber attacks acceptable if they seek to achieve good ends? Can cyber conflict be
justifiable in any way?

There are three main areas of cyber conflict where ethical issues are more problematic. These
three areas are: national security, politically or socially motivated attacks, and cyber defense. When it
comes to cyber conflict involving national security, is it justifiable to launch cyber attacks if it meant that
your country would remain secure and safe? If so, are there any ethical rules to facilitate such an attack?
This is very problematic seeing as the attacks seek to achieve good ends through the use of not so good
means. Extreme utilitarianism, which is represented in the previous scenario, has been more or less
proven to be not so effective when it comes to resolving ethical conflicts. But when lives are at stake,
can we still regard extreme utilitarianism as ineffective? Similarly, politically or socially motivated
attacks are geared towards achieving good ends through very questionable means. “Hacktivism” has
been proven to be very good in getting attention but is it good? The third area, however, is entirely
different from the previous two. Cyber defense sometimes involves the attacked party’s retaliation. Is a
retaliatory action justifiable if the attacking party was the aggrieved party in a previous cyber attack? Is
revenge justifiable in this context?

Cyber attacks are usually regarded as unethical and wrong. But can there be cases where cyber
attacks are justifiable? These are questions that we may not possibly answer.

38

• The ethical issues concerning cyber conflict.
• The three main problem areas in cyber conflict.
• The problem of not being able to fully justify nor debunk the arguments in the three main
problem areas.

1. What is cyber conflict?
2. What are the three main problem areas in cyber conflict?
3. What are some ethical problems regarding the three main problem areas?
4. Can these ethical problems be justified or debunked?
5. Why can or why can’t they be justified or debunked?

39
Chapter 18: A Practical Mechanism for Ethical Risk Assessment:
A SoDIS Inspection

Amazon Link:

Quote:
“Informaticians have been evolving and refining techniques to mediate risks of developing
software products that meet the needs of their clients.”

I expect to learn about risk assessment and the ethical issues concerning it.

Review:
Risk assessment as a part of the software development process is very important, seeing as it
enables developers to create systems that cater to the specific needs of their clients without having to
sacrifice functionality. Many of the risks that software development teams seek to address are on‐time
delivery, sticking to budgets, and meeting all customer requirements. Although there are risk
assessment and analysis models in place, many software development projects still do not meet
customer requirements, nor do they stick to budgets, nor are they delivered on time. All these problems
are ethical in nature because the development teams are expected to deliver the software according to
constraints that they have agreed to with their clients.

The risks involved in system development are not limited to seemingly mundane things that
customers want to be implemented. Rather, information systems are required to be able to deliver
certain things, and the failure to do so would be a very large risk indeed. The SoDIS (Software
Development Impact Statement) is used to identify potential negative impacts of a proposed system and
specify actions that will mediate those impacts. The SoDIS process is still an ongoing project, i.e. it is still
being refined to be a more suitable risk assessment and solution providing analysis method.

Risk assessment is a vital part of the software development process. But seeing as risk
assessment methods in place are still not good enough to consistently identify possible risks and the
efforts needed to answer them, developers are still unable to fully deliver software that is complete on a
consistent basis.

• The ethical issues concerning risk assessment methods.
• Some problems regarding risk assessment methods.
• The impact they have on the developers’ clients.

40

1. What is risk assessment?
2. What role does it play in the software development process?
3. What are some problems regarding current risk assessment methods?
4. How can inconsistent risk assessment methods impact the customers?
5. How can the problems be resolved?

41
Chapter 19: Regulation and Governance of the Internet

Amazon Link:

Quote:
“The primary concern here is what, if anything, should be governed or regulated.”

I expect to learn about governance and regulation on the Internet and the ethical issues
concerning them.

Review:
What we should consider first is what exactly is the concern of internet governance. As defined
by the Working Group on Internet Governance (WGIG), internet governance is the development and
application of governments, the private sector, and civil society, in their respective roles, of shared
principles, norms, rules, decision‐making procedures, and programs that shape the evolution and use of
the Internet (WGIG, 2005). The WGIG is the organization set up by the United Nations to investigate
internet governance. What concerns internet governance, based on the definition, is the incorporation
of political and policy issues, specifically: who, if anybody should be in charge, and what, if anything
should be governed or regulated.

There have been moves by many states, especially the liberally democratic ones such as the
United States of America and Australia, to control the content that is shared on the internet. The
rationale behind this is that most forms of media like television, radio, and print materials have
regulations regarding the content that can be posted and how acceptable should be presented. The
same cannot be said with the Internet, because it is a completely different form media. The same rules
cannot be applied to it.

The problem with censorship and regulation on the internet is that there is a strong case against
the moral one which is to regulate the posting of obscene and harmful content. Such regulations would
not be a very effective deterrent to those who post such materials since it is very difficult to enforce the
political will necessary seeing as the Internet is not bounded by physical national boundaries nor is
under the jurisdiction of any one state or organization.

• Internet governance.
• The ethical issues concerning internet governance.
• The reason why internet governance is hard to implement.
•

42
1. What is internet governance?
2. What organization was formed to investigate internet governance?
3. What are some ethical issues concerning Internet governance?
4. Can internet governance be achieved?
5. Why can’t internet governance, specifically censorship and content regulation, be enforced?

43
Chapter 20: Information Overload

Amazon Link:

Quote:
“Indeed Google… and Wikipedia… are themselves attempts at taming the fire hose of
information by helping to organize it and make it more manageable.”

I expect to learn about information overload and the ethical issues surrounding it.

Review:
Information overload is a condition which an agent[a person] has, is exposed to, or is provided
with, too much information and suffers negative consequences as a result, such as being unable to make
a decision. Information is supposed to be something that is to be utilized in doing tasks, especially the
cognitive ones such as analysis and decision‐making. Too much information, though, seems to yield the
exact opposite of what it is initially supposed to do. Seeing as we live in a multimedia information age
where information can be accessed via a variety of means, such as the internet, television, radio,
cellphones, and print materials, the possibility of having too much information is exponentially higher
than with what past generations would have had.

Information overload has many possible outcomes regarding the state of the person
experiencing it. As was stated in its definition, these outcomes are negative in nature, i.e. it causes harm
to the person or the task that the person trying to complete. One possible outcome is that the person
has too much information that he or she doesn’t go through all of them and doesn’t bother to cross‐
reference data and thus produces a report that is lacking in substance. This could also result in the
person feeling a diminished sense of achievement. When the output of the task is substantially
inadequate, i.e. it falls beneath established standards, then the task can be considered failed and the
person responsible could suffer consequences from other people, especially in the context of a
workplace.

There have been many efforts to combat information overload. These include technological
solutions (e.g. such as email filters), social solutions (e.g. taking “technology‐free” vacations), and legal
solutions (e.g. “Don’t Call Lists” in US Legislations). But none of these will truly remove the problem of
information overload, so long as we continue to have the mentality that “too much” is just enough.

• Information overload.
• The negative consequences of information overload.
• The possible solutions to information overload.
44
1. What is information overload?
2. Why is information overload a problem?
3. What are some negative consequences of information overload?
4. What are some proposed solutions to combat information overload?
5. Why are these solutions not fully effective?

45
Chapter 21: Email Spam

Amazon Link:

Quote:
“The conceptual muddles about defining spam have immediate philosophical and legislative
consequences.”

I expect to learn about email spam and the ethical and legal problems surrounding it.

Review:
Estimates place spam as constituting 80% of internet traffic, but this estimate is questionable
simply because there has been no consensus as to the exact definition of spam. What exactly is “spam”?
Spam is simply defined as “unsolicited electronic messaging” but this definition is still being contested
by many people. Some groups emphasize that only the lack of consent on the part of the receiving party
must be absent in order for it to be categorized as spam, however, other groups require that messages
be commercial in nature before they are considered as spam. Others still, qualify email as spam only if
other messages identical to it were sent to a large group of people. This lack of a definition, as a
consequence, makes it very hard to draft legislation to regulate it.

These are the usual criteria on determining whether an email is spam or not: the content of the
message, intent of the sender, consequences to the receiver, consent of the receiver, relationship
between the sender and receiver, the accountability of the sender and degree of deception, number of
identical emails sent, illegality, and size of the message. With each criterion, different groups have
provided different definitions on whether a message is spam or not. For example, with regards to the
content of the message, many consider any email that has unwanted content (on the part of the
receiver) as spam. But this is not always the case; for example an email might contain a message from a
person’s boss that he or she was fired from his or her job. This is obviously unwanted but this isn’t
usually categorized as spam.

Definition is not the only thing that is hurting anti‐spam measures. The open nature of the
Internet itself is making it very hard to introduce efforts that would curtail email spam. These two
problems make it very hard to introduce measures, especially legislative ones, to limit email spam or
remove it entirely from cyberspace.

• Email spam.
• The difficulties in introducing anti‐spam measures.
• The criteria on how to categorize an email as spam or not.
46
1. What is email spam?
2. What percentage of email traffic is categorized as spam?
3. Why is this estimate questionable?
4. What are the criteria on how to categorize an email as spam?
5. What are the two problems on how to introduce anti‐spam measures?

47
Chapter 22: The Matter of Plagiarism: What, Why, and If

Amazon Link:

Quote:
“An expression is only plagiarism if it is unacceptable on some established value.”

I expect to learn about plagiarism and its implications.

Review:
Plagiarism is loosely defined as improperly incorporating existing work either without
authorization or without documentation, or both. But there are instances where we can legally copy
other people’s existing work into our own even without authorization or documentation. This is because
not all content exists as someone’s intellectual property. For instance, facts are in the public domain and
can thus be used by anyone in their work. But the line between public domain and someone’s
intellectual property is so blurry in some areas that it becomes very difficult to determine whether it
would be legal to incorporate them into our own work. Plagiarism is a serious offense and many careers
and reputations have been tarnished as a result of its practice.

The concept of plagiarism is founded on the ideas of intellectual property and copyright. When
something is the ownership of someone else, it is only right that we consult them as to our usage of
their possession. But in terms of intellectual property, the concept of ownership is technically different.
For instance, the object in question isn’t physical and couldn’t be really borrowed, in a sense. So, the
usual rules of ownership don’t necessarily apply in this scenario. Sometimes it is already acceptable if we
just cite the reference of our work (i.e. acknowledge that we used someone else’s work to finish ours).
But at other times, we can’t use another person’s work unless they have explicitly authorized us to do
so.

With the advent of new technology, the opportunities for plagiarism increase exponentially.
There is no clear cut solution in combating plagiarism on the internet, rather, it has been proposed that
the scope of plagiarism should be made smaller so as to allow some acts that we would normally
consider as plagiarism. Whether we do so or not, plagiarism is and will continue to be a threat to
intellectual ownership, especially on the internet.

• Plagiarism on the internet.
• The scope of plagiarism.
• The possible solution to lessen the problems of plagiarism.

48
1. What is plagiarism?
2. What constitutes plagiarism?
3. On what ideas is plagiarism based on?
4. What are the possible consequences of plagiarism?
5. How can the number of plagiarism cases be lessened?

49
Chapter 23: Intellectual Property:
Legal and Moral Challenges of Online File Sharing

Amazon Link:

Quote:
“Is the downloading or ‘sharing’ of copyrighted music morally reprehensible?”

I expect to learn about file sharing on the internet and their ethical implications.

Review:
With the onset of new technologies, particularly Peer‐to‐Peer (P2P) networking, file sharing has
been made not only faster but it also provides an avenue where it can be done almost effortlessly which
encourages users to utilize them more and more. Many people have used file sharing technologies
seeing as they can get what they want at usually no charge. iTunes usually charges $1.00 for every song
download, others have bundle promos where they can download a large number of songs for a
relatively low fee. But true file sharing entails the free flow of files (usually music and movies) from one
user to another. Technologies that support this include: LimeWire, FrostWire, and bitTorrent. But the
question still remains, is the practice of online file sharing morally acceptable?

Many people do not usually regard music and movies as something that they need to pay for in
order to enjoy them. This is usually because these same people do not regard them as someone else’s
property, at least in a sense. This is because intellectual property is something that is not clearly defined,
and the things attributed to it cannot be justifiably enforced. This is because the very nature of an
intellectual object has unique characteristics that make it hard to define, unlike physical ones.

The individual recipients are not the only ones who draw the ire of the music and movie
industries. The very developers and owners of the file sharing technologies are also drawing heat as
music and movie companies are suing them for “secondary liability”, though without much success.

So, is file sharing unethical? From a legal perspective, we don’t really know. The scope of
intellectual property has yet to be clearly defined, thus the laws that are designed to protect them are
either ineffective or haven’t been drafted yet.

• File sharing on the internet.
• The role of intellectual property rights in the discussion of online file sharing.
• The problems faced by music and movie companies due to online file sharing.

50

1. What is file sharing?
2. What is intellectual property?
3. What technology supports online file sharing?
4. Why can’t file sharing be totally ruled out as an illegal practice?
5. What should be the first step in finding a solution to this problem?
51
Chapter 24: Censorship and Access to Expression

Amazon Link:

Quote:
“Although there are numerous calls to arms to resist censorship and compilations of instances of
censorship around the globe, little work has been done to help us understand the concept itself.”

I expect to learn about censorship and if this is too much of a restriction to one’s freedom of
expression.

Review:
Fundamental to the understanding of censorship is the understanding of access to expression.
Expression is anything that is made by one person and communicated to others. This could include print
materials such as books and articles, and also other forms, such as speeches, personal communications,
data compilations, works of art, photographs, music, and even videos and movies. The reason why we
would want to access these expressions is that we have interests in them. Specifically, these are the
interests of expression, in deliberation, and in information. Without these three, we wouldn’t even
bother to gain access to expressions.

With this in hand, we can now proceed in trying to understand what censorship is. Censorship is
defined as a restriction or limitation of access to an expression, portion of an expression, or category of
expression, which has been made public by its author, based on the belief that it will be a bad thing if
people access the content of that expression. But then again, who is to say whether the content of the
expression is bad for the person accessing it? Negative consequences are relatively different for every
person. For example, one’s tolerance for violence may be low, thus an expression which contains
expressively graphic scenes of violence may be bad for you, but to another person with a high tolerance
for such scenes, they would be relatively tame and would not be troubling or upsetting to him or her.

Based on this, can we safely conclude that censorship is morally right or not? The need for the
freedom of expression and the protection of people clash in this debate. One cannot favor one without
diminishing the other. Generally, harmful content is viewed in similar terms by everyone else. But other
content may not be so, and thus censorship may not be appropriate. Censorship, in my opinion, must be
justifiable in the harm that it can befall those who access it before it is undertaken.

• Censorship.
• Access to expression.
• The problem of classifying censorship as unethical or not.
52
1. What is censorship?
2. What is access to expression?
3. What is an expression?
4. Why is censorship undertaken?
5. Why is one’s freedom of expression compromised when censorship is practiced?

53
Chapter 25: The Gender Agenda in Computer Ethics

Amazon Link:

Quote:
“The idea that gender is a major (possibly even the major) way of classifying and ordering our
world has been propounded by a number of authors, mainly, although not exclusively, writing from a
feminist position.”

I expect to learn about the gender issues that affect the study of computer ethics.

Review:
Gender is probably one of the easiest ways of classifying things in our world. Even in language.
Spanish is a unique language in that assigns a gender to a noun. For example, the common phrase to call
a bull fighter is “el matador”, which is masculine. You hardly get to hear the feminine form “la matador”.
Similarly, we used to classify job positions with gender, where many professions were supposedly only
for men while many other professions were only for women. We still practice that to some extent today
but job opportunities are more or less equal when it comes to both genders. But how does the issue of
gender affect ethics and its study?

Over the last few decades, feminist movements and women empowerment have gained a hold
in most societies. Feminism in ethical studies has a twofold job. Firstly, it forms a substantial critique of
traditional ethical theories, which, it argues, can be seen as masculine in conception. Feminism, it
seems, would like to debunk many traditional ethical theories since they mostly cater only to masculine
ideologies instead of giving women equal opportunity. Secondly, it seeks to develop new feminist forms
of ethics, derived, at least in part, from the challenge to mainstream ethics but focusing on women’s
moral experiences in order to make normative judgments on a wider range of issues. In particular,
feminism focuses on those areas where women have traditionally assumed a subordinate role or where
they have had negative experiences because of their gender.

• The role of gender in the development of ethical theories.
• The two jobs of feminism in ethical study.
• The specific focus area of feminism when it comes to ethical study.

54
1. How does gender affect the study of ethics?
2. What are the two jobs of feminism in the study of ethics?
3. Why did feminism come to exist?
4. What is the goal of feminism?
5. Why does feminism seek to debunk masculine ideologies?
55
Chapter 26: The Digital Divide: A Perspective for the Future

Amazon Link:

Quote:
“There is, of course, a comparative lack of meaningful access to information communications
technologies.”

I expect to learn about the gap between the “informationally rich” and “informationally poor”.

Review:
We are all familiar with the economic divide between the rich and the poor. On one hand, we
have the rich who not only get to have the necessities of life but also get to enjoy certain luxuries. On
the other hand, the poor of the world are hardly able to survive day by day. Two billion people out of
the six billion of the more than 200 countries of the world only live by on less than $3.00 a day. Contrast
this with the “poor” of the more affluent nations of the world. The “affluent poor” are those who still
get to enjoy certain luxuries but not as much and not as often as the real rich. The lines between the
economically rich and poor can be blurry at times but can the line between the informationally rich and
poor be even more blurry?

Informational or digital gaps include the lack of access to information technology resources, lack
of skills to use these IT resources, inability to use IT resources to compete in a global economy, and a
lack of abilities to process and absorb information. What does this digital divide have to do with ethics?
Well, seeing as some nations are more well‐developed and have citizens who can not only exist with
their basic needs but can also enjoy some luxuries of life, thus they have the moral obligation to
redistribute some of their wealth to other nations who have much, much less. The problem with this
statement is that it is not clear whether rich nations truly have an obligation to help the impoverished
ones instead of just labeling the said act of helping as supererogatory, wherein non‐compliance of which
is not against moral standards.

The problem of poverty is one of the most prioritized problem areas of many nations. Yet, it still
exists not only in its economic form but in its informational form as well. The task now is to not only
empower the poor to seek lofty economic goals but informational ones as well.

• The gap between the informationally rich and poor.
• The role of economic poverty in this gap.
• The problem of whether helping impoverished nations or people is obligatory or not.

56
1. How many of today’s population live at a very impoverished level?
2. How do the rich nations’ “poor” live?
3. What are informational gaps that are present today?
4. How does poverty affect the informational gaps?
5. Is helping impoverished people a moral obligation? Why or why not?

57
Chapter 27: Intercultural Information Ethics

Amazon Link:

Quote:
“The present IIE debate follows the international debate on information ethics that… were
aimed at reaching a consensus on ethical principles to be implemented through practical policy…”

I expect to learn about the information ethics and the intercultural issues that it faces.

Review:
Intercultural information ethics (IIE), like most areas of ethical study, is not that very well‐
defined as many would like. There are two ways of approaching this area of study, one which is through
a narrow definition and another which is more broad. The narrow perspective is focused on the impact
of information and communication technology on different cultures as well as on how specific issues are
understood from different cultural traditions. This narrow perspective is the most common one seeing
as it is the most obvious idea that comes to mind when hearing the phrase “intercultural information
ethics.” The narrow definition of IIE results in its being a reactive ethical principle, i.e. it only defines acts
or practices as ethical or otherwise once they have been carefully scrutinized but not before they
happen. However, the broad perspective provides a more proactive approach to intercultural
information ethics. The broad perspective deals with intercultural issues raised by ICT and other media,
which allows a largely historical view. It is proactive in the sense that while the acts or practices are
ongoing or still haven’t been done yet, e.g. the technology is still being developed, discussion can
already begin so as to determine whether they are ethical or not.

Many issues are discussed in the IIE debate including, privacy, censorship, and the right to
expression, among others. Many different cultures have many different ways of approaching these
issues and are usually very good in handling their own experiences with them. But when cultures meet
each other, and they do seeing as the Internet is a global network, which side is right and which is wrong
when their views don’t see eye to eye? This is very similar to the moral isolationism theory which is also
strongly related to differences in culture. The solution might also be similar, which is to set aside
differences and try to understand the others in mutual discourse. Of course, some things are easier said
than done.

• Intercultural Information ethics (IIE).
• IIE’s two perspectives.
• IIE’s similarity with moral isolationism.

58
1. What is Intercultural information ethics?
2. What are its two branches?
3. How are they different?
4. Which ethical theory is strikingly similar to IIE?
5. What is the possible solution to intercultural issues raised by ICT?

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