CONSTANTZA MARITIME UNIVERSITATY

FACULTY OF NAVAL ELECTRO-MECHANICS

HOMEWORK NO.1

Student
CATA NICOLAE
GROUP MA14
Supervisor: drd. asist.univ. ing.
DUMITRESCU LAURENIU
Coordonator: NAVAL ARCHITECT
AND MARINE ENGINEER, PH.D.
NOVAC IORDAN

A. THEORETICAL ASPECTS
1. THE BASICS.
1.1 Give and explain the definition of :
Displacement(of gravity, of mass and of volume)
Displacement is the weight of water that a ship displaces when it is floating, which in turn is the weight of
a ship (and all of its contents-body, installations, mechanisms, engines, water and fuel, cargo, ballast, crew
and personal effects etc). It is measured when the ship's fuel tanks are full and all stores are aboard.
The measuring unit is the metric tones (mt).
Buoyancy force is the upward force exerted by any fluid upon a body placed in it.(Archimedes principle).
When a rigid object is submerged in a fluid (completely or partially), there exits an upward force on the
object that is equal to the weight of the fluid that is displaced by the object.
When the object is removed, the volume that the object occupied will fill with fluid. This volume of fluid
must be supported by the pressure of the surrounding liquid since a fluid cannot support itself. When no
object is present, the net upward force on this volume of fluid must equal to its weight, i.e. the weight of the
fluid displaced. When the object is present, this same upward force will act on the object.
Fb=P*A, P=pressure; A=Area, Buoyancy force is measured in N=Newton.
Fb=g* *V= *g*h*A, where g is the acceleration due to gravity, is the density of the fluid, h is the height
of the object submerged and A is the aria of the object.
Buoyancy force is measured in N=Newton.
1.2 Write and explain the formulas for coefficient of fineness!
The Coefficient of Finesse is depends upon the hull shape.
The shape of the hull is entirely dependent upon the needs of the design. Shapes range from a nearly perfect
box in the case of scow barges, to a needle-sharp surface of revolution in the case of a racing multihull
sailboat.
The coefficient of fineness are:
a. Block coefficient, CB, =V/L*B*T

If we draw a box around the submerged part of the ship, it is the ratio of the box volume occupied by the
ship. It gives a sense of how much of the block defined by the length(L), beam (B) & draft (T)or d in the
figure is filled by the hull(V is the volume). Full forms such as oil tankers will have a high C B where fine
shapes such as sailboats will have a low CB.

b. Waterplane coefficient CwP = AW/ LWL*B

Is the waterplane area divided by L x B. The waterplane coefficient expresses the fullness of the
waterplane, or the ratio of the waterplane area to a rectangle of the same length and width. A low C wP figure
indicates fine ends and a high CwP figure indicates fuller ends. High CwP improve stability as well as
handling behavior in rough conditions.
c. Midship coefficient (CM= AM / B*T

Is the cross-sectional area (AM) of the slice at midships (or at the largest section for CM) divided by beam x
draft. It displays the ratio of the largest underwater section of the hull to a rectangle of the same overall
width and depth as the underwater section of the hull. This defines the fullness of the underbody. A low
Cm indicates a cut-away mid-section and a high Cm indicates a boxy section shape. Sailboats have a cutaway mid-section with low CM whereas cargo vessels have a boxy section with high CM to help increase the
CB.
d.

Horizontal prismatic coefficient CP=V/ L x AM

It displays the ratio of the immersed volume of the hull to a volume of a prism with equal length to the ship
and cross-sectional area equal to the largest underwater section of the hull (midship section). This is used to
evaluate the distribution of the volume of the underbody. A low or fine C P indicates a full mid-section and
fine ends, a high or full CP indicates a boat with fuller ends. Planning hulls and other high speed hulls tend
towards a higher CP.

e. Vertical prismatic coefficient CVP= V / AW*T

To calculate CVP=we cut the hull at the waterplane, and then extrude the waterplane area by the ships
draft(see image). We see from the graph that CVP is a measure of the vertical distribution of the immersed
volume from waterplane down to the keel. This coefficient also quantifies if the section shape is V or U.
V-shaped means a low CVP and U shape means a high CVP.
1.3 Write and explain the Archimedes Law for a freely floating body(equally in scalar and
vectorial form). Write the equilibrium equations!
When an object is immersed in a fluid, the upward force on the bottom of an object is greater than
the downward force on the top of the object. The result is a net upward force (a buoyant force) on any
object in any fluid. If the buoyant force is greater than the object's weight, the object will rise to the surface
and float. If the buoyant force is less than the object's weight, the object will sink. If the buoyant force
equals the object's weight, the object will remain suspended at that depth. The buoyant force is always
present in a fluid, whether an object floats, sinks or remains suspended.
The buoyant force is a result of pressure exerted by the fluid. The fluid pushes on all sides of an immersed
object, but as pressure increases with depth, the push is stronger on the bottom surface of the object than in
the top.
We can calculate the buoyant force on an object by adding up the forces exerted on all of an object's sides.
For example, consider the object shown in fig 1.6:

The top surface has area A and is at depth h1; the pressure at that depth is:
P1=h1g, where is the density of the fluid and g9.81ms2 is the gravitational acceleration.
The magnitude of the force on the top surface is:
F1=P1A=h1gA.
This force points downwards. Similarly, the force on the bottom surface is:
4

F2=P2A=h2gA and points upwards.

Because it is cylindrical, the net force on the object's sides is zerothe forces on different parts of the
surface oppose each other and cancel exactly. Thus, the net upward force on the cylinder due to the fluid is:
FB=F2F1=gA(h2h1)
A floating object is able to displace an amount of water equal to its own weight, so for a floating object, the
weight
and
buoyant
force
are
in
equilibrium.
In order for Archimedes' principle to be used alone, the object in question must be in equilibrium (the sum
of the forces on the object must be zero), therefore;
FB=FG,
For the submerged object, though, the weight of the water displaced (and thus the buoyant force) is not
determined by the weight of the object, but by its volume. The submerged object displaces its own volume
of water, and it is the weight of this water which produces the buoyant force.
In both cases, floating or submerged, the 'buoyant force equals the weight of the water displaced'. However,
for the floating object, the forces are in equilibrium (the weight of the water displaced equals the weight of
the object).
If a body is floating in a liquid, its weight W acts vertically downward and the upthrust U due to displaced
liquid acts vertically upward. If the weight of the body of volume V is greater than its upthrust, the body
will sink in the liquid and will lie at the bottom of the container.

If W>U, the body will sink in a liquid as shown in the figure 1.7a., if the density of the body is greater than
the density of the liquid, Wor,Vgor,>U>Vlg>l.
In case, W=U, the body just sinks and remains inside the liquid with its upper surface near the liquid
surface as shown in the figure. So,
Wor,Vgor,=U=Vlg=l
If the weight of the body is smaller than the upthrust, W<U, the body will float on the surface of liquid. So,
Wor,Vgor,<U<Vlg<l
A body will float in a liquid if its density is smaller than the density of the liquid. For example,
the density of cork is smaller than that of water, and a cork floats in water. This is shown in figure. So, a
floating body displaces the liquid of its own weight. Then,
mg or,Vgor,Vor,V1/V=U=V11g=Vl1=l
Where Vl is volume of the displaced liquid = the volume of the body inside the liquid.
So, for the floating body, the density of the body is smaller than that of liquid, <l.
The volume of displaced liquid is smaller than the volume of floating body. That is, V1 < V as the ratio
/l is smaller than one.
5

The center of gravity C.G. of the body and center of buoyancy C.B, thus the two forces FB and FG, of the
displaced liquid both lie on the vertical axis.
If the floating body is slightly titled from its equilibrium position, then the C.G and C.B will not lie on the
same vertical line, as C.B. shifts away.
2. DRAUGHTS
2.1 What means draughts? Unit measure?
The draft of a ship or boat is the distance between the surface of the water and the lowest point of the vessel
or in better terms is the Vertical distance between a ship's waterline and the lowest point of its keel.
The draft of a vessel is measured in meters.
2.2 Explain the concept of metacentre(equally, transversal and longitudinal).
When a ship is floating upright at waterline, the force of gravity, acting vertically downwards through the
center of gravity, is balanced by the force of buoyancy. Both the center of buoyancy and center gravity lies
on the centerline of the ship.
The point of intersection of the vertical line passing through C.B. and original vertical line is called the
Meta Centre, M. of the floating body on the liquid.
A ship is being heeled by external forces(wind, wave) to a small angle, and is floating at the waterline W1,
L1(Fig. 2.1). The center of buoyancy moves so as to remain at the geometric center of the underwater hull
form(B1). The loading of the ship is unchanged, the center of gravity does not move. The force of gravity
act perpendicularly downwards. The opposing forces of buoyancy and gravity form a couple so that to
return the ship to an upright condition.
The line of buoyant force when the ship is heeled, meets the line of buoyant force when the ship was
upright at M. The distance form G to M is called metacentric height.
When M is above G, GM is said to be positive and the ship is stable.
A ship is said to be in Stable Equilibrium if on being slightly inclined, tends to return back to the original
position. However, a ship will be in Unstable Equilibrium(G is above M) when she tends to move further
from that original position on being tilted slightly. A ship in Neutral Equilibrium will tend to neither return
nor move further from that position(G is equal to M).
When on at an angle of roll (heel) the center of buoyancy and center of gravity no longer act on the same
vertical line of action.
Transverse Metacenter: Roll/Heel
Longitudinal Metacenter: Pitch/Trim
The transverse metacentric height (GMT), commonly called the metacentric height, of a ship is the vertical
separation of the center of gravity and the transverse metacenter and is a primary indicator of initial
stability.
A ship with a positive metacentric height (G below M) will tend to right itself by developing righting arms
as soon as an inclining force is applied. A ship with a negative metacentric height (G above M) will list to
either port or starboard with equal facility until the centers of buoyancy and gravity are on the same vertical
line, and thereafter develop positive righting arms.

.
The longitudinal metacenter (ML) is the point of intersection between the verticals through the longitudinal
positions of the centers of buoyancy (B and B1)-Fig. 2.1.
Longitudinal metacentric height (GML) - The vertical distance between the center of gravity and the
longitudinal metacenter. GML >> GMT
BML is the height of the longitudinal metacenter above B and is found for any shape of vessel by the
formula: BML = IL / V
IL = longitudinal moment of inertia of water-plane about the center of flotation
V = volume of displacement

2.3 Write and explain the formula for metacentric height(relation between KC, KG and
KM).

GM = KM - KG
KG
KM
GM

Defined As The Height Between The Keel & Centre Of Gravity

Defined as the height between the keel & metacenter. It is the height of metacenter
Defined as the height between center of gravity & metacenter. Called (metacentric height)

M above G, KM > KG, GM+,

M below G, KM < KG, GM-,
M coincides with G, KM=KG, GM=0

stable (Positive stability)

unstable (Negative stability)
neutral (Neutral stability)

2.4 What means : TPC and MCT?

-

Tonnes per centimeter immersion (TPC) is the mass (in tonnes) to be loaded / discharged to change
the mean draught by 1 cm.
TPC = (Water Plane Area x density) / 100
- MCT - is the moment required to change the trim of the vessel by 1 cm and may be calculated by using
the formula
MCTC = (W x GML) / (100 x L)
where:
W = The vessels displacement in tonnes
GML = The longitudinal metacentric height in metres.
L = Vessels length in metres.

3.

STABILITY
3.1 Explain the stability concept(transversal and longitudinal).

The concept of the stability of a floating body can be explained by considering it to be inclined from the
upright by an external force which is then removed.
In Fig. 3.1 a ship floats originally at waterline WoLo and after rotating through a small angle at waterline
W1L1.
The inclination does not affect the position of G, the ship's centre of gravity, provided no weights are free to
move. The inclination does, however, affect the underwater shape and the centre of buoyancy moves from
Bo to B1. This is because a volume, v, repesented by WoOW1 , has come out of the water and an equal
volume, represented by LoOL1, has been immersed

In Fig. 3.1. M is above G, giving positive stability, and GM is regarded as positive in this case. If, when
inclined, the new position of the center of buoyancy, B1, is directly under G, the three points M, G and Z
are coincident and there is no moment acting on the ship. When the disturbing force is removed the ship
will remain in the inclined position. The ship is said to be in neutral equilibrium and both GM and GZ are
zero. A third possibility is that, after inclination, the new center of buoyancy will lie nearer to the centerline
than G. There is then a moment W * GZ which will take the ship further from the vertical. In this case the
ship is said to be unstable and it may heel to a considerable angle or even capsize. For unstable equilibrium
M is below G and both GM and GZ are considered negative. The above considerations apply to what is
called the initial stability of the ship, that is when the ship is upright or very nearly so. The criterion of
initial stability is the metacentric height.
The three conditions can be summarized as:
M above G ; GM and GZ positive ; stable
M at G ; GM and GZ zero ; neutral
M below G ; GM and GZ negative ; unstable
The principles of transverse stability apply partly to create longitudinal stability.
Points K, G, B and M from transverse stability are used with a ship's longitudinal section. They become
points GL, BL and ML.
9

The longitudinal metacenter (ML) is found the same way as for transverse stability. It will be located at the
intersection of the vertical lines passing through points BL and BL1 when the trim is adjusted.
In longitudinal stability, trim can be considered as the equivalent of list in transverse stability. Trim
represents the longitudinal inclination of the ship and instead of being expressed in degrees, it is given as a
difference between the forward and aft drafts.
When aft draft is greater than forward draft (usual situation), the trim is positive. When forward draft is
greater, the trim is negative.

3.2 Explain what means The Metacentric Diagram and write the formula for stability at
small angle!
A curve indicating the height of metacenter (generally above base) for all drafts to which the vessel may be
loaded.
The metacentric diagram is a convenient way for defining variations in relative heights of B and M for a
series of waterlines parallel to the design or load waterplane. Such a diagram is shown in figure 3.2.1 below
and it is constructed as follows. The vertical scale is used to represent draught and a line is drawn at 45
degrees to this scale. For a given draught T1, a horizontal line is drawn at 45 degrees line in D1 and a
vertical line is drawn through D1. On this vertical line, a distance D1M1 is set out to represent the height of
the metacenter above the waterplane and D1B1 to represent the depth of the center of buoyancy below the
waterplane. This process is repeated a sufficient number of times to define adequately the loci of the
metacenter and centre of buoyancy. These two loci are termed the M and B curves. As drawn, M1 lies
above the waterplane but this is not necessarily always the case and the M curve may cross the 45 degree
line. A table is constructed to the left of the diagram, in which are listed the displacements and TPI values
for each of a number of draughts corresponding to typical ship conditions. These conditions must, strictly,
be reduced to a common trim so that the loci of M and B will be continuous. In addition to the M and B
curves, it is usual to show the positions of G for the conditions chosen. Since KB is approximately
proportional to draught over the normal operating range, the B curve is usually nearly starit for
conventional ship shapes. The M curve, on the other hand, usually falls steeply with increasing draught at
shallow draught then levels out and may even begin to rise at very deep draught.
BM=I/V
I=transverse second moment or inertia of the waterplane
V=volume of displacement
For the longitudinal metacenter we have:
BHL=IL/V
IL=longitudinal inertia of the waterplane area about a transverse axis through the centroid of the area of the
waterplane.
10

Fig. 3.2.1. Metacentric Diagram

3.3 Explain in details , the typical GZ curve or curve of statical stability of figure
3.3.

Angle of contra flexure(point of inflexion) the angle of heel up to which the rate of increase of GZ with
heel is increasing. Though the GZ may increase further, the rate of increase of GZ begins to decrease at this
angle.
Initial metacentric height point of intersection of the tangent drawn to the curve at the initial point and a
vertical through the angle of heel of 57.3 (1 radian). At an angle of 1 radian, the straight line passes
through the value GZ=GM
The range of stability where all GZ values are positive.
Important value is the maximum GZ lever & the angle at which it occurs.
The angle of vanishing stability beyond which the vessel will capsize.
The area of negative stability.
The moment of statical stability at any given angle of heel (GZ x Displacement of the ship).
The moment of dynamical stability work done in heeling the ship to a particular angle.
11

Dynamical stability is W x A (in t-m-rad)

W = Displacement (in tonnes)
A = area between the curve and the baseline up to the given angle of heel(in meter-radians).
Cross curves of stability are a convenient form in which to store the information necessary to
determine the large angle stability characteristics of a ship at any displacement, but at a single assumed
position of the center of gravity.
Since the centre of gravity is on centreline, the direction of assumed heel (staboard or port) is
immaterial, because the centreline symmetry of the hull would cause the centre of buoyancy to assume
symetrically corresponding positions on either side at any given angle of heel. Although the curve can be
plotted for all angles of heel for which cross curves have been determined, it is typically terminated where
the GZs become negative, that is, where righting arms change to capsizing arms.
The initial portion of the statical stability curve (the first 7-10 degrees) must be consistent with the measure
of initial stability, that is, the metacentric height (GM).
GZ GM sin

As the heel angle approaches zero, sin ~ . Thus for the small angles of heel we may write
GZ GM

The peak of a statical stability curve identifies two quantities that are important in evaluating the overall
stability of a ship. They are the maximum righting arm and the angle of maximum stability.
The importance of the maximum righting arm (GZmax) is that the product of the displacement and GZmax is
the maximum steady heeling moment that the ship can experience without capsizing.
Beyond the angle of maximum stability, righting arms decrease, often more rapidly than they had increased
up to that point. The rapid decrease ultimately leads to the point at which GZ becomes zero, and the curve
recrosses the axis. The angle at which this occurs is the angle of vanishing stability, because thereafter the
GZs are negative. That is, they are capsizing or upsetting arms, rather than righting arms. Any ship that
inclines beyond its angle of maximum stability will capsize, regardless of the cause of the inclination or its
duration. The typical statical stability curve like that in Fig. 3.3 crosses the horizontal axis at two angles of
inclination, each of which represents a condition of static equilibrium, since GZ equals zero. The first
crossing (zero heel angle) is a stable equilibrium condition, because temporary inclinations to larger angles
create righting moments that will restore the ship to the equilibrium angle when the cause of inclination is
removed. The second crossing is at the angle of vanishing stability and represents a unstable equilibrium
condition, because temporary inclinations to larger angles create upsetting moments that will cause the ship
incline away from that equilibrium condition when the cause of inclination is removed. The range of heel
angles between the two crossings is called the range of stability.
3.4 What means angle of loll?
Angle of loll is the state of a ship that is unstable when upright (i.e. has a negative metacentric height, GM)
and therefore takes on an angle of heel to either port or starboard, or alternate back and forth in an unstable
manner.
When a vessel has negative GM i.e., is in unstable equilibrium, any external force applied to the vessel will
cause it to start heeling. As the vessel heels over it will pass beyond the angle of loll and reach a state of
"stable" equilibrium.

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4.

STRENGHT
4.1 What means THE TORSOR OF A FORCE?

In a point A of an object we apply a force F. In order to evaluate the effect of this force in a random point O
we do procedure below.
In point O we introduce 2 equal forces and contrary, F and F which effect will be zero. Force F from A and
force F from O make together a couple in which effect to the body will be moment MO. After replacing
the couple through this moment, in point O we shall have the force F and moment MO.
The assembly of the two vectors (resultant force and resultant moment) is called the torsor of the system of
forces in point O:
To=(F,MO)

4.2 Write and explain the TORSOR OF EXTERNAL FORCES!

The external environment(wind, wave, and water flow) will act on the ship with and external resultant force
and external resultant moment, as per the third principle of mechanics, cause and effect.
Due to the movement implied to the ship by the Torsor of external forces, the following speed and
acceleration will form, on al 6 freedom degrees, and according with Newtons mechanics new inertia forces
and moments will appear that oppose the movement of the ship:
d/dt{}i=1,6 speed vector;
d2/dt2{}i=1,6 - acceleration vector.
EXT={FEXT, MOEXT}
FEXT=(FXEXT,FYRXT,FZEXT);
MOEXT=(MOXEXT,MOYEXT,MOZEXT)
Due to the movement of the ship by the torsor of the external forces the spped vector and acceleration
vector will form on all 6 grades of oscillation and translation and as per Newton mechanics, the forces and
moments of inertia will appear that oppose movement of the ship.
Cause=>Effect
INERTIAO={FINERTIA, mOFin}
FINERTIA=(FxIN,FyIN,FzIN)
mOFin=(mOInx,mOIny,mOInz)

13

4.3 Draw and explain the SIX FREEDOM DEGREE of the general ship motions in
Waves( three translations and three rotation).
Ship motions are defined by the six degrees of freedom that a ship can experience:
Translations
- Heave - is the linear vertical (up/down) motion; excessive downward heave can swamp a ship.
- Sway -is the linear lateral (side-to-side or Port-Starboard) motion, which does not present much of a
challenge for most modern ships.
- Surge - is the linear longitudinal (front/back or Bow/Stern) motion imparted by maritime conditions.

Rotations
There are three special axes in any ship, called vertical, lateral and longitudinal axes. The movements
around them are known as roll, pitch and yaw.
- Pitch - is the Up/down rotation of a vessel about its lateral/Y (side-to-side or Port-Starboasrd) axis. An
offset or deviation from normal on this axis is referred to as 'trim' or 'out of trim'.
- Roll - is the tilting rotation of a vessel about its longitudinal/X (front-back or Bow-Stern) axis. An
offset or deviation from normal on this axis is referred to as list or heel. Heel refers to an offset that is
intentional or expected, as caused by wind pressure on sails, turning, or other crew actions. List
normally refers to an unintentional or unexpected offset, as caused by flooding, battle damage, shifting
cargo, etc.
- Yaw - is the turning rotation of a vessel about its vertical/Z axis. An offset or deviation from normal on
this axis is referred to as deviation or set.

14

4.4 Write the DALEMBERT

PRINCIPLE and explain the components of the
TORSOR OF INTERNAL FORCES(inside the ship body).
For the ship to be permanently in dynamic equilibrium, DALEMBERT PRINCIPLE states it is necessary
that the sum of the active forces(external forces), reactive forces and inertial forces has to be equal to 0.
Newtons laws state that at equilibrium the applied forces are equal and opposite to the reaction, or
constraint forces.
In effect, the principle reduces a problem in dynamics to a problem in statics. The second law states that the
force F acting on a body is equal to the product of the mass m and acceleration a of the body, or F = ma.
In dAlemberts form, the force F plus the negative of the mass m times acceleration a of the body is equal
to zero:
F - ma = 0.
D'Alembert showed that one can transform an accelerating rigid body into an equivalent static system by
adding the so-called inertial force and inertial torque or moment. The inertial force must act through the
center of mass and the inertial torque can act anywhere. The system can then be analyzed exactly as a static
system subjected to this "inertial force and moment" and the external forces. The advantage is that, in the
equivalent static system one can take moments about any point (not just the center of mass). This often
leads to simpler calculations because any force (in turn) can be eliminated from the moment equations by
choosing the appropriate point about which to apply the moment equation (sum of moments = zero).

15

4.5 Explain the FATIGUE concept. What means FRACTURE?

Welded structures made of steel or other metals subjected to cyclic loads lower than those upon which the
design is based can initiate microscopic cracks which gradually increase in size until, after a certain number
of cycles has been experienced, the cracks have become so large that fracture occurs. This structural failure
is known as the phenomenon of fatigue. In other words, fatigue is a process of cycle-by-cycle accumulation
of damage in a structure subjected to fluctuating stresses, going through several stages from the initial
crack-free state to a failure state. The most important load effect parameter is the fluctuating
component of stress, commonly referred to as stress range.
There are two different types of fatigue:
1. Low-cycle fatigue occurring for a low number of cycles, less than 5, in the range of plastic deformations.
2. High-cycle fatigue occurring for a high number of cycles in the range of elastic deformations.
Fatigue fractures observed on ship structures are generally of the second type. For welded structures, the
fatigue process includes three main phases:
1. Initiation of macro cracks. This phase is characterized by the development of cumulative plastic strains at
the tip of micro cracks concomitant with changes in material microstructure, leading to the growth and
coalescence of existing microscopic weld defects and, finally, to the formation of a macro crack.
2. Propagation or crack growth. In this second phase, the macro crack grows normal to the direction of the
largest principal stress with a propagation rate of about 10-6 to 10-3 mm per cycle.
3. Final failure. The final phase occurs according to one of the following three mechanisms:
a. Brittle fracture.
b. Ductile fracture.
c. Plastic collapse.
These three failure modes occur depending on the toughness of the material, temperature, loading rate,
plate thickness, and constraint.
The phases of high-cycle fatigue failures are:
a. An area of initiation.
b. Minor plastic deformations and beachmarks revealing the stress variations.
c. Final granular fracture.
There are many factors that affect the fatigue behavior of ship structural details subjected to fluctuating
loads: 1. The general configuration and local geometry of details can lead to structural discontinuities and,
consequently, produce local stress concentrations.
2. The local configuration and geometry of weld details (e.g., radius at weld toe, weld angle, throat
thickness) also produce a local increase in stresses.
3. Weld material defects and internal discontinuities such as undercuts, porosity, slag inclusions, lack of
fusion or penetration, solidification cracks, etc., are recognized to reduce fatigue life.
4. Bad workmanship including such problems as misalignment, angular distortions, and insufficient quality
of welding, introduces additional stress concentrations.
5. The use of higher tensile steels (HTS) is frequently considered as a significant contributing factor to
fatigue since experiments show that fatigue properties of welded structures are practically not improved
with the material properties. On the one hand permissible stresses are increased and on the other hand the
fatigue damage varies with the cube of the stress range. HTS structures may therefore be more prone to
fatigue damage than mild steel structures if no particular measures are taken at the design stage
6. Cyclic loads and, especially, wave-induced loads are of primary concern in fatigue.
7. Corrosive environment significantly reduces fatigue life unless appropriate measures are taken during the
construction and also during the ships life to protect the structure against corrosion.
To summarize, fatigue cracking generally occurs on welded structural details subjected to fluctuating
stresses, due to either incorrect prediction of cyclic loads, improper design, or to bad workmanship.
Fatigue and corrosion are recognized as the main causes of structural damage observed on ships in service.
Though fatigue does not generally result in catastrophic failures, its impact on the cost of maintenance of
ships is very high. Fatigue cracks develop in areas where nominal stresses are not necessarily high but
where there are locally high stress concentrations at structural discontinuities.
16

A fracture is the separation of an object or material into two or more pieces under the action of stress.
The fracture of a solid usually occurs due to the development of certain displacement discontinuity surfaces
within the solid. If a displacement develops perpendicular to the surface of displacement, it is called a
normal tensile crack or simply a crack; if a displacement develops tangentially to the surface of
displacement, it is called a shear crack, slip band, or dislocation.
The characteristics of a fracture in steel depends upon its toughness and temperature. At reasonable
temperatures fracture initiation is by the coalescence of voids in the material. The crack then grows only if,
and when, it is subjected to increased strain or load.
At lower temperature, fracture is by cleavage. The fracture is then said to be brittle and rates of propagation
can be about 500m/second, causing catastrophic failure. The temperature marking the transition from one
mode to other is known as the transition temperature.
Brittle fracture in steels can be divided into three phases: initiation, propagation and sometimes arrest.
Behaviour in each phase is governed by both the properties of the material and the external conditions such
as stress level and temperature.

17

B. PRACTICAL PROBLEMS
1. THE BASICS.
P1. The solved problem as an example after figure 1.6.
P2. Self-assessment question 1.
L=158 m
B=17 m
T=6.75 m
D=10000 mt
AM =104m2
D=Vx
V=D/
V=10000/1.025=9756 m3
Cb =V/L*B*T resulting Cb=9756/158x17x6.75=9756/18130.5=0.538
Cp=V/ L x AM resulting Cp=9756/158x104=9756/16432=0.594
Cm= AM / B*T resulting Cm=104/17x6.75=104/114.75=0.906
P3. Self- assessment question 4.
L=50 m
B=8 m
=1.025 tonnes/m3
First we have to calculate the longitudinal moments and the transverse moments. See below table.
Moment=weight x distance.
In order for the barge to sink evenly without heel or trim, the sum of the longitudinal and transverse
moments has to be 0.
Thus for a 15 tons of weight, we would need a longitudinal moment of 65, meaning that the distance
forward amidship is -4.(3)m. The transverse centerline moment has to be +3.75, for a 15 tons weight, the
distance to starboard of centerline has to be +0.25m.
If we want to find the increase in draft we can calculate the TPC.
TPC= (Water Plane Area x density) / 100
Water Plane Area for this barge will be 50 x8 = 400 square meters.
TPC=400 x 1.025 /100=4.1tones/cm
For 15 tons of added weight, the draft will increase with 3.66 cm.

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WEIGHT

SUBTOT
AL
TOTAL

2.

DIST
FORWARD
OF
AMIDSHIPS

MOMENT
ABOUT
LONGITUDIN
AL
CENTERLINE

DIST TO
STARBOAR
D OF
CENTERLI
NE

MOMENT
ABOUT
TRANSVE
RSE
CENETRLI
NE

20
15
12.5
20
25

15
10
-12
-18
5

300
150
-150
-360
125

2
-1
1.5
-3
0.5

40
-15
18.75
-60
12.5

92.5
15
107.5

-4.33

65
-65
0.00

0.25

-3.75
3.75
0

DRAUGHTS.
P4. The solved problem as an example after figure 2.7.

DWT=20.000 mt
LBP=200 m.
T=6 m
AW=5000 m2
CF=5 m aft of amidship
GML=150 m
=1.025
TPC= AW* /100=5000*1.025/100=51.25 tones per cm
Parallel sinkage PS=W/TPC=200/51.25=3,9cm=0.039 m
TM=W*d=200*30=6000
TM=trimming moment for moving weight 30 meters forward
d=distance of the weight
MCT=W* GML/100*L=150 tones
MCT=moment to change trim by 1cm
CT=TM/MCT=6000/150=40 cm
CT=change in trim
TFWD=(LBP/2+LCF)*CT/LBP=21 cm
TAFT=CT- dFWD=40-21=19 CM
TfinalFWD=TinitialFWD+PS+TFWD=6m+0.039m+0.21m=6.249m
TfinalAFT= TinitialAFT+PS-TAFT=6m+0.039m-0.19m=5.849M

19

P5. Self assessment question 3.

DWT=20.000 mt
LBP=200 m.
T=6 m
AW=5000 m2
CF=5 m aft of amidship
GML=150 m
=1.025
a)Find the final draught if a weight of 150mt is removed from 20m forward amidship.
Parallel rise PR=W/TPC=150/51.25=2.93=0.0293 cm
Trimming moment TM=150*25=3750
d=25m(distance from the weight to LCF)
MCT=150(from previous self-assessment question)
Change in trim CT=TM/MCT=3750/150=25cm
TFWD=(LBP/2+LCF)*CT/LBP=105*25/200=13.12 cm
TAFT=CT- TFWD=25-13.12=11.88 cm
TfinalFWD=TinitialFWD-PR-TFWD=600-2.93-13.12=5.84m
TfinalAFT= TinitialAFT-PR+TAFT=600-2.93+11.88=6.09m
b) Find the positon at which a 100 tones weight must be added in order that the draught forward does not
change.
Parallel sinkage PS=W/TPC=100/51.25=1.95 cm
TM=W*d=100*d
CT=TM/MCT=2/3*d
TFWD=(LBP/2+LCF)*CT/LBP=105*2/3*d/200=0.35d
TfinalFWD=TinitialFWD+PS+TFWD
583=583+1.95+0.35d
d=-5.57m
P6.Self-assessment question

4.

a) For the ship not to change trim when moving between waters of different densities the condition is:
- The center of buoyancy and center gravity have to be on the vertical (centerline of the ship) (XB = XG).
LBP=150 m
LCF=+5 m
TM1=TM2
W1=?
TM1=W1*d1=W1*15 m
TM2=W2*d2=6 mt*65 m
TM1=TM2 for the vessel not to change trim, thus, W1=26 mt.

20

Bibliography:
Introduction into naval-mechanical engineering 2011 Naval Architect and Marine Engineer Iordan
Novac Ph.D
Basic Ship Theory, Volume 1 De K. J. Rawson,E. C. Tupper
Fatigue Of Ship Structural Details by Dr. Dominique Beghin Former Scientific Director of the Marine
Division of Bureau Veritas
A. Beziris and Gh.Bamboi Maritime transport, Technical problems and exploitation Vol.I and Vol.II,
1988
Viorel Maier Mechanics si Ship construction, Vol.I. 1985
http://www.axelzone.ro/storage/ttm/Stability/Curs%20Stabilitatea%20si%20Asieta%20Navei%20%20Partea%201.pdf
Literature review of the fracture properties of grade a ship plate prepared by Britsh Steel plc, Swinden
Technology Centre, Moorgate, Rotherham
www.shipinspection.eu
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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