Course:

Engineering Thermodynamics (UES008)

Lecture
Introduction to the Course
&
Fundamental concepts and Definitions

By
Dr Hiralal Bhowmick
Asst. Professor, Thapar University

Marks BreakUp

Credit:
LTP:3|1|0

Cr:3.5

Marks:
2*7 (=14) % for Quiz
2 Nos: one before MST and one before EST

30% for Mid Semester Examination

50% for End Semester Examination
6% for Tutorials
Attendance, sincerity, regularity and performance

Grading:
Relative

Syllabus
 Introduction and Basic Concepts:

Role of thermodynamics in Engineering and Science,
Applications of Thermodynamics, Power Generation, Role of
Thermodynamics to analysis of mechanical and chemical
systems, Cooling of electrical systems and electronic devices.

Concept
of
Continuum,
Macroscopic
approach,
Thermodynamics system & properties, Various processes,
Thermodynamic equilibrium, Ideal gas, Vander Waals equation
of state, Compressibility chart,

Process: Flow and non flow process, Cycle concept of work and
heat, Specific heats, Zeroth law, Energy and its form,

Pure substance, Thermodynamic diagrams, Triple point, Steam
tables and their use.
 First Law of Thermodynamics:

Concept of internal energy & enthalpy, Energy equation as
applied to a close and open system, PMMI, Transient flow
processes.
=========================
3

Syllabus
 Second Law of Thermodynamics & its Corollaries:

Kelvin Plank and Clausius statements, Reversible and
Irreversible processes, Carnot cycle, Clausius theorem and
concept of entropy, Principle of increase of entropy, PMM2,
Thermodynamic temperature scale, Second law analysis of
control volume, Availability, Irreversibility, Availability function
for open and closed system & second law efficiency.
 Thermodynamic Cycles:

Rankine cycle, Vapour compression refrigeration cycle,

Air standard cycles: Otto, Diesel, Dual and Brayton cycles.
 Boilers:

Classification of boilers, comparison of water and fire tube boilers,
mounting and accessories with their functions, constructional and
operational details of water and fire tube boilers, concept of the
fluidized bed boiler.

 Non-Reacting Gas Mixtures:

Properties of mixtures of gases and vapours, Adaibatic
saturation, Properties of air.
4

Books to Be followed
 Text Books
1.
2.

Nag, P.K., Engineering Thermodynamics, Tata McGraw Hill (2008) 3rd ed.
Sonntag, R.E., Borgnakke, C. and Van Wylen, G.J., Fundamentals of
Thermodynamics, John Wiley (2007) 6th ed.

 Reference Books
1.
2.
3.
4.

Rao, Y.V.C., Introduction to Thermodynamics, Universities Press (2007).

Ratha Krishnan , E., Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics,
Prentice Hall of India (2005) 2nd ed.
Cengel, Y. A. and Boles, M., Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach,
Tata McGraw Hill (2008).
Rogers, G. and Mayhew, Y., Engineering Thermodynamics, Pearson
Education (2007) 4th ed.

Introduction to thermodynamics
 Meaning of Thermodynamics:

thermeheat (or energy); dynamis force (work)

Thermodynamics is the science that deals with heat and work and those
properties of substance that bear a relation to heat and work.

/or

It is the science which concerned with the way how energy is stored and
transformed within a body, and its effect on the physical properties of the
substances .

 Basis of thermodynamics is experimental observation.

Fundamental laws are deduced from experience, and supported by a
large body of experimental evidence
In that sense it is an empirical science or science of nature.

 Thermodynamics is an extension of Newtonian mechanics:

Newtonian mechanics: Change of state of a body(position,
momentum)=f(Mech. energy)

Thermodynamics: Extended to
Change of state = f(energy in any form)
6

Scope and Applications of Thermodynamics

 Thermodynamics is a discipline with an exceptionally wide
range of applicability---both in Engineering and Science

Power Generation,

Analysis of mechanical systems

Analysis of chemical systems

Cooling of electrical systems and electronic devices.

So on

 Thermodynamics enables us to answer

why heat flows from hot to cold bodies,

why the air becomes thinner and colder at higher altitudes,

why it is impossible to measure a temperature below -273
centigrade,

why there is a maximum theoretical efficiency of a power generation
unit which can never be exceed 100% no matter what the design,

And much more!
7

Role of thermodynamics in mechanical engineering

 Thermodynamics principles are used by mechanical

engineers to design

engines and power plants,

heating, ventilation,

air-conditioning systems,

heat exchangers,

radiators,

refrigeration,

insulation,

Thermo-fluids

and others.

Role of thermodynamics in chemical engineering

 In chemical engineering it helps in answering

How much of energy is required for the reaction to take place

Is the reaction feasible at specified pressure and temperature

Can predict the equilibrium state of a reactive mixture as well
as the natural direction of change in a system which is not at
equilibrium

Describe the conversion of chemical energy stored in fossil fuel
into heat and useful work.

Describe the phase transition and phase equilibrium

Role of thermodynamics in Electrical and electronic devices and power

generation

 In electrical and electronic engineering it helps in

Temperature measurement and considerations in designing
thermistors and semiconductors

Design of temperature sensitive diode and IC chips

 In power generation thermodynamics helps us to study

Heat engines

Steam power plant

Reciprocating power plant

Gas turbine power plant

etc

10

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

 Thermodynamics
Microscopic

Approaches:

Macroscopic

and

MacroscopicClassical Thermodynamics
In the macroscopic point of view, one is concerned with the
time-averaged influence of many molecules or Certain
quantity of matter is considered, without a concern on the
events occurring at the molecular level.
Macroscopic properties can be perceived by human senses or
measured by instruments (eg., P, T).

Microscopic---Statistical Thermodynamics
Microscopic approach uses the statistical considerations and
probability theory
The effect of molecular motion is considered (eg., T=f(v)).
Most microscopic properties cannot be measured with common
instruments nor can be perceived by human senses
11

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

 Thermodynamics
Microscopic

Approaches:

Macroscopic

and

Example: Let us take the example of the pressure exerted

by a gas
It results from the change in momentum of the molecules, as
they collide with the wall.
In Macroscopic thermodynamics we are not concerned with the
actions of individual molecules but with the time-averaged
force on a given area that can be measured by a pressure gage.

12

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

 System, Surroundings and Boundary:

A thermodynamic system, or simply system, is defined as a
quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.
Macroscopically identifiable collection of matter on which we focus
our attention (eg: the water kettle or the aircraft engine) .

The region/matters outside the system is called the

surroundings.

The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its
surroundings is called the boundary.

13

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

 System, Surroundings and Boundary:

The boundary of a system may be of following types.
Fixed: walls of the kettle, the housing of the engine.
Movable: Piston in piston-cylinder system.
Real or imaginary: for the system air in this room-floor, ceiling and
walls are real and plane of the open door is imaginary boundary.

The combination of the system and surroundings is called the

universe.
We must be clear in defining
what constitutes our system
and surrounding, so that best
possible information on the
problem can be obtained.
14

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

 Types of Thermodynamic systems:

Closed system - in which no mass is permitted to cross the
system boundary (Also known as constant or control mass
system).
Note: the volume does not have to be fixed

Here, we do permit heat and work to enter or leave.

Examples of closed systems are sealed tanks and piston cylinder
devices .

15

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

Open system- Here, we permit mass to cross the system
boundary in either direction (from the system to surroundings
or vice versa).
Examples of open systems are pumps, compressors, turbines,
valves, and heat exchangers.

16

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

 Control Volume:

Attention is focused on certain volume in space and is the preferred
technique to analyze the open system.

The surface of the control volume may be open or closed to mass flows

In the case of a control surface that is closed to the mass flow, then it is
called a control mass containing same amount of matter at all times.

17

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

Isolated System
In this case, there is no interaction between system and the
surroundings.
It is of fixed mass and energy, and hence there is no mass and
energy transfer across the system boundary.

18

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

 Thermodynamic properties:

In thermodynamics, a property is any characteristic or descriptor of a
system which can be quantitatively evaluated.

These are chosen to describe the system in a best manner for a given
situation.

 Salient characteristics of Thermodynamic Properties:

These are macroscopic in nature.

Property of a system is defined only when the system is in
equilibrium

The property is independent of the path used to arrive at the system
condition.
eg: You weigh 60 kg and is 1.5 m tall. We are not concerned how you got
to that stage.

 Most widely referred properties in thermodynamics:

Pressure; Volume; Temperature; Entropy; Enthalpy; Internal energy,
specific heats.
19

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

 Other quantities & basic units used in thermodynamics

Specific volume and density
Specific volume (v) of a substance is defined as the volume per unit mass--m3/kg
Density () is mass per unit volume----kg/m3

Energy:
Energy is the capacity to do work-------------Nm or Joule

Power:
The rate of energy transfer

Mass---------kg.

Mole-----

The mole is the amount of substance that contains as many atoms (or
molecules) as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12.

Lengthm.

Time: second

Temperature: Kelvin, Celsius, etc
20

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

 Categories of Properties:

Extensive Properties: A property which depends on the size
(i.e., mass) of a system is an extensive property
(eg. V, M, E).

Intensive properties: the properties which are independent of

the size of a system are called intensive properties
(eg, p, T, age, color, etc ).

Specific properties: The ratio of an extensive property to the

mass or the property per unit mass is called specific property
(eg. Specific volume, density)..special case of intensive

Molar properties: The ratio of an extensive property to the

number of moles of the substance in the system, or the
property per mole of the substance, is called the molar
property.
21

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

Force:
In SI, the force unit is the Newton (N), and it is defined as the force
required accelerating a mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1 m/s2.

Weight is the gravitational force applied to a body, and its

magnitude is determined from Newton's second law.

22

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

Pressure
Force per unit area is called pressure, and its unit is
o Pascal, N/m2, in the SI system and
o psia, lbf/in2 absolute, in the English system.

1 Pa = 1 N/m2,
1 bar = 105 Pa,
1 atm. = 101.325 kPa, or 14.696 psia .
760 mm Hg, or 29.92 inches H2O= 1 atm

1 mm Hg =1 torr=133 Pa

23

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

Gauge Pressure & Vacuum Pressure
Pressure relative to the atmosphere is called Gauge pressure.
Pressure lower than atmospheric pressure is called negative
gauge pressure or Vacuum pressure.

24

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

Gauge Pressure & Vacuum Pressure
Gauge pressure = absolute pressure atmospheric pressure.
Vacuum pressure = atmospheric pressureabsolute pressure.

25

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

Pressure measurement devices
o Bourdon Gauge, different types of U-tubes and manometers
pressure difference is determined
from the manometer fluid
displaced height

26

 Pressure calculation Example

Q: A U-tube manometer contains a fluid having a density of 800
kg/m3 . The difference in the height of the two columns is 300 mm.
What pressure differences are indicated?
Sol:
Pressure = 300 x 10-3 x 800 x 9.81 Pa

Q: The turbine is supplied with steam at a pressure of 1.8 MPa
guage. After expansion in the turbine, the steam passes through a
condenser, which is maintained at a vacuum of 700 mm Hg by
means of pumps. The barometric pressure is 770 mm Hg. What is
value of absolute pressure (in Pascal) at the inlet and exhaust. Take
the Density of Mercury as 13600 kg/m3.
Sol: Patm = gh =13600 x 9.81 x 770/1000 = 0.1027 MPa
Absolute Inlet Pressure = P + Patm =1.8 + 0.1027 =1.9027 MPa
Absolute Outlet Pressure= 770700 =70 mm of Hg
=70 x 13600 x 9.81/1000 = 9.34 x 103 Pa
27

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

 Thermodynamic Equilibrium:

Property of a system is defined only when the system is in
equilibrium

Between system and surroundings equilibrium exists if there is
no gradient or driving agent to change of state is there.

Types of equilibrium:

Mechanical Equilibrium..pressure
Thermal Equilibrium..Temperature
Electrical Equilibrium.Potential
Chemical EquilibriumConcentration

A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if it satisfies all

the above equilibrium condition
28

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

 Concept of continuum

Disregarding the behavior of individual molecules, matter is
here treated as continuous.

Valid for macroscopic point of viewvolume which is
comparatively very larger than the molecular dimension.

m
= lim
V V ' V
29

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

 State & state postulates:

State is the condition of a system which can be completely
defined by the values of all its properties.
Once a sufficient number of properties are specified, the rest of
the properties assume some values automatically.

The number of properties required to fix a state of a system is

given by the state postulate:
The thermodynamic state of a simple compressible system
(absence of electrical, magnetic, gravitational, motion, and surface
tension effects) is completely specified by two independent,
intensive properties
o Two properties are independent if one property can be varied while the
other one is held constant. (for example: T & specific volume).
o Temperature and pressure are not sufficient to fix the state of a two-phase
system
30

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

 Path:

The succession of states passed through during a change of
state is called the path of the system

 Process:

A process is path followed by a system in reaching a given final

state of equilibrium state starting from a specified initial state.

 Types of processes:

Isothermal---constant T

Isobaric ----constant p

Isochoric----constant v

Isentropic---constant entropy(s)

Isenthalpicconstant enthalpy(h)

Isosteric-----constant concentration

Adiabatic---no heat addition or rejection

31

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

Quasi-static process:

A quasi-static process is one

in which the deviation from thermodynamic equilibrium is
infinitesimal and
all states of the system passes through are equilibrium
states.

Examples:
 climb down from roof to ground
 gas expansion in a piston-cylinder assembly

32

 Example of quasi-static approximation in the gas expansion in a

piston-cylinder assembly

We study quasi-equilibrium processes because

they are easy to analyze (equations of state apply) and
work-producing devices deliver the most work when they
operate on the quasi-equilibrium process.
33

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

 Reversible and irreversible process:

If both the system and its surroundings can be restored to
their respective initial states by reversing the direction of the
process, then the process is said to be reversible.

If a process does not fulfill this criterion it is called an
irreversible process.

A reversible process need to be a quasi- static process-- This is because finite gradients will force the system to traverse
through non - equilibrium interim states

Hence a reversible process is always quasi-static but all the

quasi-static process are not reversible.

Origin of irreversibility lie in the existence of dissipative forces
in real systems,
such as viscosity, mechanical friction.
34

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

 Cycle:

A process (or a series of connected processes) with identical
end states is called a cycle.

Below is a cycle composed of two processes, A and B.

35

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

 State variables:

State variables are those properties of the system whose
changes depend only on the initial and final states of the
system, irrespective of if the path they traversed or how they
are attained.

State variables are termed as property of system

Example: P, T, V

They constitute point functions and their differentials are exact.

Cyclic integral of property is always zero

dV = 0

dT = 0

dp = 0
36

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

 Path dependent variables

P-V work and Heat (to be discussed in detail in due course) are
path variables and state alone cannot define them: need to
know about the traversed path.

Heat and work are not properties. They are inexact differentials

37

Laws of thermodynamics
 The principles of thermodynamics are summarized in the
form of four laws known as zeroth, first, second, and the
third laws of thermodynamics.

The zeroth law of thermodynamics deals with thermal equilibrium
and provides a means of measuring temperature.

The first law of thermodynamics deals with the conservation of
energy and introduces the concept of internal energy.

The second law of thermodynamics dictates the limits on the
conversion of heat into work and provides the yard stick to measure
the performance of various processes.
It also tells whether a particular process is feasible or not and specifies
the direction in which a process will proceed.
As a consequence it also introduces the concept of entropy.

The third law defines the absolute zero of entropy.

 These laws can not be proved directly like the theorems of

mathematics, but till now no evidence is there in violating
these laws.
38

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

 Zeroth law of thermodynamics: Definition of Temperature

The zeroth law of thermodynamics is basis for measurement of
temperature.

Temperature is a property of a system which determines the degree
of hotness.
eg: A hot cup of coffee is at a higher temperature than a block of ice.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that if two bodies (A & B) are

in thermal equilibrium with a third body (C), then the two given
bodies will be in thermal equilibrium with each other.

By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can
be restated as: two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the
same temperature reading even if they are not in contact
39

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

 Temperature Scales

All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible
states such as the freezing and boiling point of water, which are
also called the ice-point and the steam-point respectively.

Later on, due to the degree of difficulty involved on fixing the
reproducible value of these above two points only one fixed
point system is adopted:
Tripple point of water (the state at which ice, liquid water and
water vapour coexist in equilibrium.
The triple point of water is at 0.01 0C or 273.16K

X
T = 273.16
Xt
40

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are two-point scales.

Kelvin Scale is taken as absolute temperature scale or
thermodynamic temperature scale.

Another temperature scale is Rankine

41

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

Different types of thermometers

Constant volume gas thermometer

T = 273.16

p
pt

o Thermodynamic property: Pressure

Constant pressure gas thermometer

T = 273.16

o Thermodynamic property: Volume

Electric resistance thermometer

o Thermodynamic property: Resistance
Thermocouple
o Thermodynamic property: EMF

Liquid-in-glass thermometer
o Thermodynamic property: Length

T = 273.16

T = 273.16

v
vt

R
Rt

E
Et

L
T = 273.16
Lt

42

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

 Ideal Gas Temperature scale

The temperature scale defined in on the basis of ideal gas law is
called the ideal-gas temperature scale. Very low pressure

When measured using a constant volume thermometer It states
that at low pressure, the temperature of the gas is
proportional to its pressure at constant volume.
p
T = 273.16 lim
pt 0 p
t

Regardless of the nature of the gas, all gas thermometers at the
same temperature approach the same reading as the pressure
of the gas approaches zero.
Ti = 273.16 lim

pt 0

pi
pt

Ts = 273.16 lim

pt 0

ps
pt

Ideal gas temperature for steam point.

43

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

 Energy and Its forms:

Macroscopic (Bulk) energy:
PEby virtue of position or configuration

KE. By virtue of motion

These are organized form of energy and can be readily converted

to useful work.

44

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

 Energy and Its forms:

Microscopic energy::::Internal energy

The microscopic modes of energy are due to the internal structure

of the matter and hence sum of all microscopic modes of energy is
called the internal energy.
o Intra-molecular energy: Translational, rotational, vibrational energy of
atoms/molecules
o Inter-molecular energy: Electromagnetic and van der Waal interaction
o Intra-atomic energy: Nucleus-electron, nucleus-nucleus interaction
energies

45

Fundamental concepts and Definitions

 Energy and Its forms:

The total energy possessed by the body is given by:

46

Equations of State
 An equation of state is an equation which relates the variables
of state (T, P, V, and n).

It's particularly useful when you want to know the effect of a change
in one of the variables of state

 Case 1: Solids and Liquids:

If the pressure on a solid or liquid is increased, the volume does not
change much.

If the temperature is increased, the volume doesn't change much
either.

Therefore, an appropriate equation of state describing such systems
would be: V(T,P) = constant.

 Case 2: Gases:

In contrast, changing the pressure or temperature of a gas will have a
significant effect on the volume of that gas.

For an ideal gas appropriate equation of state would be: V(T,P,n) =
(nRT)/P.

47

Ideal Gas
 An ideal gas is one which follows the ideal gas equation of
state

Formed on Boyles and Charless laws

PV = n Ru T = (m/M) Ru T =mRT

Where V is total system volume, n is total moles of gas, M is
molecular weight, R is Characteristic gas constant, Ru is universal
gas constant

The universal gas constant, Ru has a value of 8.314 J/mol K or kJ/kmol
K and is related to the specific gas constant or characteristic gas
constant (R) by the relation R = (Ru/M)

 The ideal gas equation of state can be derived from the

kinetic theory of gases where the following assumptions
are made:

The molecules are independent of each other. In other words, there
are no attractive forces between the molecules.

The molecules do not occupy any volume. That is the volume
occupied by the molecules is quite negligible compared to the
volume available for motion of the molecules.

48

Real Gases
 The ideal gas law is only an approximation to the actual
behavior of gases.
 In general, at sufficiently low pressures or at low densities
all gases behave like ideal gases.

At high densities, (that is at high pressures and low
temperatures), the behavior of actual or real gases deviate from
that predicted by the ideal gas law.

 There are many equations of state describing real gases.

These equations take in consideration molecular volume and
interactions.

 The most well-known such equations is probably the Van

der Waals equation.
49

Van der Waals Equation of State

 Accounts for the correction of deviations of Ideal gas law from
the real gas properties.
 This is an equation of state which takes account

the volume occupied by the molecules and

the attractive forces between them.

 The equation is given by:

where a and b are van der Waals constants

a accounts for the molecular attraction
b accounts for the volume occupied by the particle or molecule

a and b can be determined as follows

a = 27R2Tc2/64 Pc and b = RTc/8Pc
50

Compressibility Factor
 The deviation from ideal behavior of a gas is expressed in
terms of the compressibility factor Z, which is

defined as the ratio of the actual volume to the volume
predicted by the ideal gas law.

Z = Actual volume/volume predicted by ideal gas law

Z= vactual/(RT/P) = Pvactual/RT

 For an ideal gas Pv = RT and hence Z = 1 at all

temperatures and pressures.
 For real gas Z is >1 or <1

51

Example of compressibility factors of air

52

Generalized Compressibility Chart

 The experimental P-v-T data in reduced form is generally
used to prepare the generalized compressibility chart.
 Reduced property for a given state is the value of any
property in this state divided by the value of this same
property by at the critical point.

Reduced pressure, PR = P/Pc,

Reduced temperature, TR = T/Tc

Reduced volume, vR = v/vc
Where Pc, Tc and vc denote the critical pressure, temperature and
volume respectively.

53

Compressibility Factor

Example of compressibility chart

Reduced Pressure
54

Energy in-transit or System-surrounding Energy Interactions

The change in microscopic energy or change in the internal
energy results in the energy transfer across the boundary of
the system which is also known as energy-in transit.

For closed systems (fixed mass systems)
Energy can cross the boundaries of a closed system only in the
form of heat or work.

For open systems or control volumes

Energy can cross the control surface in the form of heat, work, and
energy transported by the mass streams (flow energy) crossing
the control surface.

55

Exercise Problems

56

Exercise Problems

57

Exercise Problems

58

Exercise Problems

59