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5. DC POWER SUPPLY
5.1

INTRODUCTION

Power supply generally refers to a source of power, i.e. a circuit that converts voltage level and
sometimes power form (ac or dc) from that supplied by primary sources to that required by the
electrical/electronics equipment.
The most common primary sources are
1.

AC mains ( sinusoidal; 240 Vrms, 50 Hz in UK (and Malaysia); 220 Vrms, 50 Hz in

Europe; 115 Vrms, 60 Hz in the US) for fixed equipment.

2.

Battery for portable appliances.

Power Supply may be classified as

1.

AC DC types, usually terms as DC supply

- Converts the ac mains to provide a constant voltage with a variable current supply for
fixed equipment

2.

DC AC types, usually called inverters

- Provides an ac output, usually at mains frequency, from a battery source. Inverters are
usually used as stand-by supplies for essential services, providing power during a mains
failure as well as for vehicle, marine and general outdoor applications.

3.

DC DC types, step-downs are called regulators and step-up are called converters
- Change the voltage level from a battery source to that required by the equipment.

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A dc power supply operated from an ac source considers a several fundamental components

such as:
1. A transformer - to change the amplitude of the ac input to a suitable value dependent on the
required output voltage. The transformer also acts as a safety element in that it provides
electrical isolation from the mains sources.
2.

A rectifier - to convert from the alternating input to pulsating dc voltage which permits
current to flow in one direction only.

3.

A filter - to remove the fluctuating component (ripple) from the output of the rectifier to a
steady dc value.

4. A voltage regulator, to ensure the output voltage are constant when the load current
drawn from the supply voltage.

dc output

ac input
~~

Transformer

Rectifier

Filter

Regulator

Load

Figure 5.1: Block Diagram of a DC Power Supply

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5.2

TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a device used for stepping up (increasing) or stepping down (decreasing)

alternating voltage. It consists of a primary coil, connected to a source of power, and a secondary
coil connected to a load. Alternating current flowing through the primary coil produces a
magnetic field which induces an alternating current to flow in the secondary coil.
Iprim
Vprim
Nprim
Figure 5.2 : Transformer Circuit
In an ideal transformer, there is no energy loss.
Therefore,

Thus,
Where

or
Iprim = rms value of primary current
Is = rms value of secondary current

Example
A transformer connected to 60 Hz,120 Vrms supply has 200 turns on its primary winding. The
40 turns of its secondary winding is connected to a 100 load. Determine its secondary voltage,
secondary current and its primary current.
Ans : 24 Vrms, 240 mA & 48 mA

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5.3

RECTIFICATION

There are two types of rectification:

1. Half-wave rectification.
2. Full-wave rectification.
5.3.1

Half-wave rectification

A rectification is a device that permits current to flow through it in one direction only. When the
anode voltage is positive with respect to the cathode, the diode is forward biased and the switch
is closed. The current is allowed to flow through from anode to cathode. If the anode becomes
negative with respect to the cathode, the switch is open and no current is allowed to flow.

Characteristic of the diode, there is a non zero voltage drop across the diode when it is forward
biased (0.3V or 0.7V) shown in Figure 4.3.b). The voltage drop will not exist if it is a perfect
switch, as shown in Figure : 5.3.a).

Figure 5.3 : Idealized silicon diode characteristic, used for large signal analysis

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Figure 5.4 : The diode used as rectifier. Current flows only during the positive half-cycle
of the input.
For Figure : 5.4, during each positive half-cycle of the ac source voltage e(t), the diode is
forward biased and current flows through it in the direction shown.
During each negative half-cycle of e(t) the diode is reverse biased and no current flow.
The waveform of e(t) and i(t) are shown in Figure : 4.4. i(t) is a series of positive current pulses
separated by interval of zero current. For this circumstances, VR (t) is developed across R during
which only the forward current biased get through the resistor and create the voltage across R
(VR(t)).

The effect of this circuit is the conversion of an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage, a
fundamental step in the construction of a dc power supply.
The average dc and rms value of half-wave-rectified sin-wave voltage are:
V avg = VPR/
V rms = VPR/ 2
Where

V PR = is the peak value of the rectified voltage.

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Forward voltage drops across the diode affect the peak of the rectified waveform shown in
Figure 4.4.

The peak value,

VPR of VL = VP 0.7V (for silicon diode).

The 0.7V drop can be neglected in many power supply application because of the large ac
voltage present. However, peak-inverse-voltage (PIV) rating of a diode determines it maximum
permissible reverse bias without breakdown.
Example:

Figure 5.5 : Diode Rectifier Circuit

Assume that the silicone diode in the circuit of Figure 4.5 has a characteristic as shown in
Figure 4.3.b. Find the peak values of the current (t) and the VR (t) across the resistor
when:
1. e (t) = 20 sin t, and
2. e (t) = 1.5 sin t
In each case sketch the wave for e (t), i (t) and VR (t)
Solution:
1.

When e (t) = 20 sin t, the peak positive voltage generated is 20V, at the
Instant e (t) = 20V, the voltage across the resistor:
VR (t) =
=
=

VP 0.7
20 0.7
19.3V

Current flow through the circuit:

i(t)

VR (t)
R
= 19.3
15x 10
= 12.87 mA

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Figure 5.6 Output waveforms

Figure 4.6 shows the resulting waveforms. Note that the diode does not conduct until e (t)
reaches 0.7V, so short intervals of non-conduction occur during each positive half-cycle.
However, the time interval between the point where e (t) = 0 V to 0.7V is very short in
comparison of the half-cycle of conduction time.
2.

When e (t) = 1.5 sin t the peak voltage generated is 1.5V. At that Instant:
VR (t) =
=
=

VP 0.7
1.5 0.7
0.8V

Current occur:
i(t)

=
=
=

VR (t)
1.5 K
0.8
1.5 x 10
0.533 mA

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Figure 5.7 : Output waveform when sine-wave peak is reduced to 1.5 V.

The waveforms are shown in Figure 5.7. The diode does not conduct until e (t) = 0.7V. Note that
the intervals of non-conduction are much longer than those in Figure 4.6. The time interval
between e (t) = 0V to 0.7V in this case is a significant position of the conducting cycle.

5.3.2

Full-wave rectification

Figure 5.8 show the waveform that results when a sine wave is full-wave rectified. The
Negatives half-cycles of the sine wave are inverted to create a continuous series of
Positives half-cycles.

Figure 5.8 : A full-wave rectified sine wave.

The full-wave rectified voltage with peak value VPR has average value:
V avg

2 VPR

The rms value of a full-wave-rectified waveform is the same as that of a

Vrms

sine wave:
VPR

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Figure 5.9 : A full-wave rectifier with center tapping connection transformer and with
two diodes.
Figure 5.9(a) shows a center tapped transformer can be connected in a circuit with two
diodes to perform full-wave rectification.
Figure 5.9 (b) shows that when Vin is positive, VA forwards bias diode D1. Currents will
flows in clockwise loop through RL.
Figure 5.9 (c) shows that Vin is negative, D1 reverse biased, D2 is forward biased and
current will flows through RL in a counter clockwise loop. So, the load always received
positive polarity.
Peak rectification voltage is called as a secondary voltage, so the voltage drops occur

will be:
So, for peak inverse voltage:

PIV > 2VPR

Example:
The primary voltage in the circuit having 120V rms and the transformer has NP:NS = 4 : 1, find ,
a.

The average voltage across RL.

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b.

The average power dissipated by RL.

c.

Minimum PIV rating required for each diode.

Solution:
a.

= 2(41.7)
= 83.4 V

c.

PIV

= 2VPR

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10

Figure 5.10 : Diode Di is reversed biased by VA + VB which has a maximum

value of 2VPR volt.

5.3.3

Full-wave Bridge rectifiers

The diodes are arranged in the form of a bridge shown in figure 1.9. One advantage of
this circuit is that it does not require a transformer, although a transformer is often used
to isolate the ac power line from the rest of the power supply.

Figure 5.11 : Current flow in the full-wave bridge rectifier

Load current flows through two forward biased during each half-cycle of Vin. The peak
rectified voltage across RL is the peak input voltage reduced by 2(0.7V) = 1.4V;
VPR = VP 1.4
Another advantage of this bridge rectifier is that the reverse bias across each diode never
exceed VPR.
Example
For the center-tapped transformer,

Figure 5.12 : A bridge rectifier isolated from the 120Vrms-power line by a transformer
1. What turns ratio should the transformer have in order to produce an
average current of 1 A in RL?
2. What is the average current in each diode under the condition of (1)?

Solution
1.

Iavg = 2IPR/, where IPR is the peak value of the rectified current in RL,

VP

VPR + 1.4

15.7 + 1.4

17.1V

So, for peak value of the 120Vrms primary is:

2. Each diode conducts during one half-cycle only, so the average current in each is the same as
that of a half-wave-rectified sine wave:

= 0.5A
Note that this result is one-half the total average current in RL, as expected.
5.4

FILTERS

The capacitor will charge and discharge during a full cycle of the ac input. A capacitor is
charged during the ac voltage rises with the input voltage of the forward bias at the diode.
The capacitor will discharge through RL when the input falls to a level below which the
diode is reverse biased. The rms value of a waveform that equals V for one half-cycle

and equal 0 for other half-cycle is:

Figure 5.13 : A half-wave rectifier with capacitor filter

5.4.1 Ripple Voltage

The output dc voltage from the rectification process,

consist of the ripple value, it has to be filtered to become more linear. The definition for ripple:
Example:
Using a dc and ac voltmeter to measure the output signal from a filter circuit, we obtain
the reading of 25Vdc and 1.5Vrms. Calculate the ripple of the filter output voltage:

Solution:

5.4.2

Capacitor Filter

Common circuit for filtering the dc voltage output in process of rectification, usually it use
capacitor installed in parallel position to the load, shown in Figure 5.14.

Figure 5.14

5.4.3 Ripple voltage Vr(rms)

The ripple voltage can be calculated from;

Figure 5.15
5.4.4

DC voltage Vdc
We can use the dc value of the waveform across the filter capacitor as:

Example:
If the peaks rectified voltage for the filter circuit is 30, calculate the filter dc voltage, C = 100 F
and load current = 50A.

Solution:

5.5

VOLTAGE REGULATORS

There are many integrated circuit voltage regulators available. Because of its simplicity
and easy application the three-terminal regulator is very popular. The schematic symbol
of a three terminal voltage regulator is shown in figure 4.16.

Figure
5.16. : Power Supply Circuit with Three-Terminal Voltage Regulator

The units are designed to output a fixed voltage at current normally at or below 1.5A. The ICs
find major application as on card regulators. This means that an unregulated power supply
voltage is provided to each printed circuit board in a system.
5.5.1

Characteristics

There are four characteristics of the three-terminal regulators which must be outline.
1.

Vout fixed
The regulator output voltage for many three-terminal regulators is fixed at the value
specified by the manufacturer for the particular model you are using. Should a different
output voltage be required, a different model regulator must be used.

2.

Vdcin Vout + Vdrop out

The unregulated input voltage must, at all times, be larger than the regulated output
voltage. The amount that the input exceeds the regulated output is called drop out
voltage.

3.

Iout max
The output or load current may vary anywhere from zero up to this rated max. output.
4. Thermal shutdown
The IC has a temperature sensor built in. When the chip becomes to hot
(usually 125C to 150C) the unit will turn off. The output current and
voltage drop remain there until the IC has cooled significantly.

The following are the summary of the important parameters of the major three-terminal
Models as outlined in the data sheet (Appendix A and B).
1.

The first column is output Current. This is short circuit current limit, the
absolute maximum current that the IC will output.

2.

The second column lists the device number.

3.

The third column is Vout . This is the regulated output voltage of the
three-terminal regulator.

4.

The fourth column is ( %). All regulators of the same model number will not exactly the
same output voltage.

5.

The seventh column is Max Vin. Should the input voltage exceed this level, the
regulator will be damaged.

6.

The eight column is ripple. These IC voltage regulators not only keep the
output voltage constant, but they will also drastically reduce the amount of ripple
voltage.

Example:
Determine the output ripple from a LM317 with a regulated output voltage 5V and a 9 Vp-p
input ripple.
Solution

5.5.2

Voltage Regulation

Another importance factor of the power supply is the amount of dc output voltage
changes over the range of circuit operation. The voltage provided at the output under noload condition (no current drawn from the supply) is reduce when load current is drawn
from the supply (under load). The amount for dc voltage changes between the no-load
condition is described by a factor called voltage regulation.

Example:

A dc supply provides 60V when the output is unloaded, when connected to a load the
output drops to 56V. Calculate the value of voltage regulation.

Solution:

5.5.3

Heat Sinks

Any semiconductor device which carries current will dissipate power. That power is
dissipated normally in the form heat. The heat is generated at the wafer (junction) and
must flow through the package to the surrounding air. The packaging material presents a
certain opposition to this flow of heat (thermal resistance, JA).

TJ = TA + JAP
Where,
TJ

= the temperature of the junction

TA

= the ambient temperature

JA

= the thermal resistance from the junction to ambient

= the power dissipated by the device

To minimize the power dissipated through design, it can be calculate by using:

JA(max) =

When a heat sink is used, the junction to ambient thermal resistance consists of three
major terms.
JA = JC + CS + SA
Where
JA

= the thermal resistance, junction to ambient

CS

= the thermal resistance, case to heat sink, typically 2C/W

SA

= the thermal resistance, heat sink to ambient

The use of the various charts and equations to determine which heat sink, if any is
needed is best illustrated with an example.
Example:
Determine which three terminal regulators can be used, and find out if heat sink is needed for
each case for a power supply design with the following specifications:
Vout
Iout
Vdcin
TA

=
=

5V
0.7A
15VDC
60C

Solution:
1. First look in Appendix A to determine which regulators appear to meet the requirements.
LM309K is rated at 1.5A output current.
LM340-5K and T are also rated at 1.5A output current.
No others have adequate Iout max ratings. The LM123K was skipped because 3A
is certainly not needed, and would not provide acceptable short circuit protection.
2. Calculate the maximum allowable JA under normal conditions.

P = (Vin - Vout)Iout
= ( 15V - 5V ) x 0.7A
=

7W

Note 2 at the bottom of the data sheets indicate that:

LM309 TJ = 125C
LM340 TJ = 150C
So,

3.

Can either of the regulators be used without a heat sink?

JA (spec) < JA (max)
If the specified JA for the bare regulator is below the maximum thermal Resistance, a heat
sink will not be needed. All three models have bare case thermal resistance (junction to
Ambient) which exceed the allowable maximum. A heat sink will be needed.

4. At this point it is time to select a heat sink. There are three regulator ICs to choose from. The
decision as to which regulator/heat sink to use will depend on regulator/heat sink
combination price and size considerations. The thermal resistance of the resistance of the
heat sink itself is called SA. The maximum allowable heat sink thermal resistance is
SA (max) = JA(max) - JC - CS
For the LM309K this becomes
SA (max)

= 9.3C/W - 3C/W - 2C/W

SA (max)

= 4.3C/W

This is the largest thermal resistance that sink may have. Any larger resistance would
cause the regulator to overheat.

Assignment
1. Design DC Power Supply
Design a solid state power supply, using a full-wave bridge rectifier and three terminal
integrated regulator to meet or exceed the following:
V load (Vout) = 24 V regulated
I load (Iout)

0.05 mA

V ripple load p-p

0.1 V

TA

= 50C

HOW TO DESIGN A POWER SUPPLY

1.

Set Vo and Io

2.

Determine RL using Ohm's Law

3.

Select IC regulator

4.

Determine input dc voltage to the regulator

5.

Determine Vripple(in)

6.

Find the appropriate value of capacitance, C to be used

7.

Determine peak value after rectification

8.

Determine the peak value of secondary transformer

9.

Obtain the turn ratio of the transformer

10.

Does the regulator need heat sink?

Appendix A

Appendix B