Don’t let linearity squeeze

With accurate models, the range- and data-rate-limiting

By Jeffrey Feigin

inearity is one of the most cru-

cial determinants of perform-

L ance for a wireless-LAN sys-

tem, directly related to inhibi-
tors such as spectral regrowth in both sin-
gle- and multicarrier systems. As such, it
is mandatory for any designer to fully
understand the nature of linearity and
how exactly it affects 802.11 systems.
Equally important are basic models that
convey the effects of nonlinearity on a
communications system. Such models
will not only account for device specifica-
tions but will also help the designer un-
derstand and interpret the practical im-
plications of such critical performance
specifications as the third-order input
intercept point (IP3) and the 1-dB com-
pression point (P1dB.)
IEEE 802.11 modulation essentially
falls into two categories: single carrier and
multicarrier. The original 802.11 (no let-
ter), all 802.11b modes, complementary
code-keying (CCK)/packet binary con-
volutional (PBCC) 802.11g and direct-
sequence spread-spectrum (DSSS) The symbol rate is 11 Msym- ently modulated subcarriers, four of
Barkers are all single carrier. Ortho- bols/second (except for PBCC-33, which which are BPSK pilots. The remaining
gonal frequency-division multiplexing is 16.5 Msymbols/s) for these single-carri- 48 subcarriers are modulated as 64 quad-
(OFDM)—the 802.11a and predominant er modes. The spectrum of an 11- rature amplitude modulation, 16QAM,
802.11g mode—is multicarrier. Msymbol/s M-PSK signal with rectangu- QPSK or BPSK, depending on the data
All 802.11 single-carrier modes are lar data pulse shaping is a sin(x)/x func- rate. The subcarriers are spaced 312.5
based upon M-ary phase-shift-keying tion with nulls at ±11 MHz. Although the kHz apart and each symbol lasts 4 micro-
(PSK) chips, regardless of whether the channel filtering (performed in the digi- seconds (all carriers are synchronized in
method used to achieve processing gain tal domain by the baseband processor) phase and symbol period). Similar to the
is DSSS, CCK or PBCC. The one excep- shapes the spectra according to Nyquist’s single-carrier modes, the physical-layer
tion is frequency-hopping spread spec- criteria, in that the total modulated band- data rate is set by both M-ary size and
trum, which is rarely used. Preambles are width is approximately half that of the level of coding, while the symbol rate
based upon binary PSK (BPSK), while sin(x)/x null-to-null bandwidth, system remains constant. The resultant spec-
the short-header option utilizes a combi- compression will force the waveform to trum appears nearly rectangular and is
nation of BPSK and quadrature PSK approximate the sin(x)/x spectra as non- often referred to as a “Bart’s head” for
(QPSK). The data payload is coded into linearity becomes more severe. However, this reason. Spectral regrowth causes
BPSK for only the slowest rate, while all the 802.11 spectral mask places con- diagonal side lobes to develop, but error
802.11b CCK and PBCC modes use straints on the acceptable level of com- vector magnitude (EVM) limits will
QPSK. The newer 802.11g PBCC modes pression (See Fig. 1a). occur at the higher data rates long before
(PBCC-22 and PBCC-33) are 8-PSK. OFDM is based upon 52 independ- spectral mask is exceeded (see Fig. 1b).

12 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS DESIGN OCTOBER 2003 www.CommsDesign.com

your WLAN performance
effects of system nonlinearities can be greatly reduced.

The spectral mask for 802.11b is
defined as –30 dBr beyond ±11 MHz and
–50 dBr beyond 22 MHz. The spectral
mask for OFDM is 0 dBr to 9 MHz, –20
dBr at 11 MHz offset, –28 dBr at 20 MHz
offset and –40 dBr beyond 30 MHz. The
EVM is essentially equivalent to signal-
to-noise ratio (SNR). The 802.11b stan-
dard specified its single-carrier modes in
terms of percentage (voltage scale) while
802.11a/g specifies its OFDM modes as
decibel relationships. There is no funda-
mental difference and the two are mutu-
ally relatable, since EVM in decibels is
20Log10 the voltage-scale EVM percent-
age. Transmit EVM is of particular con-
cern because it is a measure of total trans-
mitter performance.
The 802.11b specification requires the
peak EVM to be less than 35 percent.
Depending on the distribution and corre-
lation of the error voltage, this is usually
on the order of 15 to 20 percent rms
EVM. However, most 802.11b transmit-
ters produce better than 10 percent rms
EVM. The faster 802.11g PBCC modes
(PBCC-22 and PBCC-33, both 8-PSK)
require an even more accurate modula-
tion performance of about 7 percent rms.
The 802.11a/g standard’s OFDM
EVM is measured in fundamentally the
same way; it is a composite of all of the
subcarriers, mutually derotated. How-
ever, because most OFDM modes con-
tain less energy per bit of information
than most constant-carrier modes at the
same power level, proper operation
requires a much higher SNR.
■ Linearity approximations
The restricted linearity of semiconductor
devices is a very important characteristic
that ultimately limits the capabilities of a
system in many regards. Models are used
to characterize the nonlinear behavior of
a system or device in order to predict the
resultant signal properties. While such
models often become extremely compli-
cated when great accuracy is required,
very simple polynomial approximations
are useful for determining roughly how
the system will behave.
The polynomial approximation is a
nonlinear transfer function that disre-
gards time-varying and memory effects.
It is based upon the Taylor Series
Expansion and assumes one output volt-
age for each input voltage. Typically, the
first-order (gain), second-order (squaring)
and third-order (cubing) terms are con-
sidered, though higher-order terms be-
come important as a system is driven
harder. Its coefficients are either deter-
mined or implied based upon the meas-
ured power levels that the resultant-order
term would produce.
The first-order term produces a scaled
version of the input spectra while the
second-, third- and higher-order terms
generate extraneous products. The sec-
ond-order products consist of the fre-
quency-domain sum and difference of
each spectral line. In the two-tone case,
f1 and f2, the result is f1 + f2 and f1 – f2,
which fall far outside of the desired pass-
band. The resultant second-order prod-
ucts are referred to as IM2 (or second-
order intermodulation-distortion prod-
uct) for the second order, IM3 for
the third order and so forth.
The close-in third-
order products, for
the same two
input tones,
are 2x(f2–f1)
and 2x(f1–f2).
These third-
order products, as
well as all odd-
order products, are
likely to produce ener-
gy that falls near or in the
desired band and are very
important considerations
in WLAN performance
specifications. Similarly,
fifth-order products also produce two
close-in products: 3x(f1–2f2) and
3x(f2–2f1).
Ideally (this is a simplified model),
IM2 tones grow at a 2:1 slope, IM3 at a
3:1 slope (see Fig. 2) and IMx at an X:1
slope in decibels as device input power
increases. As input power increases, how-
ever, the device will become increasingly
saturated, thereby compressing the out-
put waveform. This waveform compres-
sion is also compression in gain—the
point at which the device gain is 1 dB less
than its low-power gain is called P1dB (1-
dB compression point).
Although gain compression makes it
impossible to keep increasing the input
power until the IMx tones are the same
level as the two desired tones, it is useful
to geometrically extrapolate those points
in order to imply the value of their re-
spective polynomial coefficients. Those
extrapolated points are called IP2, IP3
and so on. Equations 1 and 2 (see the online
version of this story at www.commsdesign.com
/csd/issue) express this relationship
between the third- and fifth-order inter-
cept points, the resultant
intermodulation

www.CommsDesign.com OCTOBER 2003 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS DESIGN 13


W i r e l e s s
power of each tone and the single-tone
power of the two-tone inputs.
There exists a fairly uniform relation-
ship between the point of 1-dB compres-
sion and the various intercept points for a
specific device. Typically, IP3 is about 10
to 15 dB above P1dB, while IP5 is usual-
ly similar or higher.
■ Modulation and linearity
Although P1dB indicates the point where
the gain of a system is compressed by 1
dB, this characteristic is mostly a voltage-
domain function and the voltage-limiting
characteristic may be gradual or sharp.
This is important to consider because real
communication systems generally do not
use simple waveforms and those used to
measure IP3- and P1dB-modulated sig-
nals can contain a great deal of time-vary-
ing voltage fluctuation.
Signaling for 802.11a/b/g is highly
dynamic and its peak voltage is drastical-
ly different from its average voltage,
which is used to measure average power.
An OFDM signal contains voltage excur-
sions that are greater than five times its
average value (a 14-dB power ratio),
while single-carrier modes exhibit a ratio
of about 1.4 (3 dB, but the exact ratio
depends upon pulse shaping). It is for
this reason that system components need
to be “backed off”; the average output
power of a system must be lower than its
linear continuous-wave power-handling
capabilities so that these voltage excur-
sions are not excessively distorted.
The distortion of voltage excursions is
the reason for spectral regrowth; com-
pression of modulation causes an expan-
sion in the modulated-signal bandwidth.
Exactly what happens to the two adja-
14 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS DESIGN OCTOBER 2003 www.CommsDesign.com
F E A T U R E
L A N L i n e a r i t y
cent tones (for a two-tone IP3 measure-
ment) is what happens to the modulated
carrier, just in convoluted fashion: It is
valid to model a modulated signal as
many discrete tones next to one another
that mix together. Just as the two meas-
urement tones mix, and produce higher-
order products, the many discrete slices
of the modulated-signal spectra produce
new discrete tones whose distance from
the two original tones bears the same
relationship (see Fig. 3).
For single carrier, the first side lobe is
primarily a function of IP3 (it is really
IM3 + IM5 + IMN, but the IM3 product
dominates at reasonable signal levels),
while the second side lobe is primarily
IP5. Therefore, the relative height of the
second side lobe can be roughly estimat-
ed according to the same rules used to
measure the two-tone IP3; the second
and third side lobes rise at a rate of 3 and
5 dB, respectively, for every decibel in-
crease in main-lobe output power. To fit
Equations 1 and 2 (online), which are
based on the individual powers of each of
two input tones, 3 dB must be added to
the IMx products in order to compensate
for the total modulated power, which is
one spread tone.
Hence, if the total output power is X
dB less than IP3, the first side lobe will
be about 2X – 3 dB below the main lobe.
This approximation assumes flat spectra
in the main lobe and is somewhat depen-
dent upon channel filtering, but provides
a reasonable estimate so long as the basic
IP3 model is valid for the system.
Following this approximation, the –30-
dBr spectral mask for the first side lobe is
met roughly when output power is at
least 16.5 dB below the system’s output
IP3. IP5 can be derived in the same way:
For a second side lobe at –50 dBr, IP5
should be greater than (4X–3)/4 above
the system output power, which is a 13.5-
dB IP5 backoff. Expressed as functions,
this approximation is stated as shown in
Equations 3 and 4 (online).
Nonlinearity is not usually an over-
whelming factor in EVM for single-carri-
er systems—the spectral mask is exceed-
Because models can get complex,
simple polynomial approximations
can help predict system behavior.
ed long before EVM is usually degraded
beyond allowable limits for Barker, CCK
or PBCC modulation. However, spectral
regrowth is highly deleterious to OFDM
EVM. This is because OFDM utilizes
many independent carriers whose inter-
modulation and regrowth cause mutual
interference to one another.
Each individual subcarrier will be sub-
ject to the IM3 products from all of the
various combinations (there are half as
many IM3 combinations as OFDM carri-
ers) that will result when this many sig-
nals are lined up next to one another—
the total IM3 SNR degradation is the
Log10(26) greater than Pout-IM3. Again,
since the IP3 model is based on the indi-
vidual power of two input tones and it is
more appropriate to work with the total
OFDM power, the IM3 product must be
scaled an additional 3 dB. Based upon
this model, it is possible to estimate the

W i r e l e s s
relationship between IP3 and IM3-
induced (regrowth-induced) SNR.
Again, recalling the IP3/IM3 relation-
ship where IM3 tones are twice the dis-
tance below the input level as the IP3 is
above, this input-to-IM3 level is IM3-
induced SNR. When there are 52 random
superimposed IM3 N (noise) products
falling atop of each subcarrier, the total
IM3 N is 10Log10(26) plus the 3-dB sin-
gle-tone scaling factor, then the individual
IM3 tone is scaled by 17 dB. Therefore,
IM3-induced EVM is estimated as 17 dB
greater than half the difference between
IP3 and total output power. Equation 5
(online) expresses this relationship.
For the minimum 54-Mbit/s OFDM
EVM of –25 dB, IP3 should be at least
half of 25 + 17. This is 21 dB above the
desired output power, which corresponds
to a 6- to 11-dB backoff from P1dB.
EVM, of course, is a composite of
many different sources of error; it is not
just a function of in-band spectral re-
16 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS DESIGN OCTOBER 2003 www.CommsDesign.com
F E A T U R E
L A N L i n e a r i t y
growth. However, in an efficient system,
regrowth-induced EVM dominates,
thereby making any other contribution
negligible. Each individual contributor to
the composite voltage EVM combines in
an rms fashion (Fig. 4).
When one observes a signal at a level
far within the linearity limits of the trans-
mitter system, this baseline (residual)
EVM will be observed. As power in-
creases and the regrowth-induced EVM
equals the baseline EVM, the total EVM
will degrade by 3 dB. As power rises fur-
ther, regrowth EVM will dominate. For
example, when the regrowth-only EVM
is 10 dB above baseline, only a 0.4-dB
error results. Beyond that, the excess
EVM due to spectral regrowth is nearly
the same as the composite EVM—base-
line EVM becomes insignificant. If a
designer wishes, regrowth EVM may be
de-embedded from the baseline EVM by
taking the square root of the square of the
composite minus the square of the base-
line, but simple subtraction is not valid.
The EVM/IP3 relationship further
denotes a 2:1 relationship between out-
put power and EVM: If output power
rises 1 dB and the 26 IM3 products on
falling on each tone rise 3 dB, then a net
2 dB has been lost in terms of SNR. Fig.
4 is an actual measurement of EVM vs.
output power of a power amplifier vs. the
predicted 2:1 slope using the IP3 EVM
model. Regrowth EVM dominated the
composite EVM once the baseline EVM
was significantly exceeded.■
Jeffrey Feigin (jeffrey.feigin@skyworksinc.com)
is principal applications engineer at Skyworks
Solutions Inc. He has an MSEE from Wor-
cester Polytechnic Institute (Worcester, Mass.).