Professional Documents
Culture Documents
REPORTS
0 INTRODUCTION
....
all
NOTE
ENGINEERING REPORTS
to national, provincial, state, county, district, municipal, and other governing laws, ordinances, and regulations applicable to buildings, commerce, health and
safety in the workplace, and the use of utility mains
power. Insurance carriers and labor organizations may
have additional requirements. In this report, such requirements are collectively referred to as requirements
of the authorities having jurisdiction or, for simplicity
of language, the code. Where any of the suggestions or
guidelines of this report may conflict with the applicable
requirements of the authorities having jurisdiction, the
requirements of the latter must prevail.
Mains power presents a potentially lethal risk of shock
and fire. Any construction of or alteration to mains
power systems must be performed in strict conformance
with the applicable requirements of the authorities having jurisdiction, by qualified personnel duly authorized
to perform such work in the jurisdiction.
OF D_Tr_RFERr_HcE
approach,
2 I_ODgE SUPP_E$$00_
Most professional audio activity takes place in modem, populated areas. Along with their many other attributes, populated areas are generally blanketed with electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic
(radio) fields of
varying intensity. Some lucky few will record birdcalls
in the wild. The rest of us in the audio industry are
unfortunately faced with the problem of transducing,
amplifying, processing, recording, auditioning, and otherwise manipulating audio program signals while rejeering a broad range of electromagnetic
interference
(EMI) contributed by the surrounding environment or
by elements of the audio system itself. For the purpose
of this discussion, we shall refer to all such interference
as noise, where we shall define noise to be undesired
signal.
In any general case involving noise suppression, be
it acoustic, mechanical, or, in this case, electrical and
magnetic, we will be concerned with:
1) The source
2) The propagation path
3) The receiver,
In this case we will define the noise receiver to be
either the complete audio system under consideration,
or a given apparatus within that system. In theory one
could achieve a desired noise reduction by manipulating
any of the three elements mentioned. For the general
noise suppression case it is usually preferred to perform
the mitigation effort at the source. This avoids the cornplexity of treating multiple potential propagation paths
and receivers. In audio system practice the choice is
limited. Most practical sources of interference are external to the audio system and cannot be treated as variables. Most users prefer not to modify manufactured
audio apparatus if at all possible,
1) Modification generally voids any safety and/or
EMC agency listing the apparatus may carry,
2) Modification generally voids any manufacturer's
warranty the apparatus may carry,
3) Modification generally renders the apparatus not
theory of electromag-
FAUSE
ENGINEERING
% /
........
,_/S
_z,_VV,
-
X'rff
E_UUB_
Fig. 2. Receivershielding.
500
(1)
where
V = rms value of induced electromotive force (voltage)
B = rms value of flux density varying sinusoidally
at frequency f
A = area of closed loop
.0 = angle between flux vector direction and normal
to plane surface of area A.
Observe the key practical points:
1) Induced voltage is proportional to frequency f.
2) Induced voltage is proportional to loop area A.
Assume the object is to minimize V, the induced voltage. Everything on the right of Eq. (1) is a product.
Thus we may minimize V by minimizing any or all of
the terms on the right. In a practical case, the magnetic
flux field is likely to be caused by stray ac mains radiation. Thus f is generally not a variable. Both B and O
may be changed by altering circuit conductor locations,
moving transformers, and the like.
Observe a critical point. If the conductor loop is not
closed, there is no enclosed area A. If A = 0, V must
equal 0--no loop; no magnetically induced noise voltage. Of course there is a significant limitation. For a
signal circuit to be useful, current must flow. From fundamental circuit laws, current can only flow in a closed
loop. Any practical metallic signal circuit is therefore
prone to magnetic inductive coupling of noise into the
signal path. The primary mitigation method is to minimize the loop area A.
A final point about magneticinduced coupling. A
grounded electric field shield enclosing a conductor does
frequencies. Only materials with high relative magnetic
not significantly attenuate
permeabilitywill
provide amagnetic
useful degree
induction
of magnetic
at audio
shielding in the audio-frequency
region.
,_
Eou__
xrff
REPORTS
3.4 Electromagnetic
Field Shielding
As previously indicated, an electromagnetic
field is
the vector product of an electric field E and a magnetic
field H. For a propagating field, an electromagnetic
wave, the ratio E/H is defined as the wave impedance
Zw. At a given receiver location, the characteristics
of
an electromagnetic field will be a function of the source,
V = 2'11'fBA.ooeO
Fig. 3. Magneticinduction.
J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 43, No. 6, 1995 June
ENGINEERING REPORTS
the distance between source and receiver, and the medium of propagation between source and receiver [7,
p. 159].
When an electromagnetic
wave propagating in free
space impacts a sheet of conductive and magnetically
permeable material, a portion of the incident wave energy is reflected, and a portion of the energy is absorbed
within the material. If the shield is defined as thin relarive to the incident frequency and wave impedance, additional energy may be absorbed due to multiple internal
reflections. The remainder of the wave energy is transmitted. The ratio of incident to transmitted field strength
is defined as shielding effectiveness. Shielding effectiveness varies with the properties of the shield material
(conductivity and magnetic permeability), the incident
frequency, the incident wave impedance, the geometry
of the shield itself, and the geometry relative to the
source [7, p. 165]. The conditions previously described
for effective electric field shielding must be met. Further, it is essential to recall that any conductive body
exposed to an incident electromagnetic
wave also behavesas an antenna,
3.5 Common Impedance Coupling
Consider the situation shown in Fig. 4. Here define
Vs as an ideal voltage source (voltage is constant and
independent of current drawn) and the conductors as
ideal (lossless). Assume two separate circuits having
impedances Z l and Z2 with a junction to a common impedance Zc. Solve for Vl and V: in terms of the other
circuit parameters. From Kirchhoff's current law, the
algebraic sum of the currents at each junction must be
zero [11]. From Kirchhoff's voltage law, the algebraic
sum of the voltages around a closed loop must be zero
[11]. By inspection, these conditions are satisfied only
when
lc = Il + 12
(2)
Vi = V2
(3)
Vs = Vc + V1
(4)
Vs -
(11 +
12) Z c .
Vi or V2,
(5)
4 GROUNDING
Ground is commonly defined as a zero signal reference
point (ZSRP)for a complexof electronics.Notice from
this definition that connections to ground and to earth
are not necessarily the same thing. Of course reality is
not so simple. A number of distinct functions all employ
d. Audio Eng. Soc., VoL 43, No. 6, 1995 June
ze
z2
FAUSE
ENGINEERING
REPORTS
(above 150kHz).
4.1 Multipolnt
(Mesh)
Ground
Scheme
11 CIRCUIT
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT,,
1
2
))
3
////////7///////////7/////
4.2 SBngle-Polnt
(Star)
Ground
Scheme
by the single-
CIR?UIT
CIRCU,T
2
CIRCUrr
3
UND P
PLANE
EOUiUBR_OUND
ENGINEERING REPORTS
approach _h0- _/_0wavelength and where strong radiofrequency (RF) fields are present, it may be necessary
to ground the shield at radio frequencies at more than
one point to ensure that the entire shield remains at or
near ground potential at all frequencies. A capacitor, or
a capacitor in series with a low-value resistor, is used
to establish the required RF ground. Disk ceramics of
10 nF or other capacitors with similar impedance characteristics have proven effective in practice,
Separate conductor bundles or groups of printed-wire
traces should be formed for ground conductors of each
functional type. Strict application of this recommendation in large systems becomes a matter of some rigor,
Any deviations taken may result in reduced system performance. There are several very good reasons for this
seemingly extreme approach,
1) Separate ground conductors for each ground type
admittedly may present a clumsy mechanical layout problem. The object is to avoid common impedance noise
coupling as was described earlier. For this reason, audio
circuit power, logic power, relay power, and indicatorlighting power should not share the same ground lead.
Switching transients are likely to wind up in the signal,
2) Separate ground-type conductor bundles or trace
groups may also seem extreme. Once again, recall that
any current in a conductor produces electric and magnetic fields. These in turn may induce noise in nearby
circuits,
The single-point ground scheme:
1) Is potentially more complex to implement than
multipoint grounding,
2) Is preferred at frequences below 10 MHz.
3) Is not subject to magnetic induced noise due to
loops,
4) Is not subject to common impedance coupled noise,
For interconnecting an audio system made up of two or
more items of audio apparatus, the single-point ground
scheme may be an appropriate engineering choice when:
1) The system is fixed in place,
2) Signal interconnections
are made by fixed signal
cables,
3) The system signal wiring need not be reconfigured;
or if it is to be reconfigured, the reconfiguration may be
effected by the use of jack fields, routing switchers, or
similar methods,
4) Immunity from RFI is an objective,
5) The system signal interconnecting cables may be
subject to strong magnetic fields.
6) The system signal interconnecting cables are not
selected to minimize shield current induced noise [ 13].
7) The individual items of apparatus may be prone to
"pin 1 problems" as described by Muncy [13].
4.3 Grounding and Safety
In determining the grounding scheme for any audio
apparatus or system, the requirements of safety and electromagnetic compatibility must prevail,
A safe audio system which complies with an applicable code may be achieved when the audio apparatus
and interconnection cable ground scheme is derived in a
J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 43, No. 6, 1995 June
FAUSE
ENGINEERING REPORTS
UC
't25V"_
aC
_,
Fig. 7. Wiring diagrams for two-pole three-wire plugs and receptacles, National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
125-V configurations, applicable to North America. UC--ungrounded
conductor (hot, phase); GC--grounded conductor (neutral,
system ground); EGC--equipment
grounding conductor.
504
ENGINEERING REPORTS
(FPN)
[Fine
grounding
Note]:
conductor
for grounding
Use
does
of an isolated
not
the raceway
relieve
system
equipment
and outlet
a "clean"
box.
due
signal ground
_
,nlulllld
Irom
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ground
_l,
'
conau,I
'
approach,
This
the requirement
illustrated
or "technical"
to odd
ground
Figs.
in
ground
currents
free
in the
9 and
from
10,
creates
ground
noises
raceway
system.
The
s,gnal
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t
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hol
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grounding
conductors.
Single-point
grounding
of signal
shields
is
505
FAUSE
ENGINEERING
REPORTS
I
I
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COHH_CT_DM
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Fig. 10. Audio system apparatus ground derived via isolated equipment grounding conductors,
for general case of a fixed system,
powered by a separately
derived polyphase
power system to North American practices.
Paragraph
references
to NFPA 70 [12]
are provided to demonstrate
strict conformance
with applicable
code. UC--ungrounded
conductor
(hot, phase); GC--grounded
conductor
(neutral,
system ground); EGC--equipment
grounding conductor;
IEGC--insulated
equipment
grounding
conductor.
506
ENGINEERING REPORTS
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507
FAUSE
ENGINEERING REPORTS
clean-ground scheme has been found effective for extremely large sound systems demanding low-noise requirements, and for sites with otherwise difficult RFI.
Notice that under the National Electrical Code a cornpletely separate ground system is permitted--including
separate ground electrodes (rods driven in the earth),
Separate ground electrodes are not permitted in many
jurisdictions as, for example, in many countries in Eu-
rope. Even if permitted, experience indicates that a separate driven ground electrode field is neither required nor
desirable in most cases. A service entrance ground field
sized to code presents a sufficiently low impedance for
most practical audio system purposes. Connection of the
isolated equipment grounding conductor directly at the
mains service entrance system ground point avoids a
potential hazard when separate ground electrode fields
are used. If earth currents flow due to lightning or electrical fault conditions, a significant voltage difference may
exist between separate ground electrode fields. Raceway
and apparatus grounded by separate systems will exhibit
the same potential difference.
5 SIGNAL INTERCONNECTION
4) Isolation
5) "Pin 1 problems" [13].
The audio load and source topology determines the
applicable signal interconnection method for a given
path. Detailed treatment of this topic is found in Muncy
[13], Macatee [14], and Whitlock [15]. Assuming typicai audio signal circuit transmission voltage levels:
1) Unbalanced interconnection
is effective in relativelysmall systemsor in subsystemsof largersystems
where the voltage differential in the ground references
of the various interconnected devices may be held to a
relatively small fraction of the signal transmission voltage.
For the audio system to be functional, signal interconnection methods must be selected to conform with the
apparatus grounding scheme, the topology of which now
has been defined by mains power safety requirements.
This reverses the usual expedient procedure where
grounding is adjusted to meet interconnection requirements,
The signal interconnection design objective is to transfer the audio signal at the required level of system performance, while minimizing or elim!nating noise voltage induced in the load (signal contamination) due to:
1) Differential voltage of the ground reference between signal source and load
2) Magnetic induction in the signal conductors
Ideal signal interconnection
conditions would be as
3) Other noise coupling mechanisms.
indicated in Fig. 11.-A simplifled-version of a real case
is presented in Fig. 12. Observe that for analysis both
source and load may each be considered as two-port
networks, and the signal interconnection means may be
considered as a four-port network. The following are
typical generic schemes.
1) Unbalanced (asymmetric) circuit. The impedances
.L
1_-]
Vs
R1
Rw
Rs
conductors are unequal. In the typical case, one conductor of the signal conductor pair is at or near ground
o hetwosi naon
potential.
2) Balanced (symmetric, differential) circuit. The impedances of the two signal conductors to ground or to
other circuit conductors are equal. Under conditions of
signal transmission, at all times the signals on the two
conductors of the pair are equal in amplitude, opposite
in polarity.
3) Balanced (symmetric, differential)floating circuit.
The impedances of the two signal conductors to ground
or other circuit conductors are equal, approaching infin508
Rw
_ .mn.. :
'_
i,
SOURCE
V LxG
:::
INTERCONNECTION
:I:
LOAD-----_
ENGINEERING REPORTS
2) Balanced interconnection is effective in mediumscale systems where device ground reference potentials
may vary by millivolts to tens of millivolts.
3) Balanced floating interconnection is effective in
large-scale systems where device ground reference potentials may vary by millivolts to tenths of a volt.
4) Balanced, floating, isolated interconnection is effective in extreme-scale systems where device ground
reference potentials may vary by volts to tens of volts,
5) The signal interconnection schemes may be intermixed in a single audio system with caution and with
individual investigation of applicable source and load
conditions [14], [15].
At this point it is (at last!) appropriate to consider
the grounding treatment of shields on interconnection
cables. Refer to Sections 4.1 and 4.2 for a general discussion of the engineering tradeoffs of multipoint
(grounding the shield at both ends) versus single-point
grounding (grounding the shield at one end only). For
the single-point shield grounding case, refer to Whitlock
[15] for a discussion of the engineering tradeoffs of
establishing a single shield grounding point at the source
versusat the load.
For systems with any reasonable quantity of interconnection wiring, organize the wiring mechanically to minimize potential signal contamination. In general, classify
the wiring by signal type, nominal signal operating
level, and other relevant parameters. In the absence of a
specific investigation of electromagnetic
compatibility,
raceway and cable bundles should contain only wiring
of a single classification. Cable bundles of different classifications should be spaced a prudent distance apart
to minimize possible crosstalk. It is good practice to
maximize the distance between cable bundles carrying
low-level audio circuits (namely, microphone level) and
mains power wiring.
sible magnetic emission from the mains. Bond the raceway system to ground according to the most restrictive
of either the applicable code or these recommendations.
Where flexible metal conduit is used, provide a copper
bonding jumper to ensure a low-impedance path.
6.2./
Review the long-term voltage stability of the
power mains with reference to the manufacturer's recommendations for the audio apparatus. Consider the application of voltage regulation equipment at either the
panel board or the branch circuit level. If adopted,
strongly consider the use of equipment with a low source
impedance and a sinusoidal output waveform independent of load effects.
6.2.2
Review the mains for possible transients and
conducted noise. Be aware of other loads to the mains
which may induce transients or noise. Consider the application of transient overvoltage suppression equipment
at either the panel board or the branch circuit level. If
adopted, strongly consider the use of equipment with a
low source impedance and a sinusoidal correction output waveform.
6.2.3
Depending on the audio system scale and performance objectives, select either the bonded raceway
grounding scheme or the isolated equipment grounding
conductor scheme for equipment grounding of the technical power system. All audio apparatus and related interconnections will be grounded exclusively by means
of this equipment grounding path.
6.2.4
Stranded copper conductors are strongly
ferred, regardless of the cross-sectional area.
pre-
6.2.5
For the fixed-installation case, a steel raceway
(trunking) system is strongly preferred to minimize pos-
6.2.6
Where steel raceway cannot be used, for the portable case or the case of the direct burial of raceway in
corrosive soils, exercise care in the placement of power
conductors relative to audio conductors.
6.2.7
Use mains power receptacles that will maintain
contact pressure on apparatus attachment plugs over
time. Strongly consider the use of"hospital-grade"
wiring devices.
6.3.1
The isolated equipment ground path is established by an insulated copper conductor isolated from
the raceway, with a complete copper path to the project
509
FAUSE
ground electrodes. No connection is permittedbetween
the raceway (bonded) ground, the grounded building
parts, and the isolated equipment ground system, except
at the project ground electrode connection,
The following test of isolation of this ground path
must be performed only by qualified personnel observing
mains voltage safety precautions. Disconnect all apparatus from the mains power receptacles. Deenergize the
mains power system and confirm the absence of any
mains voltage. At the project ground electrode, cantiously disconnect the isolated equipment grounding
conductor. Measure for possible voltage between the
isolated equipment grounding conductor and the project
ground electrode. In the absence of voltage, measure
the impedance between the same points. The isolated
equipment grounding conductor must measure "open"
to project ground. If other than an extremely high impedance is observed, seek out and remove all inadvertent
connections between the isolated equipment grounding
system and other paths to ground.
If the project ground electrode connection point will
be inaccessible after construction is complete, connect
the isolated equipment grounding conductor to project
ground at the project service entrance ground connection point.
6.3.2 At technical power panel boards, provide an isolated equipment ground bus isolated (insulated) from the
panel board. Size this bus to allow the connection of
conductors equal to at ]east 150% of the pane] board
maximum permitted branch circuit count. Size the panel
board isolated equipment ground feeder conductor to the
larger of either the code (for fault current) or as required
to realize 0.10-0.15
f'/to the project ground field connection. Refer to Atkinson and Giddings [16] for detailed suggestions on specific cases.
6.3.3
For each branch circuit, provide conductors of
the same cross-sectional area (gauge) for hot, neutral,
and isolated equipment grounding (insulated green or
green/yellow conductor). It is strongly preferred that
no sharing of neutral or isolated equipment grounding
conductors with any other branch circuit be permitted,
In the case of polyphase mains power with three
branch circuits, one each on phases A, B, and C returning to the technical power panel board in the same
raceway, provide nine conductors. With respect to nomal three-phase mains circuit operation, the additional
conductors are considered to be neutral and ground impedance correction conductors operating at audio and
higher frequencies. For the purpose of raceway fill calculations, count all conductors when establishing the summation 'of the cross-sectional areas. For the purpose of
ampacity deration calculations, the two additional neutrals and the three isolated equipment ground conductors
are generally not classified as current-carrying conductors.
6.3.4
Provide isolated ground type mains power receptacles with the isolation method being an integral part
of the device. These are identified on the face with an
510
ENGINEERING
REPORTS
isolated ground symbol (green triangle
in North
America), a unique color, or both. Where isolated
ground type mains power receptacles are available in a
range of colors, strongly consider the use of unique colored receptacles to more clearly define the technical
power as distinct from normal appliance power.
6.3.5
At a central location to each ensemble of audio
apparatus (equipment cluster, equipment rack, or group
of equipment racks) provide an isolated equipment
grounding conductor run with the associated circuit conductors in code size raceway. Size this conductor to the
largest of:
6.3.5.1
The largest phase conductor
cuits feeding the ensemble.
6.3.5.2
As required by applicable
of a conductive equipment enclosure.
of branch cir-
6.3.5.3
As required to realize 0.10 f_ to the isolated
equipment ground terminal bar at the associated technical power panel board. See also [16].
6.4 Apparatus and Enclosures
Ground and bond audio apparatus, apparatus racks,
and similar apparatus enclosures containing powered apparatus exclusively via the selected equipment grounding system conductors.
6.4.1
Where racks are fixed in place, isolate the rack
mounting, anchorage,
and raceway connections.
Be
aware that typical concrete may be a medium- to highimpedance conductor, depending on the properties of
the local sand and aggregate.
6,4.2
At each equipment cluster or rack, provide a
copper equipment grounding terminal bar. At conductive
metal equipment racks, bond this terminal bar to the
rack frame with a stranded copper conductor bonding
jumper. For the case of the isolated equipment grounding
conductor scheme, consider the use of a removable
bonding jumper to simplify the ground isolation testing procedure.
6.4.2.1
For portable racks or equipment clusters fed
by flexible mains cords, connect the terminal bar to the
grounding contact of a three-wire mains attachment plug
using a suitable insulated service cord. Connect this attachment plug to a technical power receptacle.
6.4.2.2
For fixed racks using the bonded raceway
scheme, have a qualified person connect the terminal
bar to the grounding means of a mains receptacle feeding
the rack.
6.4.2.3
For a single equipment
the isolated equipment grounding
connect the terminal bar to the
grounding conductor. Refer to Fig.
ENGINEERING REPORTS
6.4.2.4
For an ensemble of equipment racks using
the isolated equipment grounding conductor scheme,
provide a master terminal bar to land conductors from
the individual rack equipment grounding terminal bars.
Connect the master terminal bar to the isolated equipment grounding conductor. Refer to [ 16].
6.4.2.5
Where a facility grounding mesh has been
selected and provided, connect the terminal bar to the
mesh, preferably at or near an intersection,
6.4.3
Ground individual items of apparatus via the insulated equipment grounding conductor (green or green/
yellow) of the apparatus three-wire mains power cord.
If the apparatus uses a two-wire mains power cord, or
an external low-(,oltage ac transformer or external dc
power supply where an equipment grounding conductor
is not carried through the low-voltage supply cord to the
apparatus, provide a separate bond wire (green or green/
yellow) to the local equipment grounding terminal bar.
At the apparatus, provide a lug and suitable hardware
for bonding. Size the separate bond wire to the largest
of either of the following:
6.4.3.1
The largest phase conductor
power cord feeding the apparatus,
of the mains
6.4.3.2
As required by the applicable code for bonding of a conductive equipment enclosure.
6.4.3.3
equipment
6.4.4
Do not permit apparatus or enclosures to touch
each other unless they are mechanically connected and
electrically bonded. Be aware that rack panel mounting
screws may not establish a low-impedance bond, especially if the apparatus panels are fabricated of hard anodized aluminum,
6.4.5
Observe that bonding both the apparatus and a
metallic equipment rack (enclosure) is required by the
applicable code but inherently creates a ground loop.
This does not appear to be a problem in practice. The
rack encloses the apparatus. If the rack is steel, the rack
functions as a partial magnetic shield, minimizing the
flux threading the possible loop.
6.5.2
For metallic raceway, bond the entire raceway
system to project ground per the most restrictive of either
the code or these provisions. Provide a bond jumper
conductor at all flexible metal conduit, regardless of
length.
6.5.3
Where metallic raceway is not feasible, and plastic or other nonmagnetic raceway is a requirement, increase the cross-sectional area of the raceway to permit
the installation of audio cable types having low susceptibility to magnetic induction, such as star-quad constructions.
6.5.4
In the absence of a specific investigation of eompatibility, space raceways for the audio signal system
at least 75 mm from raceways for all other systems if
both are steel, 250 mm if either or both are not steel.
6.6 Interconnection and Shield Treatment
6.6.1
Review the load and source parameters of the
apparatus. Review the apparatus for "pin I problems"
[13]. If a casual inspection is inconclusive, conduct the
"hummer test" described by Windt [ 17], the more elaborate test described by Perkins [18], or paragraph B.2.2
of CENELEC test configuration 2 [5]. With this information established, select the appropriate interconnection
schemes.
6.6.2
Review the conditions of audio system use. Select the multipoint or single-point ground scheme for
shields and apply it rigorously throughout the system.
Clearly document any expedient exceptions taken.
6.6.3
With the shield grounding scheme chosen, review candidate cable types with respect to shield current induced noise [13]. Review ambient conditions
and cable routing for potential magnetic induction.
Select appropriate
cable types. All signal shields
should be insulated from conductive
raceway and
enclosures.
For fixed installations, some means is generally desirable to organize, support, and protect signal conductors
running to locations distant from the main concentration
of the audio equipment,
6.6.4
If the single-point ground scheme is selected for
shields, review the engineering tradeoffs of grounding
at the load versus at the source, and make an informed
choice. For audio systems with moderate performance
objectives, such as permanently installed entertainment
sound reinforcement systems in public buildings, the
author has generally selected the compromise of groundlng shields to the load apparatus. This optimizes the
path for immunity from RFI rather than common-mode
rejection ratio at the load apparatus. Whitlock [15]
clearly indicates that this choice is not optimal for cases
with high audio performance objectives.
6.5.1
Consider the use of a fully enclosed metallic raceway system. This provides robust mechanical protection
and serves as an overall electric field shield. Steel raceway
may provide some amount of magnetic field shielding, but
this is not very effective as the permeability of typical
commercial steel is low at low field strengths.
6.6.5
If the preceding process is followed, the result
is that all shielded cables will be grounded exclusively
to the defined equipment grounding system via the audio
apparatus mains cord or via connection to the local
equipment grounding terminal bar. Refer to Figs. 1315 for examples.
511
FAUSE
6.6.6
ENGINEERING
REPORTS
For microphone
circuits
with phantom
(simplex)
ous case,
frame
to be grounded,
provide
individual
ground conductors
to the related rack equipment grounding terminal bar. Size this conductor for
(the microphone
preamplifier
or a separate
phantom
power apparatus).
Isolate such circuits
from other
grounding paths,
approximately
0.05-0.10
f/. For the typical case, bus
each row of jack frames and provide a common ground
conductor to the related rack equipment grounding terminal bar. Size the conductor for approximately
0.05 f_.
Refer to Fig. 16 for suggested
wiring of analog audio
jack fields for fixed installation
and moderate
audio performance objectives.
6.6.7
Where jack fields and similar cross-connection
equipment
are implemented,
treat jacks in the same general manner as selected for the apparatus. For the rigor-
EQUIPMENT WITH
COMMON 0HA5515
AND CIRCUIT GROUND
MTC OUTLET
150LATE---'
RECEPTACLE FROM /
TERMINAL STRIP
T-Ir
I
_'
TIF
ITYFE
Li_
.0,.,o.%?
EQUIPMENT
RAO'
FRAME
:'i'
EQUIPMENT WITH
SEPARATE 0HA5515
2_1
_
_,,_
J'TYpr x^|
.....
_
_
_
'ri(
.-W.RE '
'J'_'-I_
_
//
-WI.E
Jk[o:Z_,,,T
GROUND,,',G
i(_
B3T
_
TTT?E
_
D_
AND CIRCUITGROUN
/
TTYPE
....
3cT
-W,RE
-W,RE
_'[UI_UTo.."_,*o'.
_-'
TERMINAL BAR
L_.GROUNDING
CONTACT
OF
3-WIRE MAIN5
ATTACHMENT PLUG
LIFTED
Fig. 13. Grounding of audio apparatus and cable shields, multipoint grounding scheme.
EQUIPMENT WITH
COMMONCHA551S
MIC OUTLET
RECEPTACL?
OL_EHLE
'-_
TERMINAL STRIP
AND
EQUIPMENT
WITH
SEPARATECHASSIS
CIRCUIT GROUND/
GROUNDING CONDUCTOR
. .
TO PANELBOARD
CIRCUIT-TO-CHASSIS
GROUND
CONNECTION
LIFTED
TERMINAL
BAR
Fig. 14. Grounding of audio apparatus and cable shields, single-point grounding scheme, for moderate audio performance
objectives.
EQUPMENT
WITH
COMMON CHA$Sl5
AND
I
:AOp_ :iii:
GROUNDING CONDUCTOR
TO PANELBOARD
CIRC.T
EQUIPMENT
WITH
SEPARATE CHASSIS
_
GROUNP/
AND
CIRC.T
GROUND/
1NC
i
EQUIPMENT GROUNDING
TERMINAL BAR
CIRCUIT-TO-CHASSIS
GROUND CONNECTION
LIFTED
TO
SHIELD
)I
_
50
OHM
10
TO
CHASSIS
nY
Fig. 15. Grounding of audio apparatusand cableshields, single-point groundingscheme,for high audio performanceobjectives.
512
J. Audio
Eng.
Soc.,
Vol.
43,
No.
6, 1995
June
ENGINEERING
REPORTS
GROUNDING,
SHIELDING,
AND INTERCONNECTION
7 FURTHER PRACTICAL
MATTERS
SIMGI--E,
GRAPH1C
7.3
Portable signal cables for general use, such as typical cables using male and female circular audio connectors, should be assembled with electrical continuity for
all active pins of the connectors. If a "pin 1 lifter" is
required, a flagrantly labeled adapter device is strongly
preferred.
JACK
SYMBOl
$1MGL-E,
GRAPH1C
MICROPMOHE TRUNK
SYMBOl-
<
<
3CHENATIC
SCHI=MAT1C
D1AGP-.AM
DIAGRAM
CONNECT
OR ISOLATE
AT -I
THIS PO1HT COM$1STEMT
WITH THE[ ,SELECTED
GROUME_IMG _CNEME.
RACK
GFa-.C)UMD BAR
RACK
*//_1_
E_L'J=VATIOM
0_*'0
0/_
c_
Iol
(b)
SYMBOL
GRAPHIC
HALF
MORMALEI_
(MOMITOR
&OURCE,
BREAK
OM OM
bOA[D)
>
' o ,f/F/
(a)
GRAPHIC
GROUMED BAR
<
$CHI=MATIC
JACK
PAIP-., D1AGRAM
SYMBOLTHROUGH
(BREAK
MORMALED
OH
8OURCE
BOTM
AMD
WAY, _
L.OA_;
SCHEMATIC
DIAGRAM
JACK
DOUBLE,
SOURCE
E
Rlr,lg
,SLEEVE
(-)
R1MG (-)
GROUME_ AT RECEIVIMG
P1ECE Ot = t=QUIPMEMT.
RACK
GROUMID
JACKBAY
SLEEVE
BAR
/ /_$OURCE
_/OAD
RACK
o f/oo'o Io[,
(c)
GROUMD
BAR
_L
SOURCE
,_
o .f/oF/ Iol
(d)
Fig. 16. Suggested wiring of jacks at jack fields for typical telephone (post office) pattern or bantam pattern jacks, single-point
grounding scheme, for moderate audio performance objectives.
J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 43, No. 6, 1995 June
513
FAUSE
ENGINEERING
REPORTS
7.4 Isolate audio connector shells from conductive receptacle plates fastened to raceway system outlet boxes,
7.5 For portable audio cables, grounded connector
shells of conductive material are strongly preferred to
maintain the continuity of electric-field shielding,
Some users prefer to isolate the connector shell or
float the shell with respect to ground. This is done with
the intent of preventing possible intermittent ground
loops due to the contact of connector shells with those
of another cable or other grounded surfaces, such as
outlet box covers, conduits, and the like. The tradeoff
is a reduction in RF immunity. Further, there will be
hum induction when anyone touches the shell,
JACK
PALP-., M1CI_.OPNOI',tE
TRUFtK
THROUGH
MORMALED
BOTH
AMD
G_APH1C<
>
SYMBOL
(BREAK
OM SOURCE
SCHEMATIC
D1AGRAM
IX
[ GROUHD
0,/_
PIECE
JACK
WA_
LOAF
MUL-T1PL-E,
GRAPH1C SYMBOL-_
SCNI=MAT1C [::)IAGRAM
EQUIPMENT/
RAcK
GROUP'AR
'
RACK
GROUND
BAR
=
o go
o . 'oooo 'o
(e)
JACK PA1R, COMSOLFGP_APH1C SYMI_O/
HALF
_-< )
1MSE_T
JACK PAI_,
CONSOl-fGP_APHIC' SYMt_OL-
MORMALED
D1AGRAM
F-< _>
o %'
LOAD
II
[I
II.,
IIII
HALFNORMALED
$CMI=MATlC
%hi
Il
D1AGI_.AM
II
'
GROUMD
,, /--SOURCE
JZ ,,-./Z-.
/.LOAD
ooo/ o
'.
(g)
cOHsoi
AT
COHSOLE
AT
CONSOLE
DETAIL
FOR
DUAL
INSERTJACK
TIE SHIELD
Oi"f CONSOLE
TO-
ELEVAT1OfW
Iol
COHSOLE
_AI;:;
__/
JACKBAY
,,
l=
SEilB
(-)/6i'IP
TIP
coMMoN
J_L
CONSOLE
DETAIL
FOR Sli'tGLE
INSERT
JACK CfM
CONSOLE
SEMI::)
_TIP
GROUND
JACKBAT
ELEVAT)Ohl
1MSI=t_T
(MOhilTOROM OM
SOURCE,
BREAK
LOAD)
SOURCE
H
Iol
(f)
(MOSITOR
SOURCE.
BREAK OM O-N
LOAD)
8CME_MATlC
(MULT)
RECEIVING/
AT
OF
,
o
(_-_ _
_L
//-__OUA_::)C_,.
{_,,_
bS f/oo
t_//_
' Iol
(h)
ENGINEERING REPORTS
7.8 IfRFI is observed in an audio system, first investigate the system ground scheme, unless a given item of
apparatus is obviously at fault.
The author's consulting practices employ a simple
practical test for possible system susceptibility to RFI.
A handheld 2-W business band transceiver is introduced
inside an open equipment rack, the carrier is keyed, and
modulation is applied. The audio system should exhibit
little, if any, change in signal performance. Audio systerns shielded and grounded according to the preceding
discussion routinely pass this test. Clearly, the test is
crude and lacks repeatability, but it provides a rapid
real-world relative indication of system immunity.
FAUSE
ENGINEERING
REPORTS
THE AUTHOR
Kenneth R. Fause received the B.S. degree in engineering from Comell University, Ithaca, NY, in 1971.
After graduation he joined the Cornell staff as a research
technician for the Social Psychology Laboratory, where
he developed data acquisition and analysis systems for
human communication behavior experiments. In 1970
he had served as a consultant with Bolt, Beranek and
Newman, New York. He moved to Los Angeles, CA,
in late 1973 to pursue graduate studies in theater, architecture, and engineering acoustics at UCLA, where he
received an M.A. degree in threater arts in 1978. From
1975 to 1977 he was a chief engineer for Audio Concepts, Inc., Hollywood, CA. From July through Decembet 1980 he served as president of Filmways Audio
Services, Inc.
516
J. AudioEng.Soc.,Vol.43,No.6,1995June