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depositional history of an oil shale includes the organisms and sediments that were deposited, as well
as how those deposits interacted with pressure and heat.
The van Krevelen Diagram
The van Krevelen Diagram is a method of classifying oil shales based on their depositional history.
The diagram divides oil shales according to where they were deposited: in lakes (lacustrine), in the
ocean (marine), or on land (terrestrial).
Oil shales from lacustrine environments formed mostly from algae living in freshwater, saltwater,
or brackish water. Lamosite and torbanite are types of oil shales associated with lacustrine
environments. Lamosite deposits make up some of the largest oil shale formations in the world.
Torbanite deposits are found mainly in Scotland, Australia, Canada, and South Africa.
Oil shales from marine environments formed mostly from deposits of algae and plankton. Kukersite,
tasmanite, and marinite are types of marine shales. Kukersite is found in the Baltic Oil Shale Basin in
Estonia and Russia. Tasmanite is named after the region in which it was discovered, the island of
Tasmania, Australia. Marinite, the most abundant of all oil shales, is found in environments that once
held wide, shallow seas. Although marinite is abundant, it is often a thin layer and not economically
practical to extract. The largest marinite deposits in the world are in the United States, stretching from
the states of Indiana and Ohio through Kentucky and Tennessee.
Oil shales from terrestrial environments formed in shallowbogs and swamps with low amounts of
oxygen. The deposits were mostly the waxy or corky stems of hardy plants. Cannel shale, also called
cannel coal or candle coal, is probably the most familiar type of terrestrial oil shale. Cannel coal was
used primarily as fuel for streetlights and other illumination in the 19th century.
Classifying Oil Shales by Mineral Content
Oil shales are classified in three main types based on their mineral content: carbonate-rich shale,
siliceous shale, and cannel shale.
Carbonate-rich shale deposits have high amounts of carbonate minerals. Carbonate minerals are
made of various forms of the carbonate ion (a unique compound of carbon and oxygen). Calcite, for
instance, is a carbonate mineral common in carbonate-rich shales. Calcite is a primary component of
many marine organisms. Calcite helps form the shells and hard exteriors of oysters, sea stars, and
sand dollars. Plankton, red algae, and sponges are also important sources of calcite.
Siliceous shale is rich in the mineral silica, or silicon dioxide. Siliceous shale formed from organisms
such as algae, sponges, and microoganisms called radiolarians. Algae have a cell wall made of silica,
while sponges and radiolarians have skeletons or spicules made of silica. Siliceous oil shale is
sometimes not as hard as carbonate-rich shale, and can more easily be mined.
Cannel shale has terrestrial origins, and is often classified ascoal. It is made up from the remains of
resin, spores, and corky materials from woody plants. It can contain the minerals inertinite and
vitrinite. Cannel shale is rich in hydrogen, and burns easily.
The modern shale industry began in the 19th century. This industry used industrial processes to heat
shale in order to extract oil. Shale oil was used for a variety of products, including paraffin wax.
European countries, and later the United States, began extracting oil shale and shale oil and burning
them as sources of fuel. The first U.S. shale mining facilities were established in the Ohio River Valley
in the states of Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia, and Kentucky.
Extracting and processing shale oil is an expensive and difficult process. Coal, petroleum, and natural
gas are less expensive to extract. Australia, Brazil, Switzerland, Sweden, Spain, and South Africa
began mining oil shale in the 19th and 20th centuries, but they all stopped production by the 1960s.
The U.S. ceased production in the early 1980s.
Many nations, including Estonia, China, and Brazil, continue to rely on oil shale for fuel. It is burned to
generate electricity, is a component in chemical industries, and byproducts are used in cement
production.
Extracting Shale Oil
Obtaining shale oil from oil shale involves heating kerogen in a process called pyrolysis. Pyrolysis is a
form of heating without the use of oxygen. At about 60-160 degrees Celsius (140-320 degrees
Fahrenheit), kerogen reaches its natural oil window. At 120-225 degrees Celsius (248-437 degrees
Fahrenheit), kerogen reaches its natural gas window. For production of oil shale, the temperatures
are much higher.
Pyrolysis can either be done ex situ (above ground) or in situ(below ground).
Ex Situ
During the ex situ process, oil shale is first extracted from the earth by surface or underground
mining. The rock is crushed, and then retorted (heated) to release the shale oil. The shale oil is then
refined of impurities, such as sulfur.
In Situ
In situ is a new, experimental method of extracting shale oil.
During the in situ process, oil shale is not mined or crushed. Instead, the rock is heated to its oil
window while it is still underground.
One technology used for in situ oil extraction is known asvolumetric heating. In this process, the rock
is heated directly with an electric current. The heating element is injected either directly in a horizontal
well or into a fractured area of the rock, until the oil shale begins producing shale oil. The oil could
then be pumped directly from underground.
Combined Technologies
Some methods are designed for both in situ and ex situextraction.
The internal combustion process uses a combination of gas, steam and spent shale produced by ex
situ processing. These compounds are burned for pyrolysis. The hot gas is continually cycled through
the oil shale, pyrolyzing the rock and releasing oil.
Unfortunately, substances in the oil shale, such as sulfides, react with water to form toxic compounds
that are harmful to the environment and to us. Sulfides can cause effects from eye irritation to
suffocation. Water containing toxic substances is unusable, and expensive to decontaminate.
The process also produces heaps of ash. This ash canpollute ground, air, and water sources.
Another method that can be used either in situ or ex situinvolves chemically reactive fluids. The
fluids are injected directly into the retort zone (where the rock is being heated). High-pressure
hydrogen is one of the most common chemically reactive fluids. It simultaneously heats the rock,
removes sulfur, and upgrades the quality of the extracted oil.
Environmental Effects
Mining for oil shale can have damaging effects on the environment.
When shale oil is combusted (heated), it releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide
is a greenhouse gas; it absorbs and retains heat in Earths atmosphere, a process called the
greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is essential to life on Earth because it helps insulateEarth
and keep it at a warm, livable temperature.
The greenhouse effect helps maintain Earths carbon budget. Carbon is constantly being exchanged
between the ocean, the atmosphere, and the Earth itself. Carbon on the earth is contained in plants,
soil, fossil fuels, and all living thingsincluding us!
The carbon in fossil fuels (including coal, petroleum, natural gas, and oil shale) has
been sequestered, or stored, underground for millions of years. By removing this sequestered carbon
from the earth and releasing it into the atmosphere, Earths carbon budget is put out of balance.
Burning fossil fuels releases carbon into the atmosphere at a much quicker rate than the trees, water,
and ground can reabsorb it. More carbon retains more heat in Earths atmosphere, and contributes to
rising temperaturesglobal warming, the current period of climate change. Sometimes, climates can
rise faster than organisms can adapt.
Another environmental disadvantage to extracting shale oil is the enormous amounts of freshwater
required. Water is necessary for drilling, mining, refining, and generating power. Some experts
estimate that three litres (.8 gallon) of water are required to produce just one litre (.3 gallon) of shale
oil. Some of this water is contaminated by toxic compounds, and is costly to decontaminate.
Mining can also contaminate groundwater. During in situprocessing, toxic byproducts are left
underground. They canleach into other sources of water, making them unsafe for drinking, hygiene,
or development.
Oil Shale and the U.S.
The United States has enormous proven deposits of oil shale. A source of oil in the United States
would reduce the need for importing oil from other countries. This would put people to work and make
the U.S. less dependent on foreign trade and fluctuating oil prices.
However, not all of oil shale is recoverable. Oil shales distinct chemical compounds and depositional
history directly affect their energy content. This determines whether they are economically worth
recovering.
For example, Australias oil shales are siliceous (silica-based). They have fewer impurities and are
less complex than the carbonate-based oil shales in the Western United States, and thus cost less to
extract and process.
Depositional history also matters: Oil shales that developed in wetlands or small lakes are very rich in
energy. However, these formations are usually small. Larger lakes created larger shale formations,
although these usually yield less oil.
The process of extracting shale oil is expensive, much more expensive than the process of extracting
crude oil. Due to this expense, the use of shale oil in the U.S. has fluctuated depending on the price of
crude oil. Companies have only mined for oil shale when the price of crude oil is high. Today, the price
of oil is relatively high and extraction technology is becoming more efficient and less expensive. The
possibility of mining oil shale has again become a possibility.
Communities, governments, oil companies, and environmental organizations must weigh the cost of
extraction with the benefits of an oil resource.