Sfameni2010 MAGIC IN LATE ANTIQUITY - THE EVIDENCE OF MAGICAL GEMS PDF

MAGIC IN LATE ANTIQUITY:
THE EVIDENCE OF MAGICAL GEMS

Carla Sfameni
Abstract
This article examines the main problems related to the so-called magical gems (semiprecious stones engraved with images of various deities or
demons and characterised by the presence of symbols and inscriptions)
in order to illustrate the contribution that this kind of archaeological
material can make to our knowledge of magic and popular beliefs in
Late Antiquity. Magical gems reflect a complex ideology, closely linked
to ritual activities performed in order to achieve a number of different
purposes (divination, protection against dangers, health, love, success
and wealth). These aims were sought by invoking superhuman power
by means of the images represented and of the formulas inscribed on the
gems. Due to the complex problems raised by this kind of archaeological material, it will be necessary to limit the discussion to the analysis of
some relevant examples from the available evidence.
Introduction
Magical gems are semiprecious stones engraved with images of various
deities or demons. The powers depicted usually appear in their traditional Graeco-Roman and Egyptian forms, but sometimes there are
new types, monstrous combinations of human and animal elements.
Many of the figures have no connection with magic in themselves
but are applied to magical use either by being inscribed with magical words or formulas or by being combined with solar and cosmic
symbols.
Interest in magical gems is not very widespread among scholars of
Classical Antiquity. First of all, magical gems have little artistic value
because the images are often crudely executed. Classical archaeologists
generally are not very interested in this kind of material because the
inscriptions require a specific epigraphic and linguistic competence.
Egyptologists have largely neglected these objects because they belong
D. Gwynn, S. Bangert (edd.) Religious Diversity in Late Antiquity
(Late Antique Archaeology 6 2008) (Leiden 2010), pp. 435473
436
carla sfameni
to a very late period and to Hellenistic culture, while historians of

religion only recently have started to use systematically this kind of
evidence to illustrate religious beliefs in Late Antiquity. Gems are also
neglected due to their dispersal amongst many museums, and the collections of magical gems are in any case only rarely on display. Finally,
as it is very difficult to interpret this type of object, so it is necessary
to work in teams and use the different methodologies of the individual
disciplines to fully assess their significance.
The primary aim of this paper is to show the important contribution
that the study of magical gems in connection with the texts known as
Magical Papyri can make to our knowledge of magical theories and
practices in Late Antiquity.
A Brief History of Research into Magical Gems
In the 17th and 18th c. several works were produced in which collections of gems were discussed.1 The authors of these works described
as Gnostic or Abrasax gems which bore names or inscriptions or
astral symbols.2 The definition of these gems as Gnostic depended
on the fact that at that time scholars considered Gnostics to be like
heretics, devoted to secret and magic activities.3 Furthermore, according to Irenaeus and Hippolytus, the Gnostic Basilides counted 365
heavens, whose archon was called Abrasax: this name corresponds to
the number 365 which also refers to the days of the year.4 This name
is often inscribed on the gems. Macarius and Chiflet who wrote essays
on magical gems in the 17th c. believed that gems with the name
Abrasax were created by members of Gnostic sects.5 In 1911, De Ridder defined this kind of gem as magic.6 A few years later, in 1914,
A. Delatte, when publishing the catalogue of the collections of the
National Museum in Athens, rejected the name Gnostic for these
1
Gorlaeus (1707); Maffei (1707); Mariette (17321737). For a synthesis of the earliest research on magical gems see Zwierlein-Diehl (1991) 1215 and Mastrocinque
(2003A) 12736.
2
Du Molinet (1692).
3
Capello (1702) stressed the Gnostic interpretation and this theory was universally
accepted in the following century, especially by Matter (1828) and King (1887).
4
Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses 1.24.7; Hippol. Haer. 7.26.6.
5
Macarius (1657).
6
De Ridder (1911).
magic in late antiquity: evidence of magical gems
437
gems and proved that they were simply magical amulets.7 Nowadays
scholars believe that, even if it is possible that some Gnostic ideas and
practices could have influenced the manufacture of magical amulets, it
is not correct to attribute the production of this kind of object exclusively or mainly to a Gnostic milieu.8
The most important modern studies on magical gems are those of
C. Bonner9 and of A. Delatte and Ph. Derchain.10 C. Bonner wrote
the first systematic study of the gems and gave them the definition of
magical amulets. According to this scholar, Gnosticism was only one
of the many religious traditions that contributed to the creation of
magical gems.11 A. Delatte and Ph. Derchain attributed these objects
to the magical world in which they noted different religious traditions
but a coherent doctrine.12 They classified the gems on the basis of the
types represented, whereas Bonner distinguished the specimens mainly
by their function. Later many catalogues of collections were published,
together with a number of studies on single specimens or groups of
objects.13 The Sylloge Gemmarum Gnosticarum, recently edited by A. Mastrocinque, has assembled many specimens published in the works of
the 17th and 18th c., using an interdisciplinary method to analyze this
kind of object.14
Magic and Religion
In the Graeco-Roman world the words magus, magia and other similar
terms often had a negative meaning and were associated with antisocial activities.15 Greeks and Romans believed that magic had the
power to alter the regular course of nature, and due to this opinion
Delatte (1914).
Sfameni Gasparro (2003). On Gnosticism see Bianchi (1967); Ries, Janssens and
Sevrin (1982); on Gnosticism and magic: Sfameni Gasparro (2000); Mastrocinque
(2005).
9
Bonner (1950), (1951) and (1954).
10
Delatte and Derchain (1964).
11
Bonner (1950) in particular 2244.
12
Delatte and Derchain (1964).
13
See: AGDS IIV; Pannuti (1983); Philipp (1986); Zwierlein-Diehl (1991); Henig
(1994); Michel (2001); Mastrocinque (2002).
14
Mastrocinque (2003B).
15
See Graf (1995); Graf (2000); Dickie (2001) 1217. A synthesis of elements in
Greek and Roman magic can be found in Moreau (2000).
7
8
438
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magic was often condemned by laws.16 The Greek term mageia comes
from a word used to indicate a Persian priest (magos); so it is possible
that the negative meaning of the word depends on the hostile attitude
of Greek writers towards the Persian people.17 This may also explain
why the accusation of magic was at times used to attack enemies or
in reference to foreign religious rituals,18 and ancient writers viewed
the nature of mageia as a distinctive category in Greek and Roman
thinking.19
There are several different theories of magic in ancient Greek and
Roman writing.20 For example, Origen (184253) wrote: So-called
magic is not, as the followers of Epicurus and Aristotle think, utterly
incoherent, but, as the experts in these things prove, is a consistent
system, which has principles known to very few.21 Apuleius (ca. 125
ca. 180) divided magical practices into good and evil, and good magic
is also divided into popular and philosophical magic.22 The concept
of philosophical magic depended on the theory of a finite cosmos
in which all elements are related to one another through a cosmic
sympathy.23
The question of possible differences among various kinds of magic
is only one aspect of the more complex problem of the definition
of magic itself. Modern scholars continue to debate the relationship
between magic and religion, but no definition is universally accepted.24
Some scholars have asserted that magic is easily separable from religion: Frazer saw it as a vestige of an early stage of religious development,25 Barb as a decayed form of religion.26 More recent studies
See Lugli (1989) 3435 for the Roman laws against magical practices.
On the Persian magoi as priests see Herod. 1.40, 101, 107ff., 120, 128; 7.19, 37,
43, 113f.; Xen. Cyr. 8.1.23; Cic. Div. 1.23 and 41. On the origin of the term magos,
see Graf (1995) 2158 and Bremmer (1999).
18
Graf (1995) 29.
19
Dickie (2001).
20
See Graf (2002) for a useful synthesis on the main theories of magic in
Antiquity.
21
Origen C. Cels 1.24 (transl. Chadwick (1965)).
22
Apul. Apol. 9.42 and 6163.
23
Plotinus Enn. 4.4.40. See Braarving (1999) 4651 about theurgy.
24
For a bibliographic synthesis on ancient magic see Fowler (2005). Main studies on magic: Faraone and Obbink (1991); Graf (1995); Meyer and Mirecki (1995);
Schfer and Kippenberg (1997); Braaving (1999); Asirvatham, Ondine Pache and
Watrous (2001); Dickie (2001); Meyer and Mirecki (2002); Sfameni Gasparro (2003);
Martin (2005).
25
Frazer (1900) vol. 1, 6278.
26
Barb (1968) 114.
16
17
439
have modified these opinions and nowadays the most widely accepted
theory is that the categories of magic and religion are indivisible but
different, and many scholars do not agree on the existence of a contrast between magic and religion.27 The problem is too complex to
be fully discussed here, neither is it possible to examine all the modern theories put forward by historians of religions and anthropologists
on this matter.28 Nevertheless, it is important to stress some points of
the current theoretical debate.29 It is difficult to give a clear definition
of magic because there was no single ancient view of magic and the
concept of magic itself changed in different contexts and periods.30
Magic and religion belong to the same cultural and religious context
and are closely linked, because they are two co-existent ways to create communication between the human and the divine worlds.31 Yet
some important differences existed and were stressed by the ancient
writers themselves.32 Nowadays many scholars refuse to theorise about
magic, even in books specifically dedicated to ancient magic, while
they prefer to examine specific materials. For example, this is the case
of two works on ancient magic published in 2001. N. Janowitz, in the
preface of her Magic in the Roman World, asserts that magic is not a
coherent topic33 and this is the reason why she prefers not to offer a
clear definition of magic itself, but only a brief survey of the theories
of other scholars.34 M. Dickie in his interesting book about people who
practiced magic from the 5th c. B.C. to the 7th c. A.D. has collected
and analyzed a large number of ancient sources. At the beginning of
his work, in chapter 1, the scholar admits that it is very difficult to
define the notion of magic, examining some theories of historians and
anthropologists.35 More recently, S. Johnston, reviewing Janowitzs
27
Blythin (1970) 4550; Versnel (1991) 17797; Garca Teijero (1993) 12328;
Bremmer (1999) 112.
28
For example see: Aune (1980) 150757; Faraone and Obbink (1991); Graf (1995);
Luck (1997); Schfer and Kippenberg (1997); Flint, Gordon, Luck and Ogden (1999);
Sfameni Gasparro (2002) and (2003).
29
For the main modern theories of religion and anthropology on ancient magic see
Aune (1980) 150757; Segal (1981); Faraone and Obbink (1991); Graf (1995); Luck
(1995); Schfer and Kippenberg (1997); Flint, Gordon, Luck and Ogden (1999).
30
See in particular Segal (1981) 351 and Gordon (1999).
31
Blythin (1970) 59.
32
Luck (1995).
33
Janowitz (2001) ix.
34
Janowitz (2001) 26.
35
Dickie (2001) 1827.
440
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and Dickies books and a work by D. Ogden on Greek and Roman

necromancy,36 has presented some incisive reflections about the current debate on ancient magic. Johnston stresses that: It is the nature
of scholarship to impose order, which means imposing and then defining categories . . . We need definitions of magic, at least for heuristic
purposes.37
Even if it is not easy at all, it is necessary to define the phenomenon
of ancient magic in order to be able to discuss theories and ideas with
other scholars referring to the same categories. It is generally admitted
that magic has some specific qualities. First of all, the most peculiar
feature of magic is the strong power that the magician claims to hold
over the divine world: he threatens and blackmails the gods, whereas
the religious man is reverent towards the gods. Moreover, magic rituals are performed in a private context (the magician and his client ),
whereas traditional religious activities have a mainly communal character. Magic is also characterised by an aggressive component, absent
or present only in rare situations in religious activities.
There were many different kinds of magical practices in Antiquity
(exorcism, alchemy, love rites and so on); in particular, in the late
antique period, we are well informed about magic by a series of important documents, like defixiones and, above all, papyri and gems.38
The Magical Gems
Gems as Amulets in Classical and Late Antiquity
An amulet is an object meant to protect the person who wears it
against ills. It is also believed to have the power to produce a positive
effect or to obey the will of the wearer. Ancient people used different
kinds of materials to create amulets: papyri, tissues, leaves, lead tablets.
In particular, sheets of lead with inscriptions, called defixiones, were
very commonly used from the 5th c. B.C. to the 6th c. A.D.: they were
intended to influence the actions of people against their will.39
36
37
38
39
Ogden (2001).
Johnston (2003).
See Sfameni (2009).
Edition: Audollent (1904). See also Jordan (1985); Gager (1992); Ogden (1999).
441
Since very ancient times and in many different cultural contexts,

stones were used as amulets because they were believed to possess a
quality to protect the wearer against dangers and diseases, and to give
him some advantage. The elder Pliny (A.D. 23/479) gives us some
useful information about stones used as amulets, the prehistoric axes
used by magicians,40 but from other sources we know that there were
many kinds of magical stones, like those with a particular shape or
stones fallen from the sky that had the power to shake off fetters or
cast out demons.41 It is also known that the theurgi used carved stones
to make prophetic statues of deities.42
If people believed that special kinds of stones possessed specific
powers, at a certain moment they thought that this power could be
strengthened by carving an image or inscribing names and formulas
on them. Pliny refers to the magical power of gemstones in many passages of his work. For example he wrote:
Now I shall discuss those kinds of gemstones that are acknowledged as
such, beginning with the finest. And this shall not be my only aim, but
to the greater profit of mankind I shall incidentally confute the abominable falsehoods of the Magi, since in very many of their statements
about gems they have gone far beyond providing an alluring substitute
for medical science into the realms of the supernatural.43
Plinys contempt for the superstitious belief in the magical power of

gemstones is also shown in the following passage:
There are many more stones that are even more magical, and these have
received foreign names from men who have thus betrayed the fact that
they are ordinary, worthless stones, and not precious stones at all. But
I shall here remain content with having exposed the abominable falsehoods of the Magi.44
Plin. HN 37.135; 30.14. Cf. Mastrocinque (1998), cap.V.

See Mastrocinque (2003A) 53: Orphei Lithik 36087; Orphei lithik kerygmata 16.5
(ed. Halleux and Schamp (1985) 101103 and 157); PGM 12.279 ss.
42
Corpus Hermeticum, Asclepius 3.24; 3738; PGM 4.3142.
43
Plin. HN 37.54: Nunc gemmarum confessa genera dicemus ab laudatissimis orsi, nec vero
id solum agemus, sed etiam maiore utilitate vitae obiter coarguemus. Magorum infandam vanitatem,
quando vel plurima illi prodidere de gemmis ab medicinae blandissima specie ad prodiga transgressi.
Transl. Eichholz (1962) 205. See also HN 37.118123/24; 192.
44
Plin. HN 37.193: Sunt et multo plures magisque monstrificae quibus Barbara dedere nomina
confessi lapides esse, non gemmas. Nobis satis erit in his coarguisse dira mendacia Magorum.
40
41
442
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It was in the time of the elder Pliny in the 1st c. A.D. that magical
gems worn as amulets appear to have become widespread. According
to Pliny, Nowadays even men are beginning to wear on their fingers
a representation of Harpocrates and figures of Egyptian deities.45
The majority of the surviving magical gems date from the imperial period (2nd4th c.) but they remained widely diffused across the
empire until at least the 5th or 6th c.46 It is impossible in this short
paper to discuss the date of every single gem discussed here, and the
precise chronology of individual specimens is frequently difficult to
establish, due to the crude execution of the gems and to the similar
characteristics shared by gems from different periods. However, some
pieces can be dated by the style and technique of their inscriptions,
which often display lettering of a kind known from the 2nd3rd c.
onwards.47 Some specimens also present a strong link with documents
that can be placed with certainty between the 3rd and 5th c., in particular the magical papyri.
Production and Provenance
Most magical gems are stones carved on one or both sides, made to
be set in rings or necklaces.48 On the gems we generally find figures of
various deities. Spells are usually joined to the images, but on many
specimens the inscription is on its own. The text is generally written
in Greek characters but there are also Egyptian, Hebrew or Aramaic
words and sometimes incomprehensible combinations of letters and
symbols, the so called voces magicae and charakteres. Charakter is the term
used to indicate the small designs and figures found on magical papyri
and gems that have no apparent source in any known alphabet but
that have a meaning in their sequence.49 The voces magicae are foreign
or strange-sounding words that Greeks called Ephesia grammata. They
45
Plin. HN 33.41: Iam vero etiam Harpocratem, statuas Aegyptiorum numinum in digitis viri
quoque portare incipient.
46
For further information see the catalogues of gems dated on the basis of stylistic
and epigraphic criteria in AGDS IIV; Pannuti (1983); Philipp (1986); Zwierlein-Diehl
(1991); Michel (2001).
47
Bonner (1950) 13.
48
Cf. the snake-legged god with the cocks head on a gold necklace found in
a grave at Polistis Chrysochou, in Cyprus (2nd3rd c. A.D.): Pierides (1971) 4849,
tav. 33.
49
For the magical use of written words and charakteres see Frankfurter (1994).
443
are in evidence already in Assyrian and Egyptian magic from the 2nd
millennium B.C.50 Names and epithets of deities are generally found
in the vocative case; there are also acclamations.51
Magical gems were usually consecrated by priests or magicians
using specific rites.52 It is very difficult to distinguish a magical gem
from another gem used only for devotional purposes, car le propre de la magie est de pouvoir transformer un object ordinaire en
object magique, comme latteste lhistoire de la lampe dAladin.53
The papyri confirm that some gems with images of deities without
any magical signs (inscriptions, symbols, characters etc.) were used for
magical purposes.54
The provenance of the surviving magical gems is known in very few
instances because gems found in regular excavations are very rare.55
The great number of pieces attests to a wide distribution of this kind
of material. Some scholars suggest that the gems were spread through
the Roman empire by Roman legionaries.56 In any case, it is certain
that gems were carried to locations very far from the places where they
were produced. It is also certain that modern collectors contributed to
their dispersal. A. Delatte and Ph. Derchain observe that:
malgr cette norme dispersion, lunit de doctrine, de facture plus ou
moins habile, et la ressemblance gnrale avec la doctrine des papyrus
dcouverts en Egypte inclinent croire que nous nous trouvons dans
la plupart des cas devant des produits de lindustrie gyptienne et plus
prcisment alexandrine.57
The central role of Alexandria in the production of magical gems is

generally accepted because in this city, more than anywhere else, different ethnic communities (Egyptian, Greek, Roman) co-habited and
there was an active Judaic group.58 The Jews, in particular, were the
largest foreign population in Alexandria and their monotheism with its
For the main interpretations of the voces magicae, see Ritner (1995) 342938.
Bonner (1950) 167207.
52
Cf. PGM 4.1617ss.; 1716ss.; 1743s.; 12.16ss.; 201ss.; 7.579ss.; Festugire (1951)
8283.
53
Nagy (2002) 156.
54
PGM 5.44758: gemstone with the image of Sarapis used for divinatory
dreams.
55
Bonner (1950) 251.
56
Neverov (1998).
57
Delatte and Derchain (1964) 15.
58
Delatte and Derchain (1964) 15; Barb (1968) 130.
50
51
444
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peculiar and exclusive character set them apart from the other local
communities. On the other hand, according to M. Smith, the role of
Alexandria in the production of magical gems may have been exaggerated: if it is true that most of the words inscribed on these objects are
Hebrew, there is no reason why gems could not have been produced in
Palestine, Syria, and even Rome rather than in Alexandria.59 Unfortunately the lack of archaeological evidence does not allow us to confirm
either of these hypotheses. Nevertheless it is noteworthy that Egypt
was a highly multicultural society in Late Antiquity and religion was
the main area of contact between Egyptians, Greeks, Jews and even
Christians.60 D. Frankfurter has reconstructed the situation under the
Roman administration in Egypt. As the economic position of Egyptian temples came under threat, the priests adopted different strategies
to deal with the situation. Some of them were able to exercise their
power in the local communities, thanks to their control of texts belonging to the temple tradition. Those priests could be the authors of the
magical papyri.61 Gems are so closely linked to the magical papyri, as
I will try to show in the next paragraphs, that the hypothesis of an
Egyptian origin for the production of magical gems seems quite probable. This does not mean, of course, that the gems could not also be
made in many different regions of the Roman empire. Yet H. Philipp
has pointed out how few gems have been found in the western regions
of the empire. In the collection in the Rheinisches Landesmuseum in
Bonn, for example, only two gems that have a German provenance
are magical.62
The gems generally have an oval shape, while other shapes are rare;
they are completely similar in form to the shapes used for non-magical gems.63 The commonest stones used for magical gems are different
qualities of jasper (green, red, yellow), agate, haematite, chalcedony,
lapis lazuli, rock-crystal, carnelian, obsidian and steatite. The different
kinds of stones are sometimes associated with specific figures.64
Smith (1967).
Bagnall (1993), in particular 261310.
61
Frankfurter (1998) 198233.
62
Philipp (1986) 9.
63
Bonner (1950) 13.
64
Bonner (1950) 9: for example green jasper is often used for amulets with the
image of the snake-legged god with a cocks head, red jasper for many Egyptians gods,
yellow jasper and haematite for the uterine gems. However, these associations are
never universal or consistent.
59
60
Fig. 1
445
The snake-legged god with a cocks head (after SGG 284, n. 225).
Typology
The gems can be classified by type65 or by function.66
It is not easy to define the typology of the main subjects represented
on magical gems: we can choose the particular religious tradition represented, isolate the most significant figures, or select the types on the
basis of the function of the figures depicted.
While most of the figures belong to the traditional religious pantheons (Graeco-Roman, Egyptian etc.), and their magical use is testified by the presence of inscriptions, spells, names or symbols and
characters, there are some representations of deities which specifically
belong to the world of magic. The most famous and mysterious is the
snake-legged god with a cocks head: it is one of the most common
monstrous figures represented on magical gems (Fig. 1).67 The monster
faces front, the head is usually turned to the right or sometimes to the
left. The arms and the trunk are human, the right hand usually holds
a whip and the left arm carries a round shield. A military kilt covers
the area joining the trunk to the legs, which are serpents. The serpent
65
66
67
See, for example, Delatte and Derchain (1964).

This is the system adopted by Bonner (1950).
Bonner (1950) 12339.
446
carla sfameni
legs clearly derive from the Greek tradition of the giants, but it is difficult to understand the origin and the meaning of the cocks head; the
connection between snake and cock has no comparison elsewhere. It is
possible to suppose an influence from Persia and Syria, but while there
are many hypotheses and explanations no one is certain.68 The solar
nature of the subject is commonly recognised. This particular type
has often been regarded as Gnostic because the name Abrasax occurs
on many specimens. However, this name is also associated with many
other types and it can be regarded as a word of power rather than
a proper name. According to many scholars the actual name of this
figure is Iao because this name is inscribed on the gods shield on most
of the specimens. Nevertheless, like Abrasax, the name Iao is inscribed
on a number of gems in connection with many different types.
There are many figures partly human and partly animal. Many
deities with a human body and an animals head were familiar to
Egyptians but monstrous to Greeks and Romans. The most common
such subject is the so-called Pantheos or Bes Pantheos (Fig. 2). This figure was known from the Pharaonic period.69 On the gems the god
is represented facing front, naked and often ithiphallic; two pairs of
wings extend outwards from his shoulders, he has a long tail, four arms
holding different objects and he often stands on an ouroboros containing
animals, charakteres or names. He is a cosmic and pantheistic god with
solar connections.70
Egyptian deities are very often represented on magical gems: in particular Isis, Osiris, Sarapis, Horus-Harpokrates and Anubis but also
Thoth, cynocephali, leontocephali, other figures with animal heads,
scarabs and, less often, Seth, Apis or other gods.71 One of the most
interesting figures is the image of Harpokrates on a lotus flower, called
by Bonner the young sun (Fig. 3).72 It represents a naked child with a
finger on his mouth seated on a lotus flower, in a boat, or on a lotus
68
For a recent synthesis and discussion of the main hypothesis see Cosentino
(2003).
69
Ciampini, Sfameni and Lancellotti (2003) 22729.
70
Bonner (1950) 15660; Delatte and Derchain (1964) 12641; Malaise (1990)
680729; Ciampini, Sfameni and Lancellotti (2003) 22934. Late antique examples of
this figure on gems include: Philipp (1986) n. 179 (3rd4th c.); AGDS III, nn. 176177
(4th5th c.); AGDS IV, n. 76 (4th c.).
71
See Sfameni (2002), (2003) and (2004).
72
Bonner (1950) 140. See for example, AGDS III, nn.147148149 (3rd c. A.D.);
150151 (2nd4th c.); 152 (4th5th c.).
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Bes Pantheos (after SGG 235, n. 138).
Harpokrates seated on lotus flower (after SGG 169, n. 29).
447
448
carla sfameni
flower placed in the middle of the boat. Around him there are often
groups of wild animals, arranged in threes; very frequent too is the
connection with a baboon represented in adoration.73 This figure has
a solar nature and a protective function.
On many gems typical Graeco-Roman deities are represented that
have no connection in themselves with magic. They are applied to
magical use by being inscribed with magical words or formulas or by
being combined with magical types (for example the cocks head god
with snake legs).74 Representations of gods from the Near East or of
different subjects are more rare.75
Another group is represented by gems with astrological figures or
symbols. It is a very complex group because astrological symbols are
used in association with many different subjects to strengthen the magical power of the iconography.76
Gems that can be classed with certainty as Gnostic are extremely
rare. The obverse of one green jasper amulet shows a lion-headed
male figure dressed in an Egyptian loincloth and holding in his right
hand a situla; in his left hand he grasps a tall staff. To the right and
the left of the figure are inscribed the names Ariel Ialdabaoth; on the
reverse are inscribed the following names Ia Iao Sabaoth Adonai Eloai
Oreos Astapheos. It is possible to compare this list of names to the series
of Gnostic Archons present in the Ophites system.77 Origen claims
that the Gnostic Archon Ialdabaoth could be represented as a lion,78
and so on this gem the name Ialdabaoth attests to the use of the typical
Egyptian iconography of the god with a lions head, a manifestation
of the sun god Horus, in a Gnostic context.79
A magical papyrus (4th c.) describes how to make a gem using the
representation of a lion-headed figure, called Helioros:80
The traditional rite [for acquiring an assistant] . . . You should pick up this
stone; carve it at once [and engrave it later]. Once it has been engraved,
bore a hole in it, pass a thread through and wear it around your neck.
See Monaca and Sfameni (2003).

Bonner (1950) 14855.
75
For Mithras, in particular, see Mastrocinque (1998).
76
Lancellotti (2003). On astrology and magic see in particular Gordon (1997B).
77
Nag Hammadi Codex 2.27 (ed. Layton (1989) 37, 16. See also Origen C.Cels.
6.2438; in part. 3032).
78
Origen C.Cels. 6.31. See Jackson (1985) 2126.
79
Bonner (1949) 45; Jackson (1985) 11115.
80
PGM 1.68 = Betz (1992) 5.
73
74
Fig. 4
449
Lion headed god (Helioros) (after SGG 266, n. 191).
And engraved on the stone is Helioros as a lion-faced figure, holding in

the left hand a celestial globe and a whip, and around him in a circle is a
serpent biting its tail. And on the exergue of the stone is this name (conceal it): ACHA ACHACHA CHACH CHARCHARA CHACH. And
after passing an Anubian string through it wear it around your neck.81
This text demonstrates the popularity of this image without any reference to a Gnostic tradition. Some gems likewise present a male figure
with a lions head (Fig. 4).82
Some gems also show a Christian subject or names, often associated
with different typologies.83
In conclusion, the figures represented on magical gems are characterised by a concentration of different divine attributes. The solar
subjects are the most represented, but almost every picture has many
astrological and solar symbols too.
PGM 1.144 = Betz (1992) 5.

Cf. AGDS III, n. 177 (4th c.).
83
For example, see Sfameni (2003) 158: Harpokrates on the lotus flower is associated
with the names IESUS and CHRISTOS. See also Lancellotti and Sanzi (2003).
81
82
450
carla sfameni
Use
The lack of archaeological contexts makes it extremely difficult to
assess the use of magical gems in Late Antiquity solely from the evidence of those examples that survive. Nevertheless, literary sources
give us important indications of the main functions of the gems, and
a number of those sources date precisely to the late antique period.
In particular the magical papyri, which are discussed further below,
are dated chiefly to the 4th and 5th c. A.D. and are a crucial source
for the use of magical gems. According to the papyri, magical gems
were intended above all to obtain personal benefits for their owners
from the deities: success, victory, favour and health were particularly
requested. Many gems were used for divinatory purposes,84 to turn
away the evil eye, to throw out demons, to gain love,85 induce sleep
or to prevent it.
Gemstones with magical or medical power are named in many
ancient texts, including the Lapidari (Lithika), and medical works.86 The
Lapidari are written sources describing the characteristics and powers of
stones, and although they originated in the late Hellenistic period they
continued to be read and revised down to the 7th c. A.D., attesting to
the ongoing interest in such writings throughout Late Antiquity.87 In
these mineralogic works there are often indications of gems representing various deities, like Jupiter, Sol, Sol and Luna, Poseidon, Mars,
Mercury, Apollo, Artemis, Athena, Aphrodite, Venus, Isis, Hecate,
Fides Publica, Ops and Chnoubis, and also references to gorgoneion,
scarabs, and many animals, symbols, charakteres and voces magicae.88
The astrological lapidari are a very interesting category because they
are founded on the theory that the stones are under astral influence.89
The stars also control the different parts of the human body, and so the
iatromathematica used astral plans and stones in medical treatments.90
The influence of a stone was believed to be more effective if a figure
corresponding to the relevant star was carved on it: it is said that
84
Bibliography in Monaca (2002). On divination in magical papyri see in particular
Gordon (1997A).
85
On love magic, in particular, see Faraone (2001).
86
See Sfameni Gasparro (2003) 23.
87
Hopfner (1926); Hnemrder (1999).
88
Repertory by Nagy (2002) 17076.
89
Bouch Leclercq (18791882) 31119; Halleux-Schamp (1985) XXVIII.
90
Lancellotti (2001); Lancellotti (2000).
Fig. 5
451
Chnoubis (after SGG 249, n. 158).
the astrologue Teucrus of Babilonia advised carving the images of the

decans on stones.91 Many other texts also refer to gems and decans, the
sideral gods that dominate the 10 degrees of the Zodiac.92 The Sacred
Book of Hermes to Asklepius (4th5th c. A.D.) indicates the name and the
figure of each decan, the part of the body and the illness over which
he exercises his power, the stones or the plan that are useful to wear
and the food to avoid.93
To give just one example, the image of the snake with a lions head,
called Chnoumis or Chnoubis (Fig. 5), was used to recover from stomach ache as Galen (late 2nd c.) attests:
The testimony of some authorities attribute to certain stones a peculiar
quality which is actually possessed by the green jasper. Worn as an amulet, it benefits the stomach and the oesophagus. Some also set it in a ring,
and engrave on it the radiate serpent, just as king Nechepsos prescribed
in his fourteenth book.94
The snake with a lions head, Chnoumis, is a typical magical subject.

Its name derives from the ancient Egyptian god Khnoum, identified
See Festugire (1950) vol. 1, 139, n. 2.

For a figurative representation of the decans see the tablets of Grand (Abry
1993).
93
Ruelle (1908).
94
Gal. De simpl. 10.19. Bonner (1950) 5456.
91
92
452
carla sfameni
with Ammon-Ra.95 The snake is radiate and it has a clearly solar character.96 There are also many sources that attest that Chnoubis was also
a decan:
The decan has the name Chnoumos. Its shape comprises the face of a
lion with solar rays, and its whole body is that of a serpent, coiling (v. l.
fiery-looking), standing erect. It rules diseases which afflict the area of the
earth. Engrave this decan on an agate stone, set it in whatever setting
you choose with (a piece of ) the lion-foot plant underneath it, and
wear it while abstaining from hens (?) eggs.97
The figure is very complex and has astrological and medical values
and solar connections.98 Alexander of Tralles (6th c.) prescribed an
amulet representing Herakles strangling a lion as a cure against colic:
On a Median stone engrave Herakles standing upright and throttling
a lion; set it in a gold ring and give it to the patient to wear.99 Formulas to turn away illness were particularly used. For example, the image
of Ares with the inscription: Are you thirsty, Tantal? Drink blood!
was used to recover from hemorrhage.100
In many cases only the iconography allows us to identify the possible uses of the gems. A number of images were used for specific
medical problems: Eolo against meteorism and colic,101 Ares to protect
the liver,102 Perseus with the Gorgons head to cure gout.103 The reaper
was a subject used against sciatica.104
A well defined class of magical gems is represented by emathite
stones105 with the representation of a womb closed by a key; on the
womb there are many Egyptian deities, Chnoubis, Isis, Harpokrates,
Osiris, Anubis (Fig. 6). These amulets were used to favour or to avoid
a pregnancy.106
95
96
97
82.
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
Delatte (1914) 69.

A. Kiss, s.v. Chnoubis, in LIMC III.
Sacred Book of Hermes to Asklepius: ed. Ruelle (1908) 260; transl. Jackson (1985)
See Sanzi (2003).
Alexander of Tralles 2.377; see also Bonner (1950) 63.
Delatte Derchain (1964) 25859, n. 364.
Bonner (1950) 6466.
Bonner (1950) 66.
Neverov (1976) n. 143a.
Bonner (1950) 7177.
Other stones exist, in particular yellow jasper.
Cf. Delatte (1914) 7588; Barb (1953); Aubert (1989); Aloe Spada (2003).
Fig. 6
453
Uterine gem (after SGG 405, n. 374).
The images of some animals were used to protect the health of the
wearer: for example the lizard107 or the ibis.108
Amulets were also intended to protect against negative influences
and unknown dangers that could cause death.109 Gems used for black
magic practices are rare, but it is possible to distinguish the general
category of aggressive magic including all the objects intended to
control the will and the acts of other people.110
The Magical Papyri
The magical papyri are a group of texts from Egypt written in Greek
from the early Hellenistic period to Late Antiquity, but the majority of
them belong in the period from the 3rd to the 5th c. A.D.111 Among
130 papyri translated by H. D. Betz, only about ten can be dated to
Bonner (1950) 6971.

Barb (1972) 35762.
109
Bonner (1950) 95102.
110
Bonner (1950) 10322.
111
The oldest papyrus (XL) can be dated to the Hellenistic period, after Alexanders death. A history of studies on the magical papyri with bibliography can be found
in Brashear (1995) 33803684.
107
108
454
carla sfameni
the 1st and 2nd c. A.D., while some are dated to the 2nd3rd c., and
the majority to the 4th and some also to the 5th and 6th c.112 Some
of the papyri are also written in Egyptian Demotic or Coptic. They
include all sorts of ancient magic (love magic, apothropaic magic,
revelatory magic, exorcism and so on) and they have been considered a kind of handbook for magicians. The first magical papyri were
brought from Egypt to Europe in the 19th c. by Johann dAnastasi, a
Swedish diplomat stationed in Cairo from 1828 to 1859, who acquired
a collection of papyri probably discovered in a grave in Thebes. These
documents and the other magical papyri discovered up to about 1930
were published by Karl Preisendanz.113 He referred to the papyri as
Greek (Papyri Graecae Magicae or PGM) because of their language and
especially because he discovered in them theories and customs coming from the ancient Greek cultural and religious tradition. Afterwards
these texts were analyzed by Classicists with a few contributions by
Egyptologists.114 During the following years many other papyrological
discoveries were made and many other magical texts were published.115
The English translation edited by H. D. Betz of the Greek texts published by Preisendanz (with a selection of texts published afterwards)116
together with the associated Demotic texts,117 excluded by Preisendanz,
enabled scholars to become aware of the importance of the Egyptian
tradition.118 However, in this documentation all scholars have noted
the presence of elements belonging to several religious traditions and
they have sometimes tried to distinguish and isolate them.119 Some
magical papyri have been considered of probable Egyptian origin,
while others could have a Greek or Jewish religious background.120 In
Betz (1992) xxiiixxviii.

Preisendanz (19731974).
114
Nock (1972) 17694.
115
Daniel and Maltomini (19901991).
116
Betz (1992).
117
Griffiths and Thompson (1904) note that the original source of the Demotic texts
was probably Egyptian and Bonner (1950) 22 says: the magic of the Greek papyri is
predominantly Egyptian.
118
J. H. Johnson in Betz (1992) LV; Ritner (1995) 3371 has particularly stressed the
importance of the Egyptian tradition in the writing of magical papyri: Both Demotic
and Greek spells attest to the continuity of Egyptian scriptorium traditions, whether
in regard to format, purpose, mythology, incantation or ritual technique.
119
Scholars have often based themselves on their own field of research (Greek,
Egyptian, Jewish etc.) and so have particularly noted the elements related to these
traditions.
120
Festugire (1932) 281328; Goodenough (1953) II; Smith (1996) 24266.
112
113
455
particular Jewish elements are very popular. The most invoked deities
are Iao, Sabaoth, and Adonai. The patriarchs of the Old Testament are
seen like deities. Angels, archangels and cherubim are often invoked
and there are even texts written in Aramaic.121 In the magical papyri
we can also find Mithraic, Persian122 and Babylonian elements, while
typical Latin elements are rare.
According to many scholars, Egyptian magic anticipates much of
what can later be found in Graeco-Roman magic.123 Demotic magic
is different from Ancient Egyptian magic: there is an increased use of
voces magicae and Semitic and Assyrian names such as Mithras, Ereschigal,
Abraham, Adonai, Moses, Sabaoth.124
J. Z. Smith has defined the Magical Papyri as one of the largest
collections of functioning ritual texts, largely in Greek, produced by
ritual specialists that has survived from late antiquity.125 The magical papyri are an inexhaustible repertory of data on faith, religious
beliefs and ideology. They are of particular importance because they
are first-hand documents written by magicians. In the magical papyri
there are many literary elements, like hymni and historiolae, referring to
mythical episodes.126
In the Graeco-Roman world magical practices were founded on
the philosophical belief that the universe was a kosmos in which all the
elements were connected to each other by sympatheia.127 This is an
ancient and well-known theory, supported by Pythagorean, Platonic
and Stoic philosophers with many variations but resting on a shared
belief that all the cosmic elements are linked and each of them influences the others.128 Iamblichus believed that contact with the divine
world could be achieved by a series of ritual practices defined as
theurgy, a word that means a cultural activity that allows more direct
Brashear (1995) 3428. Many voces magicae derive from Hebrew and Aramaic.
PGM 4.455834, Mithrasliturgie; Brashear (1995) 342326.
123
Brashear (1995) 3391. For the relationship between Greek and Egyptian magic,
see: Papyrus di Leida J 384 V/4.V/12 and Papyrus of London 46, 24096, examples
that attest that Greek magic depended on Egyptian practice. On Egyptian magic see:
Lexa (1925); Sauneron (1951); Kakosy (1985); Roccati and Siliotti (1987); Koening
(1994); Pinch (1994); Arslan (1997).
124
Brashear (1995) 3396.
125
Smith (1995) 21.
126
Frankfurter (1995).
127
Martin (1987) 28.
128
Luck (1995) 6. See in particular, Plotinus Enn. 4.4.40.
121
122
456
carla sfameni
contact with the gods and a higher form of knowledge.129 These ideas
were used by magicians to obtain influence and power over natural
and supernatural forces and they are well attested in the texts of the
magical papyri.130
The texts contain above all recipes and instructions for making
gems, charms, amulets, figurines and potions. The charms were used
to gain friendship, favour, success and victory; there are many formulas requesting a dream oracle, protection against all wild animals, to
induce insomnia or for divination; there are also victory charms for
the chariot races and love spells.
In conclusion, the spells offer help in the varied situations of daily
life, and there are many charms useful for many purposes, like the
following (3rd4th c. A.D.):
Prayer to Helios: a charm to restrain anger and for victory and for securing favour (none is greater) . . . I beg you, lord, do not allow me to be
overthrown, to be plotted against, to receive dangerous drugs, to go
into exile, to fall upon hard times. Rather, I ask to obtain and receive
from you life, health, reputation, wealth, influence, strength, success,
charm, favour with all men and all women, victory over all men and
all women.131
The formulae are constructed by elements belonging to many different sources and they are not of an original and homogeneous
composition.
In as much as it concerns our subject, the magical papyri give us
important references regarding the inscriptions and the formulas on
the gems and the iconography of the deities represented on them; they
are also particularly important in order to clarify the goals and the
modality of the making of the magical gems.132 The Papyri attest to
the existence of ceremonies of consecration before using a stone that
was inscribed and carved with the images of deities.
The relation between the papyri and gems has been the subject of
some controversy among scholars. According to M. Smith, who analyzed 18 cases of stones used as amulets in the PGM, the craftsmen
Iambl. Myst. 5.2.184; 1 9.2932; 2.9598. See Luck (1989) 185228.

Martin (1987) 2229.
131
PGM 36.21130 = Betz (1992) 274.
132
On the relationship between papyri and gems see: Smith (1979) 12947;
Schwartz (1981) 485509; Sanzi and Sfameni (2009).
129
130
457
who made the gems did not use the papyrus texts.133 It is said only on
nine occasions that gems are to be engraved and some images of deities belonging to the Graeco-Roman pantheon used on the gems are
not in themselves magical. However, Nagy and other scholars have
argued that the papyri and gems are closely linked,134 as it is possible
to observe analyzing the following 4th c. text:
Placing (a) ring. A little ring [useful] for every [magical] operation and
for success. Kings and governors [try to get it]. Very effective. Taking
an air-colored jasper, engrave on it a snake in a circle with its tail in
its mouth, and also in the middle of [the circle formed by] the snake
[Selene] having two stars on the two horns, and above these, Helios,
beside whom ABRASAX should be inscribed; and on the opposite
side of the stone from this inscription, the same name ABRASAX, and
around the border you will write the great and holy and omnicompetent
[spell], the name IAO SABAOTH. And when you have consecrated the
stone wear it in a gold ring, when you need it, [provided] you are pure
[at that time], and you will succeed in everything you may wish. You
are to consecrate the ring together with the stone in the rite used for all
[such] objects. A similar engraving in gold, too, is equally effective.135
This text provides a very helpful description of a typical gem with the
specific ritual of its consecration and a description of its use. Most of
the gems we know are engraved with the image of a snake that has its
tail in its mouth, called the ouroboros, that can be alone or associated
with other figures or names. It is a subject well known in Egyptian iconography but the main studies on magical gems have not analyzed this
subject in depth.136 The Egyptian ouroboros is a symbol of the boundary between the cosmos and chaos.137 This iconography occurs also
on Phoenician objects. In the late 4th c., Macrobius asserts that the
Phoenicians considered the ouroboros an image of the cosmos.138 On the
late antique gems the ouroboros maintains his ancient cosmic character
but also assumes new meanings: it is a boundary between the world
and the non-world, but it is also a dynamic element that controls the
kosmos.139
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
Smith (1979).
Nagy (2002) 17779.
PGM 12.20169 = Betz (1992) 161.
Bonner (1950) 250.
Kkosy (1986).
Macrob, Sat. 1.9.12.
Lancellotti (2002).
458
carla sfameni
A gem of the Aegyptisches Museum in Berlin depicts on the obverse

a scarab with a human radiate head inside an ouroboros, while on the
reverse many names are inscribed (Figs. 78). This corresponds closely
to the following 4th c. papyrus text:140
A ring. A little ring for success and favour and victory. . . . Helios is to be
engraved on a heliotrope stone as follows: a thick-bodied snake in the
shape of a wreath should be [shown] having its tail in its mouth. Inside
[the circle formed by] the snake let there be a sacred scarab [beetle surrounded by] rays. On the reverse side of the stone you are to inscribe
the name in hieroglyphics, as the prophets pronounce [it]. Then, having
consecrated [the ring], wear it when you are pure. The world has had
nothing greater than this. For when you have it with you, you will always
get whatever you ask from anybody.141
PGM 5 (4th c.) offers an interesting example of a gem made for divinatory purposes. It prescribes the method used to engrave an image of
Sarapis on agate. The image has no magical character in itself but it
is used to propitiate the divinatory dreams of the god.
On a jasperlike agate engrave Sarapis seated, facing forwards (?), holding
an Egyptian royal scepter and on the scepter an ibis, and on the back of
the stone the [magical] name [of Sarapis?], and keep it shut up. When
need [arises] hold the ring in your left hand, and in your right a spray
of olive and laurel [twigs], waving them toward the lamp while saying
the spell 7 times. And when you have put [the ring] on the index finger
of your left hand with the stone inside, [keep it] thus and, going off [to
bed] without speaking to anybody, go to sleep holding the stone to your
left ear.142
There are many representations of Sarapis without any magical element, probably used for devotional purposes. In same cases, however,
the presence of symbols and inscriptions reveal a magical use for the
gem (Fig. 9).
We can confirm the link existing between papyri and gems by noting that in the magical papyri there are also recipes or drawings referring to the gods that are well known from the gems. For example,
PGM 12.12143 (4th c.) offers a precise description of the Pantheos:143
Philipp (1986) 84, n. 118.

PGM 12.27085 = Betz (1992) 163.
142
PGM 5.47758 = Betz (1992) 109.
143
Betz (1992) 157158. See also PGM 26.10: a drawing of a god with the head of
a bird that can be compared with the god with a cocks head on the gems.
140
141
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
459
Scarab (after SGG 220, n. 126).
Plasma gem corresponding to SGG 220, n. 126gyptisches Museum

in Berlin, inv. 9876 (after SGG, tav. 6).
460
carla sfameni
Fig. 9
Sarapis (after SGG 181, n. 49).
Take a clean linen cloth and (according to Ostanes) with myrrh ink draw
a figure on it which is humanlike in appearance but has four wings, having the left arm outstretched along with the two left wings, and having
the other arm bent with the fist clenched. Then upon the head [draw] a
royal headdress and a cloak over its arm, with two spirals on the cloak.
Atop the head [draw] bull horns and to the buttocks a birds tail. Have
his right hand held near his stomach and clinched, and on either ankle
have a sword extended.
Finally in PGM 4.2113 (4th c.) we can find a description of the leontocephalus god:144
And this is the figure written on the hide: A lion-faced form of a man
wearing a sash, holding in its right hand a staff, and on it let there be a
serpent. And around all his left hand let an asp be entwined, and from
the mouth of the lion let fire breathe forth.
144
Betz (1992) 75.
461
The Magical Gems and Religious Syncretism in Late Antiquity

The constant association between various pictures of gods belonging
to the Graeco-Roman and Egyptian religious traditions, nomina sacra
like Iao Sabaoth Abrasax, and the names of angels, archangels, patriarchs and prophets of the Jewish tradition that we have noticed on
the magical gems has been interpreted in many different ways. Some
scholars have proposed a Gnostic origin for the amulets, others a Jewish origin,145 others still an Egyptian or Greek origin.146 Among some
specimens a Mithraic influence has been recognised,147 a Christian
influence has been attributed to others.148 Nevertheless, the more convincing opinion is that the numerous divine names are engraved on
the magical gems in order to give more power to the image of the god
represented, perhaps without a link to the specific religious tradition
of that divine name.149
Writing in the first half of the 3rd c., Origen offers an important aid
to understanding this phenomenon:
On the subject of names I have to say further that experts in the use
of charms relate that a man who pronounces a given spell in its native
language can bring about the effect that the spell is claimed to do. But if
the same spell is translated into any other language whatever, it can be
seen to be weak and ineffective.150
For example, something of the word Abraham may be translated into
Greek, and something is signified by the name Isaac, and there is a
meaning in the sound Jacob. If anyone who utters an invocation or oath
names The God of Abraham and the God of Isaac and the God of
Jacob he would effect something, either because of the nature of these
names or even because of their power; for daemons are overcome and
made subject to him who says these things . . . We would say the same
also of the word Sabaoth, which is frequently used in spells, because if
we translate the name into Lord of the powers or Lord of hosts or
Almighty (for its interpreters explain it differently) we would effect nothing; whereas if we keep it with its own sounds, we will cause something
See in particular Goodenough (1953).

For the influence of Egyptian magic see: Hull (1974); Ritner (1995).
147
Mastrocinque (1998).
148
For an analysis of the Christian subjects on magical gems see Lancellotti and
Sanzi (2003) 30911.
149
For the magical use of divine names see: Aune (1980) 154547 (magical use of
the name of Jesus); Smith (1996) 24256 and Betz (1995).
150
Origen C.Cels. 1.25: transl. Chadwick (1965) 25.
145
146
462
carla sfameni
to happen, according to the opinion of experts in these matters. We may
say the same of Adonai.151
A similar doctrine can be found in the De Mysteriis of Iamblichus (250

330):152
The translated names do not keep the same meaning, but some linguistic characteristics of one people cant be expressed in the language of
anothers people; and if it were possible to translate these names, the
names would never retain the same power.153
This doctrine could explain the presence in the magical texts of many
different divine names.154 It means that the magician used as many
names as possible in order to obtain more power.155 Elements belonging to different religious traditions are so closely connected to each
other in all the magical documents that most scholars use the word
syncretism to designate this phenomenon.156 According to this view,
the associations of divine names belonging to different religious traditions in our magical evidence must be explained in the wider context
of a particular kind of syncretism with henotheistic tendencies.157 This
phenomenon is witnessed by many literary sources; among them, the
most important is Macrobius (4th5th c. A.D.) who examines the gods
of the Graeco-Roman pantheon to show that every one is only a manifestation of the supreme solar god:158 I tell you the highest god of all
is Iao (called) Hades in winter, Zeus when spring begins, Helios in
summer and in autumn splendid Iao.159 Apollo/Helios is the Greek
god most often invoked in the magical papyri with other astral deities
151
Origen C.Cels. 5.45: transl. Chadwick (1965) 300. See also: Origen C.Cels. 1.24
(2036); Origen C.Cels. 4.35 (transl. Chadwick (1965) 209): Their names are so powerful when linked with the name of God that the formula the God of Abraham, the
God of Isaac and the God of Jacob is used not only by members of the Jewish nation
in their prayers to God and when they exorcise daemons, but also by almost all those
who deal in magic and spells.
152
Van Liefferinge (2000).
153
Iambl. Myst. 7.257.1015; cf. 254.11 260.
154
Cf. Betz (1995) 15376.
155
See n. 148 and also Versnel (2002).
156
Hull (1974) 27: The most immediately striking feature of the magic of the
period we are considering is its syncretism. See Betz (1991) 248 and Preisendanz
(1956) 11125.
157
For a synthesis of the current debate on magical syncretism see Sfameni
(2001).
158
Macrob. Sat 1.17.4. For the doctrine, see 1.1724.
159
Macrob. Sat. 1.18.20.
463
such as Selene and many gods who represent the forces of the universe.160 The cosmology of the magical papyri attests to the existence
of a solar deity that rules the universe, the greatest god who exceeds
all power.161
P. Lvque has named this kind of syncretism syncretism-henotheism,162 which apparently emerged in Egypt during the Hellenistic
period and then developed during the Roman period: various deities
take upon themselves characteristics and specific qualities of many different gods.163 This is the case, for example, of Isis and Sarapis.164
Henotheism is a term constructed from the acclamation eis ho theos
(one is -the- god) which can be found in inscriptions, papyri, gems
and in literary texts: it denotes a personal devotion to one god (there
is no other god like this god) without involving rejection or neglect
of other gods.165 In the magical texts the divine names (belonging to
different religious traditions) are regarded as multiple manifestations
of a unique and higher divine power. The same is the case with the
pictures on the gems: various deities which the papyri refer to are here
carved in associations with many different divine names. It seems to be
a matter of indifference to the magician whether he invokes GraecoRoman, Egyptian or Jewish gods.166
It is impossible to separate the individual components of this kind
of syncretism, because they are linked to each other, but this doesnt
mean that this syncretism is a new religion.167 The phenomenon of
magical syncretism must be seen in the wider context of Hellenistic
religious syncretism because magic shares with religion, philosophy
and science a cosmic system of thought and knowledge. Syncretism is
not a confused mixture of dissimilar elements; rather it means the use
of materials from different cultural contexts that are interpreted in a
new and original way. The concentration of various divine powers in
the same object created a new cultural and religious product, in the
context of an overall view of the cosmos. The notion of syncretism has
See Fauth (1995) 34114 (Der Sonnergott in den griechischen Zauberpapyri ).

PGM 12.285 = Betz (1992) 164.
162
Lvque (1973) 17987.
163
Dunand (1975) and (1999).
164
Apul. Met. 11.5.1: Isis is Numen unicum multiformi specie. Merkelbach (1995).
165
Versnel (1990) 35.
166
See Betz (1992) XLVI: The gods from the various cults gradually merged and
as their natures became blurred, they often changed into completely different deities.
167
Casadio (1990).
160
161
464
carla sfameni
had a very large field of application in studies of the history of religion,

and in recent times has been criticised by some scholars. For example,
A. Motte observes: les mots syncrtisme, syncrtique et syncrtiste
sont utiliss dans ltude scientifique des religions avec une profusion et
une confusion telle que leur signification en devient atypique et quasiment inoprante.168 F. Dunand argues that it would be better to talk
about the co-existence of divine figures rather than of syncretism, in
particular concerning the situation in late antique Egypt.169 Even if the
abuse of the term syncretism must be avoided, however, the notion of
syncretism is still useful to describe the complex phenomenon of magic
in Late Antiquity. But due to the difficulty in finding a single agreed
definition of the term syncretism, it is very important to clarify the
particular meaning of the word used in a specific context.
Conclusion
P. Schfer argues that magic was an integral part of religion in antiquity, and in late antiquity became a ferment which blurred the distinction between different religions.170 His theory is that the latest magic
becomes the common denominator of different religions, some kind of
lingua franca transgressing the traditional boundaries of the religions of
the Mediterranean area.171
Actually, late antique magic is characterised by a combination of
elements belonging to so many religious traditions (Graeco-Roman,
Egyptian, Judaic, Christian, Gnostic) that it is impossible to separate
them from each other. Nevertheless this does not mean that this syncretism is a new religion.172 Magical gems and papyri attest to the
existence of a very special kind of syncretism where elements belonging to these different religious traditions are linked to each other in
order to become a new whole. We can observe a clear tendency to
accumulate the divine attributes associated with a particular picture
168
Motte and Pirenne Delforge (1994) 17: this study is an analysis of the notion
of syncretism with related bibliography. The classification pattern of Lvque (1973)
17987 is still useful, although it has been criticised in some aspects: see Dunand
(1999) 97116.
169
Dunand (1999).
170
Schfer (1997) 26.
171
Schfer (1997) 43.
172
Casadio (1990).
465
and to use divine names in formulas and spells as frequently as possible. The magician, in the exercise of his functions, brought together
elements of different religious traditions in order to reach his specific
aims (the acquisition of love, wealth, health, fame, knowledge of the
future and control over other persons) and he used the names and
images of powerful deities in order to have ever more power. Gems
and papyri both reveal that the magicians knew contemporary cosmological, philosophical and theological theories, but they wanted to
control the cosmic powers for practical purposes. This is the reason
why religion and magic became so tightly connected without losing
their own specific identities. The gems, in particular, are very useful
in revealing the everyday needs of people belonging to different social
classes: the existence of low quality objects proves the attractiveness of
magical amulets even to the poor. Common people probably did not
know the complex symbology and the exact religious meaning of the
images and names used on these amulets: they only needed powerful
and effective objects to face their daily problems.
On the spread and the supposed efficacy of magical amulets in Late
Antiquity it is possible to quote a homily by John Chrysostom (A.D.
354407). In this homily, the Church father reproaches his congregation for using talismans and magical words containing Christian
elements:
Each of you in fact knows that those who trust in incantations are introduced in that way to amulets and the spells of witches; and the image
of the cross is surely then covered in shame, since the letters (that cover
it) are held in even greater honour. Christ has been driven out to make
way for an old, drunk and delirious witch; our holy mystery is trampled
and it is the deceit of the devil that leads the dance.173
A gem of the British Museum (4th5th c.) is particularly interesting to

illustrate this passage from Chrysostom, for it actually shows a crucifix
surrounded by invocations and voces magicae (Fig. 10).
Saint Augustine (354430), in De Doctrina Christiana, also condemns
the different forms of superstitions and magic, and asserts:
Everything that has been established by men in order to create and worship idols or creatures or parts of them as if they were God, or to do
173
Joh. Chrys. In Ep. ad Col. hom. 8. 5 (ed. Bareille (18651878) 12324 (n.91)).
466
carla sfameni
Fig. 10
Crucifix with invocations and voces magicae (after Michel (2001) 283).
consultations, or to make agreements with demons on the basis of established signs, like the practices of magical arts, belong to superstition.174
In different passages of his works, Augustine offers to us many significant examples of the use that Christians did make of astronomical and
magical activities in trying to solve their daily problems.175
Actually, many bad Christians, inquirers of astronomical tablets and
researchers and observers of seasons and days, reproached by us or
by some good and excellent Christians for their behaviour, answered:
These things are necessary for secular life; but we are Christian in view
of eternal life; we believe Christ will give us the eternal life; he is not
concerned in this secular life in which we live.176
According to Saint Augustine, then, the bad Christians justified their

use of practices condemned by the good Christians by asserting that
these practices were effective for daily life. The scale of our evidence
(gems, papyri, defixiones and so on) attests that the phenomenon condemned by the fathers of the Church was truly widespread.
Concluding this paper, it may also be useful to quote a papyrus
(6th c.) that contains a Christian text against fever and every sickness:
Aug. De Doctrina Christiana 2.20.30.
See, for example, Aug. En. in Ps. 33.18 (PL 36.318) and sermo 318.3 NBA 33,760.
For specific references to these and other passages see Sfameni Gasparro (1997)
9093.
176
Aug. En. in Ps. 40,3 (PL 36.456).
174
175
467
Jesus Christ heals trembling, fever and every disease of the body of
Joseph that wears the amulet, he heals the daily and tertian fever. Erichthonios does the same. The white wolf, the white wolf, the white wolf
also heals the fever with trembling of Joseph. They are fast.177
This is a clear example of the mixture of Christian, Greek and Egyptian elements that characterise most of our late antique magical evidence: Christ is invoked together with Erichtonios and the white wolf.
According to Euripides, Erichtonios received from Athena the power
to cure illnesses and the white wolf symbolises Horos-Apollo, worshipped at Lykopolis in Egypt.178
All these texts attest to the depth and strength of magical beliefs
and practices that were characteristic of the late antique view of the
world, capable of enduring even after the Christian conversion of the
Roman empire.179 The magical gems offer many useful indications to
understand the forma mentis of common people in this period, but they
must be understood in their wider context and examined with other
evidence that reveals the same kind of magical ideas and rituals.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Luke Lavan for giving me the opportunity to
present in this volume a synthesis of the results of my studies on magical gems carried out thanks to a research project directed by Prof.
A. Mastrocinque to whom I am very grateful. Many thanks also go
to the editor David Gwynn for his helpfulness and to Sylvia Davies
for improving my English. Last, but not least, thanks to Sergio for his
patience and support.
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in Sylloge Gemmarum Gnosticarum, ed. A. Mastrocinque (Bollettino di Numismatica. Monografia 8.2.1) (Rome 2003) 24370.
(2003) Le gemme magiche come oggetto dindagine storico-religiosa, in Sylloge
Gemmarum Gnosticarum, ed. A. Mastrocinque (Bollettino di Numismatica. Monografia
8.2.1) (Rome 2003) 1148.
SGG: see Mastrocinque (2003B).
Smith J. Z. (1995) Trading places, in Ancient Magic and Ritual Power, edd. M. Meyer
and P. Mirecki (Leiden 1995) 1327.
Smith M. (1967) Review of Delatte and Derchain, Les intailles magiques grco-romains in
AJA 71 (1967) 41719.
(1979) Relation between magical papyri and magical gems, in Actes du XV e
Congrs de Papyrologie, Bruxelles-Louvain 1977 (Brussels 1979) 12947.
(1996) The Jewish elements in the magical papyri, in Studies in the Cult of Jahweh, vol. 2, ed. S. Cohen (EPRO 130) (Leiden 1996) 24266.
Van Liefferinge C. (2000) Magie et thurgie chez Jamblique, in La Magie, vol. 1,
edd. A. Moreau and J.-C. Turpin (Montpellier 2000) 11726.
Versnel H. S. (1990) Ter Unus. Isis, Dionysos, Hermes. Three Studies in Henotheism (Leiden
1990).
(1991) Some reflections on the relationship MagicReligion, Numen 38.2
(1991) 17797.
(2002) The poetics of the magical charm. An essay in the power of words, in
Magic and Ritual in the Ancient World, edd. M. Meyer and P. Mirecki (Leiden 2002)
10558.
473
Zwierlein-Dihel E. (1991) Die Antike Gemmen des Kunsthistorisches Museums Wien, III,
(Munich 1991).
Illustrations
Fig. 1. The snake-legged god with a cocks head (after SGG 284, n. 225).
Fig. 2. Bes Pantheos (after SGG 235, n. 138).
Fig. 3. Harpokrates seated on lotus flower (after SGG 169, n. 29).
Fig. 4. Lion headed god (Helioros) (after SGG 266, n. 191).
Fig. 5. Chnoubis (after SGG 249, n. 158).
Fig. 6. Uterine gem (after SGG 405, n. 374).
Fig. 7. Scarab (after SGG 220, n. 126).
Fig. 8. Plasma gem corresponding to SGG 220, n. 126gyptisches Museum in
Berlin, inv. 9876 (after SGG, tav. 6).
Fig. 9. Sarapis (after SGG 181, n. 49).
Fig. 10. Crucifix with invocations and voces magicae (after Michel (2001) 283).

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MAGIC IN LATE ANTIQUITY:

THE EVIDENCE OF MAGICAL GEMS

to a very late period and to Hellenistic culture, while historians of

magic in late antiquity: evidence of magical gems

magic in late antiquity: evidence of magical gems

and Dickies books and a work by D. Ogden on Greek and Roman

magic in late antiquity: evidence of magical gems

Since very ancient times and in many different cultural contexts,

Plinys contempt for the superstitious belief in the magical power of

Plin. HN 37.135; 30.14. Cf. Mastrocinque (1998), cap.V.

magic in late antiquity: evidence of magical gems

The central role of Alexandria in the production of magical gems is

magic in late antiquity: evidence of magical gems

See, for example, Delatte and Derchain (1964).

magic in late antiquity: evidence of magical gems

Bes Pantheos (after SGG 235, n. 138).

Harpokrates seated on lotus flower (after SGG 169, n. 29).

See Monaca and Sfameni (2003).

magic in late antiquity: evidence of magical gems

Lion headed god (Helioros) (after SGG 266, n. 191).

And engraved on the stone is Helioros as a lion-faced figure, holding in

PGM 1.144 = Betz (1992) 5.

magic in late antiquity: evidence of magical gems

Chnoubis (after SGG 249, n. 158).

the astrologue Teucrus of Babilonia advised carving the images of the

The snake with a lions head, Chnoumis, is a typical magical subject.

See Festugire (1950) vol. 1, 139, n. 2.

Delatte (1914) 69.

magic in late antiquity: evidence of magical gems

Uterine gem (after SGG 405, n. 374).

Bonner (1950) 6971.

Betz (1992) xxiiixxviii.

magic in late antiquity: evidence of magical gems

Iambl. Myst. 5.2.184; 1 9.2932; 2.9598. See Luck (1989) 185228.

magic in late antiquity: evidence of magical gems

A gem of the Aegyptisches Museum in Berlin depicts on the obverse

Philipp (1986) 84, n. 118.

magic in late antiquity: evidence of magical gems

Scarab (after SGG 220, n. 126).

Plasma gem corresponding to SGG 220, n. 126gyptisches Museum

Sarapis (after SGG 181, n. 49).

Betz (1992) 75.

magic in late antiquity: evidence of magical gems

The Magical Gems and Religious Syncretism in Late Antiquity

See in particular Goodenough (1953).

A similar doctrine can be found in the De Mysteriis of Iamblichus (250

magic in late antiquity: evidence of magical gems

See Fauth (1995) 34114 (Der Sonnergott in den griechischen Zauberpapyri ).

had a very large field of application in studies of the history of religion,

magic in late antiquity: evidence of magical gems

A gem of the British Museum (4th5th c.) is particularly interesting to

According to Saint Augustine, then, the bad Christians justified their

magic in late antiquity: evidence of magical gems

P. Kln. 851. See Leone (2000) 55.

Arslan E. A. (1997) ed. Iside. Il mito, il mistero, la magia (Milan 1997).

magic in late antiquity: evidence of magical gems

Dunand F. (1975) Les syncrtismes dans la religion de lgypte romaine in Les

magic in late antiquity: evidence of magical gems

(2002) ed. Gemme gnostiche e cultura ellenistica (Bologna 2002).

magic in late antiquity: evidence of magical gems

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