3 Analog Signal Processing- Data Acquisition

3.1 Analog Measurement Procedures

3.2 Measurement of Resistances
Three- and Four-Wire-Method, Self-Heating
-Bridge, -Bridge, and Full-Bridge

3.3 Measurement of Impedances

3.3.1 AC-Current-Bridges
3.3.2 Measurement with Oscillator
3.3.4 Power Measurement Method
3.4 Measurement of Capacitances

Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun

Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

P. 3-1

3.1 Analog Measurement Procedures

Why analog measurement procedures?

Most sensors have an analog output signal

Current, voltage, resistance
Low-cost signal processing and realization
No quantization-error and no conversion time

Analog measurement systems can be faster!

Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun

Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

P. 3-2

3.1 Analog Measurement Procedures

Z R jX

Impedance
ideal

real
R

Rcabel

Z R

Z Rcabel R || jCcabel

Ccabel

1
ZC
jC

Y real Glosses jB
Glosses j C

Glosses

r r jr

Z L jL

RCoil

Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun

Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

B
G
j
C0
C0

Z L,real RCoil jL
P. 3-3

3.2 Measurement of Resistances

4-Wires-Method
2-Wires-Method
RL

4-Wires-Method
RL

RL IU0

UL
Rx

Utarget value

Rx
RL IU0

UL

RL

UM

RL

Rx
Error by
Temperature dependence of
wires
Cable length
RL

UM
I

Total separation between currentand voltage-wires

Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun

Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

P. 3-4

3.2 Measurement of Resistances

3-Wires-Method
3-Wires-Method

2-Wires-Method
RL

RL
I

RL IU0

UL
Rx

Uwahr

Rx
RL

UL

UL3 2UM RxI

U
RL M Rx
I

RL

Error by
Temperature dependence of
wires
Cable length
RL

UL3 2RL R x I
UM Rx RL I

Rx

2UM UL 3
I

Compensation of cable resistance and its

temperature dependence
Prerequisit
3 wires have the identical length and
temperature

Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun

Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

P. 3-5

3.2 Measurement of Resistances

Which current schould be used?
R

U
I

I
Signal to noise
Ratio
ISNR
Under this limit
sensor signal
disappears in
the noise

Self-Heating
ISH

Iresolution limit
ILow Energy Consumption

Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun

Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

P. 3-6

3.2 Measurement of Resistances

Self-Heating
Converted electric power

P I 2R x

Self-heating through accumulated heat Tth

Tth RW P
Rw: Heat resistance is dependent on:
- Packaging
- Surrounding media, its temperature and velocity!
Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun
Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

P. 3-7

3.2 Measurement of Resistances

Comparison with a reference resistance (reference principle)

Ux
Rx
Rr
Ur
Rr and Rx should have the same order of
magnitude

Us
Rr

Ur

Rx

Ux

Reduction of uncertainty through

common mode rejection

Typical values Rr = Rx, max

Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun

Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

Rr: Reference resistance

Rx: Resistance to be measured

P. 3-8

3.2 Measurement of Resistances

Voltage Devider
Suitable for high resistance values

Rx

Rx >> Rr
U0

Ur << U0

Rr
Ur
U0
R r Rx

U 0 Ur
Rx Rr
Ur

Rr

Ur

Realization with op-amps

Rx

Nonlinear dependency on Ur

Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun

Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

P. 3-9

3.2 Measurement of Resistances

Inverting Amplifier
Supply with a constant voltage

Ua

U0
Rx
R0

Supply with a constant current

Ua I0 Rx

I4=0

4 Wires-connection and constant

current supply

Ua I0 Rx
U0

I3=0

Offset-currents and offset-voltages are

problematic if resistances have small
changes!
P. 3-10

3.2 Measurement of Resistances

Wheatstone-Bridge
R2
R3

Ud U0

R1 R2 R3 R x
R2 Rx R1 R3

U0
R1 R2 R3 Rx
R1 R2 R3 R

R1

Rx

R2
Ud

Bridge Voltage

R
1
Ud U0
2 R Rx

U0

R3

Dependence on Rx is nonlinear!

Sensitivity

Ud
R
E

U0
2
Rx R Rx

Proportional to supply voltage

Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun

Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

P. 3-11

3.2 Measurement of Resistances

Wheatstone-Bridge
R2
R3
Ud U0

R1 R2 R3 R x
R2 Rx R1 R3

R1 R2 R3 Rx

U0

R1 R2 R3 R0
Rx R0 R
Ud

R0 R0 R R0 R0
U0
R0 R0 R0 R0 R

R
R

U0
U0
4R0 2R
4R0

Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun

Professur fr Mess- und Sensortechnik

R1

R2
Ud

Rx

R3

R
Ud
U0
4R0

P. 3-12
12

3.2 Measurement of Resistances

-brcke

1/4-, 1/2- and Fullbridge

Ud near a certain working point

Ud U0

R2R3 R1R4
(R1 R2 )(R3 R4 )

For small R
U R2 R1 R3 R4

Ud 0

4 R2
R1
R3
R4
+ R0+R
- R0-R
R0

-brcke

[Schrfer]

Fullbridge

P. 3-13

3.3 Measurement of Impedances

AC-Bridge
U0
Z2

Z2
Z4
U 0
U d

Z1 Z 2 Z 4 Z 3

Z1
Ud

Z4

Balancing for :

Z3

With Z k Zk e
j1

Z1 e

Z1 Z 4 Z 3 Z 2

j k

Z4 e j 4 Z3 e j3 Z2 e j 2

Z1 Z4e j 1 4 Z3 Z2 e j 3 2
Necessary conditions for Balancing:
1. Phase condition

1 4 3 2

2. Modulus condition

Z1 Z4 Z3 Z2

Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun

Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

!
P. 3-16

3.3.1 AC-Current-Bridge
Capacitance bridge by Wien
(measurement of lossy capacitances)
R2,C2 are unknownt

U0
C2

C1

R1,C1 are modifiable

Condition for balancing

R2

R4

Ud

R1

R3

R2
R1
j C 2
j C1
R3
R4
1
1
R2
R1
j C 2
j C1

Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun

Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

R2

R4
R1
R3

C2

R3
C1
R4
P. 3-17

3.3.1 AC-Current-Bridge
Inductivity-Bridge by Maxwell
(Measurement of lossy Inductivities)
L2, R2 are unknown

Inductivity-Bridge by Maxwell-Wien
(Measurement of lossy Inductivities)
L2, R2 are unknown

Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun

Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

P. 3-18

3.3.1 AC-Current-Bridge

Ud

Ud

Ud

Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun

Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

P. 3-19

3.3.1 AC-Current-Bridge
Checking the phase condition

3 0
4 0

0
2 0

3 0
4 0

1 0
2 0

3 0
4 0

1 0
2 0

4 0
3 2 0

1 4 0
3 2 0

1 4 0
3 2 beliebig

Balancing is
possible

Balancing is
not possible

Balancing is
possible

The judgement of the modulus condition is in the special case necessary

Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun
Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

P. 3-20

3.3.1 AC-Current-Bridge
Frequency dependence of the bridge balancing
Z1 R1 j L1

Z 2 R2
Z 3 R3

1
Z 4 R4 j
C4

Z1 Z 4 Z 3 Z 2

1
R3 R2
R1 jL1 R4 j
C4

L1
R1 R4
R3 R2
C4
R1
Frequency dependent
L1 R4
Balancing
C4

Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun

Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

P. 3-21

3.3.1 AC-Current-Bridge
Frequency dependence of the bridge balancing
Z1 R1 j L1
Z 2 R2

Z 3 R3
Z4

Z1 Z 4 Z 3 Z 2

1
1
j C4
R4

R3R2 R1R4
L1
C4
R2R3
Frequency independent balancing!

Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun

Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

P. 3-22

3.3.2 Measurement with Oscillators

R
G

~
~
L
C

Z R j X R j L

Resonance frequency:

r L

1
r C

1
fr
2

1
LC

L or C measurement
Example
UR

Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun

Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

f = constant
L= constant

C0-C C0 C0+C

C
P. 3-23

3.3.2 Measurement with Oscillators

series resonant circuit

Serie resonant circuit

Resonance: maximum current
minimum impedance

Parallel resonant circuit

Parallel resonant circuit

Resonance: minimum current
maximum impedance

The resonance frequency:

Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun

Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

1
=
4 2 2
P. 3-23
24

3.3.3 Power Measurement Method

u1 u1 sint
selectable

Multiplication

Low-pass

u0 u0 sint
Case 1:

i i x iR

p 0 sin(t ) u0 C cos(t ) u1 sin(t )

R

u1u0

sin2 (t ) u0u1 C cos(t ) sin(t )

R
u1u0 u1u0
u0u1

cos(2t )
C sin(2t )
2R
2R
2
T
u0u1
1
p pw t dt
T 0
2R

Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun

Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

sin(x ) cos(y )
sin2 ( x )

1
sinx y sinx y
2

1
1 cos(2x )
2

Measurement of active power

0 pw

u0 u1
2R

R
P. 3-25

3.3.3 Power Measurement Method

u1 u1 sint

selectable

Multiplication

Low-pass

u0 u0 sint
Case 2:

i i x iR

90

sin(x ) cos(y )

p 0 sin(t ) u0 C cos(t ) u1 cos(t )

R

u1u0

sin(t ) cos(t ) u0u1 C cos2 (t )

R
u1u0
u0u1

sin(2t )
C 1 cos(2t )
2R
2

u0u1
1

p
t
dt

C
w

T 0
2
T

1
sinx y sinx y
2

1
1 cos(2x )
2
1
cos2 ( x ) 1 cos(2x )
2
sin2 ( x )

Measurement of the idle power

90 pB C

Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun

Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

u0u1
2

X
P. 3-26

3.4 Capacitance Measurement

Practical aspects
Practical capacitance has:
Losses

Stray field outside the electrodes

Further stray capacitances to the environment:

Between the electrodes and the shielding screen

Between the electrodes and the measurement circuit

Measured Capacitance
Cp1, Cp2: Stray capacitances
on circuit side
Cs1, Cs2: Stray capacitances
on sensor side
Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun
Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

P. 3-27

3.4 Capacitance Measurement

Charging/Discharging Method
S1: On , S2: Off
S1: Off , S2: On

Charging
Discharging

During the charging:

= 1 (1

During the discharging:

=

1 (1 )
1

2 ( )
1

The measurement is affected by :

Stray capacitance between the capacitance electrodes and earth
Stray capacitance caused by the switches (S1, S2)

Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun

Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

P. 3-28

3.4 Capacitance Measurement

Charge-Transfer Method (1)
A suitable method for monolitic Integration!

S1

S1 closed
Cx is charged to Ur
S1 openned and S2 closed
Cs is charged to Us

Ur

Cx

S2
Cs

Us

S3

Cx <<Cs

Us Ur

Cx
C
Ur x
Cx Cs
Cs

Us
Cx Cs
Ur
Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun
Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

P. 3-29

3.4 Capacitance Measurement

Charge-Transfer Method (2)
Up

U0

Voltages F1 und F2 are switched together with the relai Control

During F1 is switched on Up :
- Relay Control is closed
- The (-)-Input of the OPV is on ground
- The capacitance Cx is loaded
During F2 is switched on Up :
- The Relay Control is opened
- It flows a current from Cx over Ci
Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun
Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

U0 Up

Cx Cr
Ci
P. 3-30

3.4 Capacitance Measurement

Reference Method
Phase 1: Charging
Phase 2: Discharging

S1: On , S2: Off

S1: Off , S2: On

Measured
Capacitance

Reference
Capacitance

V0 = ( + 1 1
+ (1 1
))

Assumptions: Stay capacitances are symmetrical

Quality of reference capacitance

Prof. Dr.-Ing. O. Kanoun

Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology

P. 3-31