GNU GCJ: Tom Tromey

GNU gcj
For gcc version 4.7.4

(GCC)
Tom Tromey
Published by the Free Software Foundation

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c 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2010 Free Software Foundation,
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A GNU Manual
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You have freedom to copy and modify this GNU Manual, like GNU software. Copies
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Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
GNU General Public License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
GNU Free Documentation License. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents . . . . . . . . . 20
Invoking gcj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
Input and output files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Input Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Encodings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Linking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Code Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Configure-time Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
21
23
23
23
24
27
Compatibility with the Java Platform . . . . . . . 28

2.1
2.2
Standard features not yet supported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Extra features unique to gcj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Invoking jcf-dump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Invoking gij . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Invoking gcj-dbtool. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Invoking jv-convert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Invoking grmic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Invoking gc-analyze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Invoking aot-compile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
10
Invoking rebuild-gcj-db . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
ii
11
About CNI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
11.1 Basic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.1.1 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.1 Leaving out package names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 Primitive types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.1 Reference types associated with primitive types . . . . . . . . . .
11.4 Reference types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5 Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.6 Objects and Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.6.1 Classes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.6.2 Object fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.6.3 Access specifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.7 Class Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.8 Object allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.9 Memory allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.10 Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.10.1 Creating arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.11 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.11.1 Overloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.11.2 Static methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.11.3 Object Constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.11.4 Instance methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.11.5 Interface methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.12 Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.13 Interoperating with C/C++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.13.1 RawData . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.13.2 RawDataManaged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.13.3 Native memory allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.13.4 Posix signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.14 Exception Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.15 Synchronization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.16 Invocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.16.1 Handling uncaught exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.16.2 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.17 Reflection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
System properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
12.1
12.2
12.3
13
39
39
40
40
41
41
41
42
42
42
42
43
43
44
44
44
45
46
46
46
46
46
47
47
48
48
49
49
49
50
50
51
52
53
53
Standard Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
GNU Classpath Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
libgcj Runtime Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Introduction
Introduction
This manual describes how to use gcj, the GNU compiler for the Java programming language. gcj can generate both .class files and object files, and it can read both Java
source code and .class files.
GNU General Public License

Version 3, 29 June 2007
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the copyright holder notifies you of the violation by some reasonable means, this is the
first time you have received notice of violation of this License (for any work) from that
copyright holder, and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after your receipt of the
notice.
Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the licenses of parties
who have received copies or rights from you under this License. If your rights have
been terminated and not permanently reinstated, you do not qualify to receive new
licenses for the same material under section 10.
9. Acceptance Not Required for Having Copies.
You are not required to accept this License in order to receive or run a copy of the
Program. Ancillary propagation of a covered work occurring solely as a consequence of
using peer-to-peer transmission to receive a copy likewise does not require acceptance.
However, nothing other than this License grants you permission to propagate or modify
any covered work. These actions infringe copyright if you do not accept this License.
Therefore, by modifying or propagating a covered work, you indicate your acceptance
of this License to do so.
10. Automatic Licensing of Downstream Recipients.
Each time you convey a covered work, the recipient automatically receives a license
from the original licensors, to run, modify and propagate that work, subject to this
License. You are not responsible for enforcing compliance by third parties with this
License.
An entity transaction is a transaction transferring control of an organization, or
substantially all assets of one, or subdividing an organization, or merging organizations.
If propagation of a covered work results from an entity transaction, each party to that
transaction who receives a copy of the work also receives whatever licenses to the work
the partys predecessor in interest had or could give under the previous paragraph, plus
a right to possession of the Corresponding Source of the work from the predecessor in
interest, if the predecessor has it or can get it with reasonable efforts.
You may not impose any further restrictions on the exercise of the rights granted or
affirmed under this License. For example, you may not impose a license fee, royalty, or
other charge for exercise of rights granted under this License, and you may not initiate
litigation (including a cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that any patent
claim is infringed by making, using, selling, offering for sale, or importing the Program
or any portion of it.
11. Patents.
A contributor is a copyright holder who authorizes use under this License of the
Program or a work on which the Program is based. The work thus licensed is called
the contributors contributor version.
A contributors essential patent claims are all patent claims owned or controlled by
the contributor, whether already acquired or hereafter acquired, that would be infringed
by some manner, permitted by this License, of making, using, or selling its contributor
version, but do not include claims that would be infringed only as a consequence of
further modification of the contributor version. For purposes of this definition, control includes the right to grant patent sublicenses in a manner consistent with the
requirements of this License.
Each contributor grants you a non-exclusive, worldwide, royalty-free patent license
under the contributors essential patent claims, to make, use, sell, offer for sale, import
and otherwise run, modify and propagate the contents of its contributor version.
In the following three paragraphs, a patent license is any express agreement or commitment, however denominated, not to enforce a patent (such as an express permission
to practice a patent or covenant not to sue for patent infringement). To grant such
a patent license to a party means to make such an agreement or commitment not to
enforce a patent against the party.
If you convey a covered work, knowingly relying on a patent license, and the Corresponding Source of the work is not available for anyone to copy, free of charge and under
the terms of this License, through a publicly available network server or other readily
accessible means, then you must either (1) cause the Corresponding Source to be so
10
available, or (2) arrange to deprive yourself of the benefit of the patent license for this
particular work, or (3) arrange, in a manner consistent with the requirements of this
License, to extend the patent license to downstream recipients. Knowingly relying
means you have actual knowledge that, but for the patent license, your conveying the
covered work in a country, or your recipients use of the covered work in a country,
would infringe one or more identifiable patents in that country that you have reason
to believe are valid.
If, pursuant to or in connection with a single transaction or arrangement, you convey,
or propagate by procuring conveyance of, a covered work, and grant a patent license
to some of the parties receiving the covered work authorizing them to use, propagate,
modify or convey a specific copy of the covered work, then the patent license you grant
is automatically extended to all recipients of the covered work and works based on it.
A patent license is discriminatory if it does not include within the scope of its coverage, prohibits the exercise of, or is conditioned on the non-exercise of one or more of the
rights that are specifically granted under this License. You may not convey a covered
work if you are a party to an arrangement with a third party that is in the business of
distributing software, under which you make payment to the third party based on the
extent of your activity of conveying the work, and under which the third party grants,
to any of the parties who would receive the covered work from you, a discriminatory
patent license (a) in connection with copies of the covered work conveyed by you (or
copies made from those copies), or (b) primarily for and in connection with specific
products or compilations that contain the covered work, unless you entered into that
arrangement, or that patent license was granted, prior to 28 March 2007.
Nothing in this License shall be construed as excluding or limiting any implied license or
other defenses to infringement that may otherwise be available to you under applicable
patent law.
12. No Surrender of Others Freedom.
If conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement or otherwise) that
contradict the conditions of this License, they do not excuse you from the conditions
of this License. If you cannot convey a covered work so as to satisfy simultaneously
your obligations under this License and any other pertinent obligations, then as a
consequence you may not convey it at all. For example, if you agree to terms that
obligate you to collect a royalty for further conveying from those to whom you convey
the Program, the only way you could satisfy both those terms and this License would
be to refrain entirely from conveying the Program.
13. Use with the GNU Affero General Public License.
Notwithstanding any other provision of this License, you have permission to link or
combine any covered work with a work licensed under version 3 of the GNU Affero
General Public License into a single combined work, and to convey the resulting work.
The terms of this License will continue to apply to the part which is the covered work,
but the special requirements of the GNU Affero General Public License, section 13,
concerning interaction through a network will apply to the combination as such.
14. Revised Versions of this License.
11
The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions of the GNU
General Public License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit
to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns.
Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program specifies that
a certain numbered version of the GNU General Public License or any later version
applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that
numbered version or of any later version published by the Free Software Foundation.
If the Program does not specify a version number of the GNU General Public License,
you may choose any version ever published by the Free Software Foundation.
If the Program specifies that a proxy can decide which future versions of the GNU
General Public License can be used, that proxys public statement of acceptance of a
version permanently authorizes you to choose that version for the Program.
Later license versions may give you additional or different permissions. However, no
additional obligations are imposed on any author or copyright holder as a result of your
choosing to follow a later version.
15. Disclaimer of Warranty.
THERE IS NO WARRANTY FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW. EXCEPT WHEN OTHERWISE STATED IN
WRITING THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE
THE PROGRAM AS IS WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR
PURPOSE. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE
OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH YOU. SHOULD THE PROGRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY SERVICING, REPAIR OR
CORRECTION.
16. Limitation of Liability.
IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN
WRITING WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO
MODIFIES AND/OR CONVEYS THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THE USE OR
INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM
TO OPERATE WITH ANY OTHER PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR
OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.
17. Interpretation of Sections 15 and 16.
If the disclaimer of warranty and limitation of liability provided above cannot be given
local legal effect according to their terms, reviewing courts shall apply local law that
most closely approximates an absolute waiver of all civil liability in connection with
the Program, unless a warranty or assumption of liability accompanies a copy of the
Program in return for a fee.
12
END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS

How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs
If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest possible use to the public,
the best way to achieve this is to make it free software which everyone can redistribute and
change under these terms.
To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest to attach them to the
start of each source file to most effectively state the exclusion of warranty; and each file
should have at least the copyright line and a pointer to where the full notice is found.
one line to give the programs name and a brief idea of what it does.
Copyright (C) year name of author
This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or (at
your option) any later version.
This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but
WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU
General Public License for more details.
You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
along with this program. If not, see http://www.gnu.org/licenses/.
Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail.
If the program does terminal interaction, make it output a short notice like this when it
starts in an interactive mode:
program Copyright (C) year name of author
This program comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type show w.
This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it
under certain conditions; type show c for details.
The hypothetical commands show w and show c should show the appropriate parts of
the General Public License. Of course, your programs commands might be different; for a
GUI interface, you would use an about box.
You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or school, if any, to
sign a copyright disclaimer for the program, if necessary. For more information on this,
and how to apply and follow the GNU GPL, see http://www.gnu.org/licenses/.
The GNU General Public License does not permit incorporating your program into
proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine library, you may consider it more
useful to permit linking proprietary applications with the library. If this is what you want
to do, use the GNU Lesser General Public License instead of this License. But first, please
read http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/why-not-lgpl.html.
GNU Free Documentation License
13

Version 1.3, 3 November 2008
c
Copyright 2000, 2001, 2002, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
http://fsf.org/
Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
0. PREAMBLE
The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other functional and
useful document free in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the effective freedom
to copy and redistribute it, with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially. Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way
to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for modifications
made by others.
This License is a kind of copyleft, which means that derivative works of the document
must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements the GNU General Public
License, which is a copyleft license designed for free software.
We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free software, because
free software needs free documentation: a free program should come with manuals
providing the same freedoms that the software does. But this License is not limited to
software manuals; it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or
whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this License principally for
works whose purpose is instruction or reference.
1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS
This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that contains a
notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be distributed under the terms
of this License. Such a notice grants a world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in
duration, to use that work under the conditions stated herein. The Document,
below, refers to any such manual or work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and
is addressed as you. You accept the license if you copy, modify or distribute the work
in a way requiring permission under copyright law.
A Modified Version of the Document means any work containing the Document or
a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with modifications and/or translated into
another language.
A Secondary Section is a named appendix or a front-matter section of the Document
that deals exclusively with the relationship of the publishers or authors of the Document
to the Documents overall subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that
could fall directly within that overall subject. (Thus, if the Document is in part a
textbook of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any mathematics.) The
relationship could be a matter of historical connection with the subject or with related
matters, or of legal, commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position regarding
them.
The Invariant Sections are certain Secondary Sections whose titles are designated, as
being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice that says that the Document is released
14
under this License. If a section does not fit the above definition of Secondary then it is
not allowed to be designated as Invariant. The Document may contain zero Invariant
Sections. If the Document does not identify any Invariant Sections then there are none.
The Cover Texts are certain short passages of text that are listed, as Front-Cover
Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that the Document is released under
this License. A Front-Cover Text may be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may
be at most 25 words.
A Transparent copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy, represented
in a format whose specification is available to the general public, that is suitable for
revising the document straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images composed of pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available drawing
editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or for automatic translation to
a variety of formats suitable for input to text formatters. A copy made in an otherwise
Transparent file format whose markup, or absence of markup, has been arranged to
thwart or discourage subsequent modification by readers is not Transparent. An image
format is not Transparent if used for any substantial amount of text. A copy that is
not Transparent is called Opaque.
Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain ascii without
markup, Texinfo input format, LaTEX input format, SGML or XML using a publicly
available DTD, and standard-conforming simple HTML, PostScript or PDF designed
for human modification. Examples of transparent image formats include PNG, XCF
and JPG. Opaque formats include proprietary formats that can be read and edited
only by proprietary word processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD and/or
processing tools are not generally available, and the machine-generated HTML,
PostScript or PDF produced by some word processors for output purposes only.
The Title Page means, for a printed book, the title page itself, plus such following
pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this License requires to appear in the
title page. For works in formats which do not have any title page as such, Title Page
means the text near the most prominent appearance of the works title, preceding the
beginning of the body of the text.
The publisher means any person or entity that distributes copies of the Document
to the public.
A section Entitled XYZ means a named subunit of the Document whose title either
is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following text that translates XYZ in
another language. (Here XYZ stands for a specific section name mentioned below, such
as Acknowledgements, Dedications, Endorsements, or History.) To Preserve
the Title of such a section when you modify the Document means that it remains a
section Entitled XYZ according to this definition.
The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice which states that
this License applies to the Document. These Warranty Disclaimers are considered to
be included by reference in this License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties:
any other implication that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has no
effect on the meaning of this License.
2. VERBATIM COPYING
15
You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either commercially or
noncommercially, provided that this License, the copyright notices, and the license
notice saying this License applies to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and
that you add no other conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use
technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further copying of the copies
you make or distribute. However, you may accept compensation in exchange for copies.
If you distribute a large enough number of copies you must also follow the conditions
in section 3.
You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and you may publicly
display copies.
3. COPYING IN QUANTITY
If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have printed covers) of
the Document, numbering more than 100, and the Documents license notice requires
Cover Texts, you must enclose the copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all
these Cover Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on
the back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as the publisher
of these copies. The front cover must present the full title with all words of the title
equally prominent and visible. You may add other material on the covers in addition.
Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve the title of the
Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in other
respects.
If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit legibly, you should put
the first ones listed (as many as fit reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the
rest onto adjacent pages.
If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering more than 100,
you must either include a machine-readable Transparent copy along with each Opaque
copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy a computer-network location from which
the general network-using public has access to download using public-standard network
protocols a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material. If
you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps, when you begin
distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that this Transparent copy will
remain thus accessible at the stated location until at least one year after the last time
you distribute an Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that
edition to the public.
It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the Document well
before redistributing any large number of copies, to give them a chance to provide you
with an updated version of the Document.
4. MODIFICATIONS
You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under the conditions
of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release the Modified Version under precisely
this License, with the Modified Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing
distribution and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy of
it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version:
A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct from that of the
Document, and from those of previous versions (which should, if there were any,
16
be listed in the History section of the Document). You may use the same title as
a previous version if the original publisher of that version gives permission.
B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities responsible for
authorship of the modifications in the Modified Version, together with at least five
of the principal authors of the Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer
than five), unless they release you from this requirement.
C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the Modified Version, as the
publisher.
D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.
E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications adjacent to the other
copyright notices.
F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice giving the public
permission to use the Modified Version under the terms of this License, in the form
shown in the Addendum below.
G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover
Texts given in the Documents license notice.
H. Include an unaltered copy of this License.
I. Preserve the section Entitled History, Preserve its Title, and add to it an item
stating at least the title, year, new authors, and publisher of the Modified Version
as given on the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled History in the Document, create one stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document
as given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified Version as
stated in the previous sentence.
J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for public access to
a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the network locations given in
the Document for previous versions it was based on. These may be placed in the
History section. You may omit a network location for a work that was published
at least four years before the Document itself, or if the original publisher of the
version it refers to gives permission.
K. For any section Entitled Acknowledgements or Dedications, Preserve the Title
of the section, and preserve in the section all the substance and tone of each of the
contributor acknowledgements and/or dedications given therein.
L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text and
in their titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered part of the
section titles.
M. Delete any section Entitled Endorsements. Such a section may not be included
in the Modified Version.
N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled Endorsements or to conflict in
title with any Invariant Section.
O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.
If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or appendices that qualify
as Secondary Sections and contain no material copied from the Document, you may at
your option designate some or all of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their
17
titles to the list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Versions license notice. These
titles must be distinct from any other section titles.
You may add a section Entitled Endorsements, provided it contains nothing but
endorsements of your Modified Version by various partiesfor example, statements of
peer review or that the text has been approved by an organization as the authoritative
definition of a standard.
You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a passage of up
to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified
Version. Only one passage of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be
added by (or through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document already
includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or by arrangement
made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of, you may not add another; but
you may replace the old one, on explicit permission from the previous publisher that
added the old one.
The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License give permission
to use their names for publicity for or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modified
Version.
5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS
You may combine the Document with other documents released under this License,
under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified versions, provided that you
include in the combination all of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents,
unmodified, and list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license
notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.
The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and multiple identical
Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single copy. If there are multiple Invariant
Sections with the same name but different contents, make the title of each such section
unique by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original author or
publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number. Make the same adjustment
to the section titles in the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined
work.
In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled History in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled History; likewise combine any
sections Entitled Acknowledgements, and any sections Entitled Dedications. You
must delete all sections Entitled Endorsements.
6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released
under this License, and replace the individual copies of this License in the various
documents with a single copy that is included in the collection, provided that you
follow the rules of this License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all
other respects.
You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License into the extracted
document, and follow this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of
that document.
18
7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS

A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate and independent
documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called
an aggregate if the copyright resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the
legal rights of the compilations users beyond what the individual works permit. When
the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not apply to the other
works in the aggregate which are not themselves derivative works of the Document.
If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document,
then if the Document is less than one half of the entire aggregate, the Documents Cover
Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the
electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise they
must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate.
8. TRANSLATION
Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may distribute translations
of the Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with
translations requires special permission from their copyright holders, but you may
include translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the original versions
of these Invariant Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and all the
license notices in the Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you
also include the original English version of this License and the original versions of
those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between the translation and
the original version of this License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will
prevail.
If a section in the Document is Entitled Acknowledgements, Dedications, or History, the requirement (section 4) to Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require
changing the actual title.
9. TERMINATION
You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except as expressly
provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense, or
distribute it is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License.
However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your license from a particular
copyright holder is reinstated (a) provisionally, unless and until the copyright holder
explicitly and finally terminates your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright
holder fails to notify you of the violation by some reasonable means prior to 60 days
after the cessation.
Moreover, your license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated permanently if
the copyright holder notifies you of the violation by some reasonable means, this is the
first time you have received notice of violation of this License (for any work) from that
copyright holder, and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after your receipt of the
notice.
Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the licenses of parties
who have received copies or rights from you under this License. If your rights have
been terminated and not permanently reinstated, receipt of a copy of some or all of the
same material does not give you any rights to use it.
19
10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE

The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free
Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit
to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns.
See http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.
Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document
specifies that a particular numbered version of this License or any later version
applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that
specified version or of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by
the Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version number of
this License, you may choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free
Software Foundation. If the Document specifies that a proxy can decide which future
versions of this License can be used, that proxys public statement of acceptance of a
version permanently authorizes you to choose that version for the Document.
11. RELICENSING
Massive Multiauthor Collaboration Site (or MMC Site) means any World Wide
Web server that publishes copyrightable works and also provides prominent facilities
for anybody to edit those works. A public wiki that anybody can edit is an example of
such a server. A Massive Multiauthor Collaboration (or MMC) contained in the
site means any set of copyrightable works thus published on the MMC site.
CC-BY-SA means the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 license published by Creative Commons Corporation, a not-for-profit corporation with a principal
place of business in San Francisco, California, as well as future copyleft versions of that
license published by that same organization.
Incorporate means to publish or republish a Document, in whole or in part, as part
of another Document.
An MMC is eligible for relicensing if it is licensed under this License, and if all works
that were first published under this License somewhere other than this MMC, and
subsequently incorporated in whole or in part into the MMC, (1) had no cover texts
or invariant sections, and (2) were thus incorporated prior to November 1, 2008.
The operator of an MMC Site may republish an MMC contained in the site under
CC-BY-SA on the same site at any time before August 1, 2009, provided the MMC is
eligible for relicensing.
20
ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents

To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of the License in the
document and put the following copyright and license notices just after the title page:
Copyright (C) year your name.
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3
or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover
Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled GNU
Free Documentation License.
If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts, replace the
with...Texts. line with this:
with the Invariant Sections being list their titles, with
the Front-Cover Texts being list, and with the Back-Cover Texts
being list.
If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other combination of the
three, merge those two alternatives to suit the situation.
If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we recommend releasing
these examples in parallel under your choice of free software license, such as the GNU
General Public License, to permit their use in free software.
Chapter 1: Invoking gcj
21
1 Invoking gcj
As gcj is just another front end to gcc, it supports many of the same options as gcc. See
Section Option Summary in Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC). This manual
only documents the options specific to gcj.
1.1 Input and output files

A gcj command is like a gcc command, in that it consists of a number of options and file
names. The following kinds of input file names are supported:
file.java
Java source files.
file.class
Java bytecode files.
file.zip
file.jar
@file
An archive containing one or more .class files, all of which are compiled. The
archive may be compressed. Files in an archive which dont end with .class
are treated as resource files; they are compiled into the resulting object file as
core: URLs.
A file containing a whitespace-separated list of input file names. (Currently,
these must all be .java source files, but that may change.) Each named file is
compiled, just as if it had been on the command line.
library.a
library.so
-llibname
Libraries to use when linking. See the gcc manual.
You can specify more than one input file on the gcj command line, in which case they will
all be compiled. If you specify a -o FILENAME option, all the input files will be compiled
together, producing a single output file, named FILENAME. This is allowed even when
using -S or -c, but not when using -C or --resource. (This is an extension beyond the
what plain gcc allows.) (If more than one input file is specified, all must currently be .java
files, though we hope to fix this.)
1.2 Input Options

gcj has options to control where it looks to find files it needs. For instance, gcj might
need to load a class that is referenced by the file it has been asked to compile. Like other
compilers for the Java language, gcj has a notion of a class path. There are several options
and environment variables which can be used to manipulate the class path. When gcj looks
for a given class, it searches the class path looking for matching .class or .java file.
gcj comes with a built-in class path which points at the installed libgcj.jar, a file which
contains all the standard classes.
In the text below, a directory or path component can refer either to an actual directory
on the filesystem, or to a .zip or .jar file, which gcj will search as if it is a directory.
-Idir
22
All directories specified by -I are kept in order and prepended to the class
path constructed from all the other options. Unless compatibility with tools
like javac is important, we recommend always using -I instead of the other
options for manipulating the class path.
--classpath=path
This sets the class path to path, a colon-separated list of paths (on Windowsbased systems, a semicolon-separate list of paths). This does not override the
builtin (boot) search path.
--CLASSPATH=path
Deprecated synonym for --classpath.
--bootclasspath=path
Where to find the standard builtin classes, such as java.lang.String.
--extdirs=path
For each directory in the path, place the contents of that directory at the end
of the class path.
CLASSPATH
This is an environment variable which holds a list of paths.
The final class path is constructed like so:
First come all directories specified via -I.
If --classpath is specified, its value is appended. Otherwise, if the CLASSPATH environment variable is specified, then its value is appended. Otherwise, the current
directory (".") is appended.
If --bootclasspath was specified, append its value. Otherwise, append the built-in
system directory, libgcj.jar.
Finally, if --extdirs was specified, append the contents of the specified directories at
the end of the class path. Otherwise, append the contents of the built-in extdirs at
$(prefix)/share/java/ext.
The classfile built by gcj for the class java.lang.Object (and placed in libgcj.jar)
contains a special zero length attribute gnu.gcj.gcj-compiled. The compiler looks for
this attribute when loading java.lang.Object and will report an error if it isnt found,
unless it compiles to bytecode (the option -fforce-classes-archive-check can be used
to override this behavior in this particular case.)
-fforce-classes-archive-check
This forces the compiler to always check for the special zero length attribute
gnu.gcj.gcj-compiled in java.lang.Object and issue an error if it isnt
found.
-fsource=VERSION
This option is used to choose the source version accepted by gcj. The default
is 1.5.
23
1.3 Encodings
The Java programming language uses Unicode throughout. In an effort to integrate well
with other locales, gcj allows .java files to be written using almost any encoding. gcj
knows how to convert these encodings into its internal encoding at compile time.
You can use the --encoding=NAME option to specify an encoding (of a particular character set) to use for source files. If this is not specified, the default encoding comes from
your current locale. If your host system has insufficient locale support, then gcj assumes
the default encoding to be the UTF-8 encoding of Unicode.
To implement --encoding, gcj simply uses the host platforms iconv conversion routine.
This means that in practice gcj is limited by the capabilities of the host platform.
The names allowed for the argument --encoding vary from platform to platform (since
they are not standardized anywhere). However, gcj implements the encoding named UTF-8
internally, so if you choose to use this for your source files you can be assured that it will
work on every host.
1.4 Warnings
gcj implements several warnings. As with other generic gcc warnings, if an option of
the form -Wfoo enables a warning, then -Wno-foo will disable it. Here weve chosen to
document the form of the warning which will have an effect the default being the opposite
of what is listed.
-Wredundant-modifiers
With this flag, gcj will warn about redundant modifiers. For instance, it will
warn if an interface method is declared public.
-Wextraneous-semicolon
This causes gcj to warn about empty statements. Empty statements have been
deprecated.
-Wno-out-of-date
This option will cause gcj not to warn when a source file is newer than its
matching class file. By default gcj will warn about this.
-Wno-deprecated
Warn if a deprecated class, method, or field is referred to.
-Wunused
This is the same as gccs -Wunused.
-Wall
This is the same as -Wredundant-modifiers -Wextraneous-semicolon

-Wunused.
1.5 Linking
To turn a Java application into an executable program, you need to link it with the needed
libraries, just as for C or C++. The linker by default looks for a global function named main.
Since Java does not have global functions, and a collection of Java classes may have more
than one class with a main method, you need to let the linker know which of those main
methods it should invoke when starting the application. You can do that in any of these
ways:
24
Specify the class containing the desired main method when you link the application,
using the --main flag, described below.
Link the Java package(s) into a shared library (dll) rather than an executable. Then
invoke the application using the gij program, making sure that gij can find the
libraries it needs.
Link the Java packages(s) with the flag -lgij, which links in the main routine from
the gij command. This allows you to select the class whose main method you want to
run when you run the application. You can also use other gij flags, such as -D flags to
set properties. Using the -lgij library (rather than the gij program of the previous
mechanism) has some advantages: it is compatible with static linking, and does not
require configuring or installing libraries.
These gij options relate to linking an executable:
--main=CLASSNAME
This option is used when linking to specify the name of the class whose main
method should be invoked when the resulting executable is run.
-Dname [=value ]
This option can only be used with --main. It defines a system property named
name with value value. If value is not specified then it defaults to the empty
string. These system properties are initialized at the programs startup and can
be retrieved at runtime using the java.lang.System.getProperty method.
-lgij
Create an application whose command-line processing is that of the gij command.

This option is an alternative to using --main; you cannot use both.
-static-libgcj
This option causes linking to be done against a static version of the libgcj
runtime library. This option is only available if corresponding linker support
exists.
Caution: Static linking of libgcj may cause essential parts of libgcj to be omitted.
Some parts of libgcj use reflection to load classes at runtime. Since the linker
does not see these references at link time, it can omit the referred to classes. The
result is usually (but not always) a ClassNotFoundException being thrown at
runtime. Caution must be used when using this option. For more details see:
http://gcc.gnu.org/wiki/Statically%20linking%20libgcj
1.6 Code Generation

In addition to the many gcc options controlling code generation, gcj has several options
specific to itself.
-C
This option is used to tell gcj to generate bytecode (.class files) rather than
object code.
--resource resource-name
This option is used to tell gcj to compile the contents of a given file to
object code so it may be accessed at runtime with the core protocol handler
25
as core:/resource-name . Note that resource-name is the name of the

resource as found at runtime; for instance, it could be used in a call to
ResourceBundle.getBundle. The actual file name to be compiled this way
must be specified separately.
-ftarget=VERSION
This can be used with -C to choose the version of bytecode emitted by gcj.
The default is 1.5. When not generating bytecode, this option has no effect.
-d directory
When used with -C, this causes all generated .class files to be put in the
appropriate subdirectory of directory. By default they will be put in subdirectories of the current working directory.
-fno-bounds-check
By default, gcj generates code which checks the bounds of all array indexing
operations. With this option, these checks are omitted, which can improve
performance for code that uses arrays extensively. Note that this can result
in unpredictable behavior if the code in question actually does violate array
bounds constraints. It is safe to use this option if you are sure that your code
will never throw an ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException.
-fno-store-check
Dont generate array store checks. When storing objects into arrays, a runtime
check is normally generated in order to ensure that the object is assignment
compatible with the component type of the array (which may not be known at
compile-time). With this option, these checks are omitted. This can improve
performance for code which stores objects into arrays frequently. It is safe to use
this option if you are sure your code will never throw an ArrayStoreException.
-fjni
With gcj there are two options for writing native methods: CNI and JNI. By
default gcj assumes you are using CNI. If you are compiling a class with native
methods, and these methods are implemented using JNI, then you must use fjni. This option causes gcj to generate stubs which will invoke the underlying
JNI methods.
-fno-assert
Dont recognize the assert keyword. This is for compatibility with older versions of the language specification.
-fno-optimize-static-class-initialization
When the optimization level is greater or equal to -O2, gcj will try to optimize
the way calls into the runtime are made to initialize static classes upon their first
use (this optimization isnt carried out if -C was specified.) When compiling
to native code, -fno-optimize-static-class-initialization will turn this
optimization off, regardless of the optimization level in use.
--disable-assertions[=class-or-package ]
Dont include code for checking assertions in the compiled code. If =classor-package is missing disables assertion code generation for all classes, unless
overridden by a more specific --enable-assertions flag. If class-or-package is
26
a class name, only disables generating assertion checks within the named class
or its inner classes. If class-or-package is a package name, disables generating
assertion checks within the named package or a subpackage.
By default, assertions are enabled when generating class files or when not optimizing, and disabled when generating optimized binaries.
--enable-assertions[=class-or-package ]
Generates code to check assertions. The option is perhaps misnamed, as you
still need to turn on assertion checking at run-time, and we dont support any
easy way to do that. So this flag isnt very useful yet, except to partially
override --disable-assertions.
-findirect-dispatch
gcj has a special binary compatibility ABI, which is enabled by the
-findirect-dispatch option. In this mode, the code generated by gcj
honors the binary compatibility guarantees in the Java Language Specification,
and the resulting object files do not need to be directly linked against their
dependencies. Instead, all dependencies are looked up at runtime. This allows
free mixing of interpreted and compiled code.
Note that, at present, -findirect-dispatch can only be used when compiling
.class files. It will not work when compiling from source. CNI also does not
yet work with the binary compatibility ABI. These restrictions will be lifted in
some future release.
However, if you compile CNI code with the standard ABI, you can call it from
code built with the binary compatibility ABI.
-fbootstrap-classes
This option can be use to tell libgcj that the compiled classes should be loaded
by the bootstrap loader, not the system class loader. By default, if you compile
a class and link it into an executable, it will be treated as if it was loaded
using the system class loader. This is convenient, as it means that things like
Class.forName() will search CLASSPATH to find the desired class.
-freduced-reflection
This option causes the code generated by gcj to contain a reduced amount of
the class meta-data used to support runtime reflection. The cost of this savings
is the loss of the ability to use certain reflection capabilities of the standard
Java runtime environment. When set all meta-data except for that which is
needed to obtain correct runtime semantics is eliminated.
For code that does not use reflection (i.e. serialization, RMI, CORBA or call
methods in the java.lang.reflect package), -freduced-reflection will result in proper operation with a savings in executable code size.
JNI (-fjni) and the binary compatibility ABI (-findirect-dispatch) do not
work properly without full reflection meta-data. Because of this, it is an error
to use these options with -freduced-reflection.
Caution: If there is no reflection meta-data, code that uses a SecurityManager
may not work properly. Also calling Class.forName() may fail if the calling
method has no reflection meta-data.
27
1.7 Configure-time Options

Some gcj code generations options affect the resulting ABI, and so can only be meaningfully
given when libgcj, the runtime package, is configured. libgcj puts the appropriate options
from this group into a spec file which is read by gcj. These options are listed here for
completeness; if you are using libgcj then you wont want to touch these options.
-fuse-boehm-gc
This enables the use of the Boehm GC bitmap marking code. In particular this
causes gcj to put an object marking descriptor into each vtable.
-fhash-synchronization
By default, synchronization data (the data used for synchronize, wait, and
notify) is pointed to by a word in each object. With this option gcj assumes
that this information is stored in a hash table and not in the object itself.
-fuse-divide-subroutine
On some systems, a library routine is called to perform integer division. This
is required to get exception handling correct when dividing by zero.
-fcheck-references
On some systems its necessary to insert inline checks whenever accessing an
object via a reference. On other systems you wont need this because null
pointer accesses are caught automatically by the processor.
-fuse-atomic-builtins
On some systems, gcc can generate code for built-in atomic operations. Use this
option to force gcj to use these builtins when compiling Java code. Where this
capability is present it should be automatically detected, so you wont usually
need to use this option.
Chapter 2: Compatibility with the Java Platform
28
2 Compatibility with the Java Platform

As we believe it is important that the Java platform not be fragmented, gcj and libgcj try
to conform to the relevant Java specifications. However, limited manpower and incomplete
and unclear documentation work against us. So, there are caveats to using gcj.
2.1 Standard features not yet supported

This list of compatibility issues is by no means complete.
gcj implements the JDK 1.2 language. It supports inner classes and the new 1.4
assert keyword. It does not yet support the Java 2 strictfp keyword (it recognizes
the keyword but ignores it).
libgcj is largely compatible with the JDK 1.2 libraries. However, libgcj is missing
many packages, most notably java.awt. There are also individual missing classes and
methods. We currently do not have a list showing differences between libgcj and the
Java 2 platform.
Sometimes the libgcj implementation of a method or class differs from the JDK
implementation. This is not always a bug. Still, if it affects you, it probably makes
sense to report it so that we can discuss the appropriate response.
gcj does not currently allow for piecemeal replacement of components within libgcj.
Unfortunately, programmers often want to use newer versions of certain packages, such
as those provided by the Apache Software Foundations Jakarta project. This has
forced us to place the org.w3c.dom and org.xml.sax packages into their own libraries,
separate from libgcj. If you intend to use these classes, you must link them explicitly
with -l-org-w3c-dom and -l-org-xml-sax. Future versions of gcj may not have this
restriction.
2.2 Extra features unique to gcj

The main feature of gcj is that it can compile programs written in the Java programming language to native code. Most extensions that have been added are to facilitate this
functionality.
gcj makes it easy and efficient to mix code written in Java and C++. See Chapter 11
[About CNI], page 39, for more info on how to use this in your programs.
When you compile your classes into a shared library using -findirect-dispatch then
add them to the system-wide classmap.db file using gcj-dbtool, they will be automatically loaded by the libgcj system classloader. This is the new, preferred classnameto-library resolution mechanism. See Chapter 5 [Invoking gcj-dbtool], page 33, for more
information on using the classmap database.
The old classname-to-library lookup mechanism is still supported through the
gnu.gcj.runtime.VMClassLoader.library_control property, but it is deprecated
and will likely be removed in some future release. When trying to load a class
gnu.pkg.SomeClass the system classloader will first try to load the shared library
lib-gnu-pkg-SomeClass.so, if that fails to load the class then it will try to load
lib-gnu-pkg.so and finally when the class is still not loaded it will try to load
lib-gnu.so. Note that all .s will be transformed into -s and that searching for
Chapter 2: Compatibility with the Java Platform
29
inner classes starts with their outermost outer class. If the class cannot be found this
way the system classloader tries to use the libgcj bytecode interpreter to load the
class from the standard classpath. This process can be controlled to some degree via
the gnu.gcj.runtime.VMClassLoader.library_control property; See Section 12.3
[libgcj Runtime Properties], page 57.
libgcj includes a special gcjlib URL type. A URL of this form is like a jar URL, and
looks like gcjlib:/path/to/shared/library.so!/path/to/resource. An access to
one of these URLs causes the shared library to be dlopen()d, and then the resource is
looked for in that library. These URLs are most useful when used in conjunction with
java.net.URLClassLoader. Note that, due to implementation limitations, currently
any such URL can be accessed by only one class loader, and libraries are never unloaded.
This means some care must be exercised to make sure that a gcjlib URL is not accessed
by more than one class loader at once. In a future release this limitation will be lifted,
and such libraries will be mapped privately.
A program compiled by gcj will examine the GCJ_PROPERTIES environment variable
and change its behavior in some ways. In particular GCJ_PROPERTIES holds a list of
assignments to global properties, such as would be set with the -D option to java.
For instance, java.compiler=gcj is a valid (but currently meaningless) setting.
Chapter 3: Invoking jcf-dump
30
3 Invoking jcf-dump
This is a class file examiner, similar to javap. It will print information about a number of
classes, which are specified by class name or file name.
-c
Disassemble method bodies. By default method bodies are not printed.
--print-constants
Print the constant pool. When printing a reference to a constant also print its
index in the constant pool.
--javap
Generate output in javap format. The implementation of this feature is very

incomplete.
--classpath=path
--CLASSPATH=path
-Idirectory
-o file
These options as the same as the corresponding gcj options.
--help
Print help, then exit.
--version
Print version number, then exit.
-v, --verbose
Print extra information while running. Implies --print-constants.
Chapter 4: Invoking gij
31
4 Invoking gij
gij is a Java bytecode interpreter included with libgcj. gij is not available on every
platform; porting it requires a small amount of assembly programming which has not been
done for all the targets supported by gcj.
The primary argument to gij is the name of a class or, with -jar, a jar file. Options
before this argument are interpreted by gij; remaining options are passed to the interpreted
program.
If a class name is specified and this class does not have a main method with the appropriate signature (a static void method with a String[] as its sole argument), then gij
will print an error and exit.
If a jar file is specified then gij will use information in it to determine which class main
method will be invoked.
gij will invoke the main method with all the remaining command-line options.
Note that gij is not limited to interpreting code. Because libgcj includes a class loader
which can dynamically load shared objects, it is possible to give gij the name of a class
which has been compiled and put into a shared library on the class path.
-cp path
-classpath path
Set the initial class path. The class path is used for finding class and resource
files. If specified, this option overrides the CLASSPATH environment variable.
Note that this option is ignored if -jar is used.
-Dname [=value ]
This defines a system property named name with value value. If value is not
specified then it defaults to the empty string. These system properties are
initialized at the programs startup and can be retrieved at runtime using the
java.lang.System.getProperty method.
-ms=number
Equivalent to -Xms.
-mx=number
Equivalent to -Xmx.
-noverify
Do not verify compliance of bytecode with the VM specification. In addition,
this option disables type verification which is otherwise performed on BC-ABI
compiled code.
-X
-Xargument
Supplying -X by itself will cause gij to list all the supported -X options. Currently these options are supported:
-Xmssize
Set the initial heap size.
-Xmxsize
Set the maximum heap size.
-Xsssize
Set the thread stack size.
Chapter 4: Invoking gij
32
Unrecognized -X options are ignored, for compatibility with other runtimes.

-jar
--help
-?
This indicates that the name passed to gij should be interpreted as the name
of a jar file, not a class.
Print help, then exit.
--showversion
Print version number and continue.
--fullversion
Print detailed version information, then exit.
--version
Print version number, then exit.
-verbose
-verbose:class
Each time a class is initialized, print a short message on standard error.
gij also recognizes and ignores the following options, for compatibility with existing application launch scripts: -client, -server, -hotspot, -jrockit, -agentlib, -agentpath,
-debug, -d32, -d64, -javaagent, -noclassgc, -verify, and -verifyremote.
Chapter 5: Invoking gcj-dbtool.
33
5 Invoking gcj-dbtool.
gcj-dbtool is a tool for creating and manipulating class file mapping databases. libgcj can
use these databases to find a shared library corresponding to the bytecode representation
of a class. This functionality is useful for ahead-of-time compilation of a program that has
no knowledge of gcj.
gcj-dbtool works best if all the jar files added to it are compiled using -findirectdispatch.
Note that gcj-dbtool is currently available as preview technology. We believe it is a
reasonable way to allow application-transparent ahead-of-time compilation, but this is an
unexplored area. We welcome your comments.
-n DBFILE [SIZE ]
This creates a new database. Currently, databases cannot be resized; you can
choose a larger initial size if desired. The default size is 32,749.
-a DBFILE JARFILE LIB
-f DBFILE JARFILE LIB
This adds a jar file to the database. For each class file in the jar, a cryptographic
signature of the bytecode representation of the class is recorded in the database.
At runtime, a class is looked up by its signature and the compiled form of the
class is looked for in the corresponding shared library. The -a option will
verify that LIB exists before adding it to the database; -f skips this check.
[-][-0] -m DBFILE DBFILE,[DBFILE ]
Merge a number of databases. The output database overwrites any existing
database. To add databases into an existing database, include the destination
in the list of sources.
If - or -0 are used, the list of files to read is taken from standard input
instead of the command line. For -0, Input filenames are terminated by a null
character instead of by whitespace. Useful when arguments might contain white
space. The GNU find -print0 option produces input suitable for this mode.
-t DBFILE
Test a database.
-l DBFILE
List the contents of a database.
-p
Print the name of the default database. If there is no default database, this
prints a blank line. If LIBDIR is specified, use it instead of the default library
directory component of the database name.
--help
Print a help message, then exit.
--version
-v
Print version information, then exit.
Chapter 6: Invoking jv-convert
34
6 Invoking jv-convert
jv-convert [OPTION] . . . [INPUTFILE [OUTPUTFILE]]
jv-convert is a utility included with libgcj which converts a file from one encoding to
another. It is similar to the Unix iconv utility.
The encodings supported by jv-convert are platform-dependent. Currently there is no
way to get a list of all supported encodings.
--encoding name
--from name
Use name as the input encoding. The default is the current locales encoding.
--to name
Use name as the output encoding. The default is the JavaSrc encoding; this is
ASCII with \u escapes for non-ASCII characters.
-i file
Read from file. The default is to read from standard input.
-o file
Write to file. The default is to write to standard output.
--reverse
Swap the input and output encodings.
--help
--version
Chapter 7: Invoking grmic
35
7 Invoking grmic
grmic [OPTION] . . . class . . .
grmic is a utility included with libgcj which generates stubs for remote objects.
Note that this program isnt yet fully compatible with the JDK grmic. Some options,
such as -classpath, are recognized but currently ignored. We have left these options
undocumented for now.
Long options can also be given with a GNU-style leading --. For instance, --help is
accepted.
-keep
-keepgenerated
By default, grmic deletes intermediate files. Either of these options causes it
not to delete such files.
-v1.1
Cause grmic to create stubs and skeletons for the 1.1 protocol version.
-vcompat
Cause grmic to create stubs and skeletons compatible with both the 1.1 and
1.2 protocol versions. This is the default.
-v1.2
Cause grmic to create stubs and skeletons for the 1.2 protocol version.
-nocompile
Dont compile the generated files.
-verbose
Print information about what grmic is doing.
-d directory
Put output files in directory. By default the files are put in the current working
directory.
-help
-version
Chapter 8: Invoking gc-analyze
36
8 Invoking gc-analyze
gc-analyze [OPTION] . . . [file]
gc-analyze prints an analysis of a GC memory dump to standard out.
The memory dumps may be created by calling gnu.gcj.util.GCInfo.enumerate(String
namePrefix) from java code. A memory dump will be created on an out of memory
condition if gnu.gcj.util.GCInfo.setOOMDump(String namePrefix) is called before the
out of memory occurs.
Running this program will create two files: TestDump001 and TestDump001.bytes.
import gnu.gcj.util.*;
import java.util.*;
public class GCDumpTest
{
static public void main(String args[])
{
ArrayList<String> l = new ArrayList<String>(1000);
for (int i = 1; i < 1500; i++) {
l.add("This is string #" + i);
}
GCInfo.enumerate("TestDump");
}
}
The memory dump may then be displayed by running:
gc-analyze -v TestDump001
--verbose
-v
Verbose output.
-p tool-prefix
Prefix added to the names of the nm and readelf commands.
-d directory
Directory that contains the executable and shared libraries used when the dump
was generated.
--help
--version
Chapter 9: Invoking aot-compile
37
9 Invoking aot-compile
aot-compile is a script that searches a directory for Java bytecode (as class files, or in jars)
and uses gcj to compile it to native code and generate the databases from it.
-M, --make=PATH
Specify the path to the make executable to use.
-C, --gcj=PATH
Specify the path to the gcj executable to use.
-D, --dbtool=PATH
Specify the path to the gcj-dbtool executable to use.
-m, --makeflags=FLAGS
Specify flags to pass to make during the build.
-c, --gcjflags=FLAGS
Specify flags to pass to gcj during compilation, in addition to -fPIC -findirectdispatch -fjni.
-l, --ldflags=FLAGS
Specify flags to pass to gcj during linking, in addition to -Wl,-Bsymbolic.
-e, --exclude=PATH
Do not compile PATH.
Chapter 10: Invoking rebuild-gcj-db
38
10 Invoking rebuild-gcj-db
rebuild-gcj-db is a script that merges the per-solib databases made by aot-compile into
one system-wide database so gij can find the solibs.
Chapter 11: About CNI
39
11 About CNI
This documents CNI, the Compiled Native Interface, which is is a convenient way to write
Java native methods using C++. This is a more efficient, more convenient, but less portable
alternative to the standard JNI (Java Native Interface).
11.1 Basic concepts

In terms of languages features, Java is mostly a subset of C++. Java has a few important
extensions, plus a powerful standard class library, but on the whole that does not change
the basic similarity. Java is a hybrid object-oriented language, with a few native types, in
addition to class types. It is class-based, where a class may have static as well as per-object
fields, and static as well as instance methods. Non-static methods may be virtual, and may
be overloaded. Overloading is resolved at compile time by matching the actual argument
types against the parameter types. Virtual methods are implemented using indirect calls
through a dispatch table (virtual function table). Objects are allocated on the heap, and
initialized using a constructor method. Classes are organized in a package hierarchy.
All of the listed attributes are also true of C++, though C++ has extra features (for
example in C++ objects may be allocated not just on the heap, but also statically or in a
local stack frame). Because gcj uses the same compiler technology as G++ (the GNU C++
compiler), it is possible to make the intersection of the two languages use the same ABI
(object representation and calling conventions). The key idea in CNI is that Java objects
are C++ objects, and all Java classes are C++ classes (but not the other way around). So the
most important task in integrating Java and C++ is to remove gratuitous incompatibilities.
You write CNI code as a regular C++ source file. (You do have to use a Java/CNI-aware
C++ compiler, specifically a recent version of G++.)
A CNI C++ source file must have:
#include <gcj/cni.h>
and then must include one header file for each Java class it uses, e.g.:
#include <java/lang/Character.h>
#include <java/util/Date.h>
#include <java/lang/IndexOutOfBoundsException.h>
These header files are automatically generated by gcjh.
CNI provides some functions and macros to make using Java objects and primitive types
from C++ easier. In general, these CNI functions and macros start with the Jv prefix, for
example the function JvNewObjectArray. This convention is used to avoid conflicts with
other libraries. Internal functions in CNI start with the prefix _Jv_. You should not call
these; if you find a need to, let us know and we will try to come up with an alternate
solution.
11.1.1 Limitations
Whilst a Java class is just a C++ class that doesnt mean that you are freed from the shackles
of Java, a CNI C++ class must adhere to the rules of the Java programming language.
For example: it is not possible to declare a method in a CNI class that will take a C
string (char*) as an argument, or to declare a member variable of some non-Java datatype.
40
11.2 Packages
The only global names in Java are class names, and packages. A package can contain zero or
more classes, and also zero or more sub-packages. Every class belongs to either an unnamed
package or a package that has a hierarchical and globally unique name.
A Java package is mapped to a C++ namespace. The Java class java.lang.String is
in the package java.lang, which is a sub-package of java. The C++ equivalent is the class
java::lang::String, which is in the namespace java::lang which is in the namespace
java.
Here is how you could express this:
(// Declare the class(es), possibly in a header file:
namespace java {
namespace lang {
class Object;
class String;
...
}
}
class java::lang::String : public java::lang::Object
{
...
};
The gcjh tool automatically generates the necessary namespace declarations.
11.2.1 Leaving out package names

Always using the fully-qualified name of a java class can be tiresomely verbose. Using the
full qualified name also ties the code to a single package making code changes necessary
should the class move from one package to another. The Java package declaration specifies
that the following class declarations are in the named package, without having to explicitly
name the full package qualifiers. The package declaration can be followed by zero or more
import declarations, which allows either a single class or all the classes in a package to be
named by a simple identifier. C++ provides something similar with the using declaration
and directive.
In Java:
import package-name.class-name ;
allows the program text to refer to class-name as a shorthand for the fully qualified name:
package-name.class-name .
To achieve the same effect C++, you have to do this:
using package-name ::class-name ;
Java can also cause imports on demand, like this:
import package-name.*;
Doing this allows any class from the package package-name to be referred to only by its
class-name within the program text.
The same effect can be achieved in C++ like this:
41
using namespace package-name ;
11.3 Primitive types

Java provides 8 primitives types which represent integers, floats, characters and booleans
(and also the void type). C++ has its own very similar concrete types. Such types in C++
however are not always implemented in the same way (an int might be 16, 32 or 64 bits for
example) so CNI provides a special C++ type for each primitive Java type:
Java type
C/C++ typename
Description
char
jchar
16 bit Unicode character
boolean
jboolean
logical (true or false) values
byte
jbyte
8-bit signed integer
short
jshort
16 bit signed integer
int
jint
long
jlong
float
jfloat
32 bit IEEE floating point number
double
jdouble
64 bit IEEE floating point number
void
void
no value
When referring to a Java type You should always use these C++ typenames (e.g.: jint)
to avoid disappointment.
11.3.1 Reference types associated with primitive types

In Java each primitive type has an associated reference type, e.g.: boolean has an associated
java.lang.Boolean.TYPE class. In order to make working with such classes easier GCJ
provides the macro JvPrimClass:
JvPrimClass type
[macro]
Return a pointer to the Class object corresponding to the type supplied.

JvPrimClass(void) java.lang.Void.TYPE
11.4 Reference types

A Java reference type is treated as a class in C++. Classes and interfaces are handled
this way. A Java reference is translated to a C++ pointer, so for instance a Java
java.lang.String becomes, in C++, java::lang::String *.
CNI provides a few built-in typedefs for the most common classes:
Java type
C++ typename
Description
java.lang.Object
jobject
Object type
java.lang.String
jstring
String type
java.lang.Class
jclass
Class type
Every Java class or interface has a corresponding Class instance. These can be accessed
in CNI via the static class$ field of a class. The class$ field is of type Class (and not
Class *), so you will typically take the address of it.
Here is how you can refer to the class of String, which in Java would be written
String.class:
using namespace java::lang;
doSomething (&String::class$);
42
11.5 Interfaces
A Java class can implement zero or more interfaces, in addition to inheriting from a single
base class.
CNI allows CNI code to implement methods of interfaces. You can also call methods
through interface references, with some limitations.
CNI doesnt understand interface inheritance at all yet. So, you can only call an interface
method when the declared type of the field being called matches the interface which declares
that method. The workaround is to cast the interface reference to the right superinterface.
For example if you have:
interface A
{
void a();
}
interface B extends A
{
void b();
}
and declare a variable of type B in C++, you cant call a() unless you cast it to an A first.
11.6 Objects and Classes

11.6.1 Classes
All Java classes are derived from java.lang.Object. C++ does not have a unique root class,
but we use the C++ class java::lang::Object as the C++ version of the java.lang.Object
Java class. All other Java classes are mapped into corresponding C++ classes derived from
java::lang::Object.
Interface inheritance (the implements keyword) is currently not reflected in the C++
mapping.
11.6.2 Object fields

Each object contains an object header, followed by the instance fields of the class, in order.
The object header consists of a single pointer to a dispatch or virtual function table. (There
may be extra fields in front of the object, for example for memory management, but this
is invisible to the application, and the reference to the object points to the dispatch table
pointer.)
The fields are laid out in the same order, alignment, and size as in C++. Specifically,
8-bit and 16-bit native types (byte, short, char, and boolean) are not widened to 32 bits.
Note that the Java VM does extend 8-bit and 16-bit types to 32 bits when on the VM stack
or temporary registers.
If you include the gcjh-generated header for a class, you can access fields of Java classes
in the natural way. For example, given the following Java class:
public class Int
{
43
public int i;
public Int (int i) { this.i = i; }
public static Int zero = new Int(0);
}
you can write:
#include <gcj/cni.h>;
#include <Int>;
Int*
mult (Int *p, jint k)
{
if (k == 0)
return Int::zero; // Static member access.
return new Int(p->i * k);
}
11.6.3 Access specifiers

CNI does not strictly enforce the Java access specifiers, because Java permissions cannot
be directly mapped into C++ permission. Private Java fields and methods are mapped to
private C++ fields and methods, but other fields and methods are mapped to public fields
and methods.
11.7 Class Initialization

Java requires that each class be automatically initialized at the time of the first active
use. Initializing a class involves initializing the static fields, running code in class initializer
methods, and initializing base classes. There may also be some implementation specific
actions, such as allocating String objects corresponding to string literals in the code.
The GCJ compiler inserts calls to JvInitClass at appropriate places
that a class is initialized when required. The C++ compiler does not insert
automaticallyit is the programmers responsibility to make sure classes are
However, this is fairly painless because of the conventions assumed by the Java
to ensure
these calls
initialized.
system.
First, libgcj will make sure a class is initialized before an instance of that object is
created. This is one of the responsibilities of the new operation. This is taken care of both
in Java code, and in C++ code. When G++ sees a new of a Java class, it will call a routine
in libgcj to allocate the object, and that routine will take care of initializing the class.
Note however that this does not happen for Java arrays; you must allocate those using
the appropriate CNI function. It follows that you can access an instance field, or call an
instance (non-static) method and be safe in the knowledge that the class and all of its base
classes have been initialized.
Invoking a static method is also safe. This is because the Java compiler adds code to the
start of a static method to make sure the class is initialized. However, the C++ compiler
does not add this extra code. Hence, if you write a native static method using CNI, you
are responsible for calling JvInitClass before doing anything else in the method (unless
you are sure it is safe to leave it out).
44
Accessing a static field also requires the class of the field to be initialized. The Java
compiler will generate code to call JvInitClass before getting or setting the field. However,
the C++ compiler will not generate this extra code, so it is your responsibility to make sure
the class is initialized before you access a static field from C++.
11.8 Object allocation

New Java objects are allocated using a class instance creation expression, e.g.:
new Type ( ... )
The same syntax is used in C++. The main difference is that C++ objects have to be
explicitly deleted; in Java they are automatically deleted by the garbage collector. Using
CNI, you can allocate a new Java object using standard C++ syntax and the C++ compiler
will allocate memory from the garbage collector. If you have overloaded constructors, the
compiler will choose the correct one using standard C++ overload resolution rules.
For example:
java::util::Hashtable *ht = new java::util::Hashtable(120);
11.9 Memory allocation

When allocating memory in CNI methods it is best to handle out-of-memory conditions by
throwing a Java exception. These functions are provided for that purpose:
void* JvMalloc (jsize size )
[Function]
Calls malloc. Throws java.lang.OutOfMemoryError if allocation fails.
void* JvRealloc (void* ptr, jsize size )
[Function]
Calls realloc. Throws java.lang.OutOfMemoryError if reallocation fails.
void JvFree (void* ptr )
[Function]
Calls free.
11.10 Arrays
While in many ways Java is similar to C and C++, it is quite different in its treatment of
arrays. C arrays are based on the idea of pointer arithmetic, which would be incompatible
with Javas security requirements. Java arrays are true objects (array types inherit from
java.lang.Object). An array-valued variable is one that contains a reference (pointer) to
an array object.
Referencing a Java array in C++ code is done using the JArray template, which as defined
as follows:
class __JArray : public java::lang::Object
{
public:
int length;
};
template<class T>
class JArray : public __JArray
45
{
T data[0];
public:
T& operator[](jint i) { return data[i]; }
};
There are a number of typedefs which correspond to typedefs from the JNI. Each is
the type of an array holding objects of the relevant type:
typedef __JArray *jarray;
typedef JArray<jobject> *jobjectArray;
typedef JArray<jboolean> *jbooleanArray;
typedef JArray<jbyte> *jbyteArray;
typedef JArray<jchar> *jcharArray;
typedef JArray<jshort> *jshortArray;
typedef JArray<jint> *jintArray;
typedef JArray<jlong> *jlongArray;
typedef JArray<jfloat> *jfloatArray;
typedef JArray<jdouble> *jdoubleArray;
T* elements (JArray<T> array )
[Method on template<class T>]

This template function can be used to get a pointer to the elements of the array. For
instance, you can fetch a pointer to the integers that make up an int[] like so:
extern jintArray foo;
jint *intp = elements (foo);
The name of this function may change in the future.
jobjectArray JvNewObjectArray (jsize length, jclass klass, jobject

init )
[Function]
This creates a new array whose elements have reference type. klass is the type of
elements of the array and init is the initial value put into every slot in the array.
JArray<String *> *array
= (JArray<String *> *) JvNewObjectArray(length, &String::class$, NULL);
11.10.1 Creating arrays

For each primitive type there is a function which can be used to create a new array of that
type. The name of the function is of the form:
JvNewType Array
For example:
JvNewBooleanArray
can be used to create an array of Java primitive boolean types.
The following function definition is the template for all such functions:
jbooleanArray JvNewBooleanArray (jint length )
[Function]
Creates an array length indices long.
jsize JvGetArrayLength (jarray array )

Returns the length of the array.
[Function]
46
11.11 Methods
Java methods are mapped directly into C++ methods. The header files generated by gcjh
include the appropriate method definitions. Basically, the generated methods have the same
names and corresponding types as the Java methods, and are called in the natural manner.
11.11.1 Overloading
Both Java and C++ provide method overloading, where multiple methods in a class have
the same name, and the correct one is chosen (at compile time) depending on the argument
types. The rules for choosing the correct method are (as expected) more complicated in C++
than in Java, but given a set of overloaded methods generated by gcjh the C++ compiler
will choose the expected one.
Common assemblers and linkers are not aware of C++ overloading, so the standard
implementation strategy is to encode the parameter types of a method into its assemblylevel name. This encoding is called mangling, and the encoded name is the mangled name.
The same mechanism is used to implement Java overloading. For C++/Java interoperability,
it is important that both the Java and C++ compilers use the same encoding scheme.
11.11.2 Static methods

Static Java methods are invoked in CNI using the standard C++ syntax, using the :: operator
rather than the . operator.
For example:
jint i = java::lang::Math::round((jfloat) 2.3);
C++ method definition syntax is used to define a static native method. For example:
#include <java/lang/Integer>
java::lang::Integer*
java::lang::Integer::getInteger(jstring str)
{
...
}
11.11.3 Object Constructors

Constructors are called implicitly as part of object allocation using the new operator.
For example:
java::lang::Integer *x = new java::lang::Integer(234);
Java does not allow a constructor to be a native method. This limitation can be coded
round however because a constructor can call a native method.
11.11.4 Instance methods

Calling a Java instance method from a C++ CNI method is done using the standard C++
syntax, e.g.:
// First create the Java object.
java::lang::Integer *x = new java::lang::Integer(234);
// Now call a method.
jint prim_value = x->intValue();
47
if (x->longValue == 0)
...
Defining a Java native instance method is also done the natural way:
#include <java/lang/Integer.h>
jdouble
java::lang:Integer::doubleValue()
{
return (jdouble) value;
}
11.11.5 Interface methods

In Java you can call a method using an interface reference. This is supported, but not
completely. See Section 11.5 [Interfaces], page 42.
11.12 Strings
CNI provides a number of utility functions for working with Java Java String objects. The
names and interfaces are analogous to those of JNI.
jstring JvNewString (const jchar* chars, jsize len )
[Function]
Returns a Java String object with characters from the array of Unicode characters
chars up to the index len in that array.
jstring JvNewStringLatin1 (const char* bytes, jsize len )
[Function]
Returns a Java String made up of len bytes from bytes.
jstring JvNewStringLatin1 (const char* bytes )
[Function]
As above but the length of the String is strlen(bytes ).
jstring JvNewStringUTF (const char* bytes )
[Function]
Returns a String which is made up of the UTF encoded characters present in the C
string bytes.
jchar* JvGetStringChars (jstring str )
[Function]
Returns a pointer to an array of characters making up the String str.
int JvGetStringUTFLength (jstring str )
[Function]
Returns the number of bytes required to encode the contents of the String str in
UTF-8.
jsize JvGetStringUTFRegion (jstring str, jsize start, jsize len,

char* buf )
[Function]
Puts the UTF-8 encoding of a region of the String str into the buffer buf. The
region to fetch is marked by start and len.
Note that buf is a buffer, not a C string. It is not null terminated.
48
11.13 Interoperating with C/C++

Because CNI is designed to represent Java classes and methods it cannot be mixed readily
with C/C++ types.
One important restriction is that Java classes cannot have non-Java type instance or
static variables and cannot have methods which take non-Java types as arguments or return
non-Java types.
None of the following is possible with CNI:
class ::MyClass : public java::lang::Object
{
char* variable; // char* is not a valid Java type.
}
uint
::SomeClass::someMethod (char *arg)
{
.
.
.
}
// uint is not a valid Java type, neither is char*
Of course, it is ok to use C/C++ types within the scope of a method:
jint
::SomeClass::otherMethod (jstring str)
{
char *arg = ...
.
.
.
}
11.13.1 RawData
The above restriction can be problematic, so CNI includes the gnu.gcj.RawData class. The
RawData class is a non-scanned reference type. In other words variables declared of type
RawData can contain any data and are not checked by the compiler or memory manager in
any way.
This means that you can put C/C++ data structures (including classes) in your CNI
classes, as long as you use the appropriate cast.
Here are some examples:
class ::MyClass : public java::lang::Object
{
gnu.gcj.RawData string;
49
MyClass ();
gnu.gcj.RawData getText ();
void printText ();
}
::MyClass::MyClass ()
{
char* text = ...
string = text;
}
gnu.gcj.RawData
::MyClass::getText ()
{
return string;
}
void
::MyClass::printText ()
{
printf("%s\n", (char*) string);
}
11.13.2 RawDataManaged
gnu.gcj.RawDataManaged is another type used to indicate special data used by native
code. Unlike the RawData type, fields declared as RawDataManaged will be "marked" by the
memory manager and considered for garbage collection.
Native data which is allocated using CNIs JvAllocBytes() function and stored in a
RawDataManaged will be automatically freed when the Java object it is associated with
becomes unreachable.
11.13.3 Native memory allocation

void* JvAllocBytes (jsize size )
[Function]
Allocates size bytes from the heap. The memory returned is zeroed. This memory is
not scanned for pointers by the garbage collector, but will be freed if no references to
it are discovered.
This function can be useful if you need to associate some native data with a Java
object. Using a CNIs special RawDataManaged type, native data allocated with
JvAllocBytes will be automatically freed when the Java object itself becomes unreachable.
11.13.4 Posix signals

On Posix based systems the libgcj library uses several signals internally. CNI code should
not attempt to use the same signals as doing so may cause libgcj and/or the CNI code to
fail.
50
SIGSEGV is used on many systems to generate NullPointerExceptions. SIGCHLD

is used internally by Runtime.exec(). Several other signals (that vary from platform to
platform) can be used by the memory manager and by Thread.interrupt().
11.14 Exception Handling

While C++ and Java share a common exception handling framework, things are not yet
perfectly integrated. The main issue is that the run-time type information facilities of the
two languages are not integrated.
Still, things work fairly well. You can throw a Java exception from C++ using the
ordinary throw construct, and this exception can be caught by Java code. Similarly, you
can catch an exception thrown from Java using the C++ catch construct.
Here is an example:
if (i >= count)
throw new java::lang::IndexOutOfBoundsException();
Normally, G++ will automatically detect when you are writing C++ code that uses Java
exceptions, and handle them appropriately. However, if C++ code only needs to execute
destructors when Java exceptions are thrown through it, GCC will guess incorrectly. Sample
problematic code:
struct S { ~S(); };
extern void bar();
// Is implemented in Java and may throw exceptions.
void foo()
{
S s;
bar();
}
The usual effect of an incorrect guess is a link failure, complaining of a missing routine
called __gxx_personality_v0.
You can inform the compiler that Java exceptions are to be used in a translation unit,
irrespective of what it might think, by writing #pragma GCC java_exceptions at the head
of the file. This #pragma must appear before any functions that throw or catch exceptions,
or run destructors when exceptions are thrown through them.
11.15 Synchronization
Each Java object has an implicit monitor. The Java VM uses the instruction monitorenter
to acquire and lock a monitor, and monitorexit to release it.
The corresponding CNI macros are JvMonitorEnter and JvMonitorExit (JNI has similar methods MonitorEnter and MonitorExit).
The Java source language does not provide direct access to these primitives. Instead,
there is a synchronized statement that does an implicit monitorenter before entry to the
block, and does a monitorexit on exit from the block. Note that the lock has to be released
even when the block is abnormally terminated by an exception, which means there is an
implicit try finally surrounding synchronization locks.
51
From C++, it makes sense to use a destructor to release a lock. CNI defines the following
utility class:
class JvSynchronize() {
jobject obj;
JvSynchronize(jobject o) { obj = o; JvMonitorEnter(o); }
~JvSynchronize() { JvMonitorExit(obj); }
};
So this Java code:
synchronized (OBJ)
{
CODE
}
might become this C++ code:
{
JvSynchronize dummy (OBJ);
CODE;
}
Java also has methods with the synchronized attribute. This is equivalent to wrapping
the entire method body in a synchronized statement. (Alternatively, an implementation
could require the caller to do the synchronization. This is not practical for a compiler, because each virtual method call would have to test at run-time if synchronization is needed.)
Since in gcj the synchronized attribute is handled by the method implementation, it
is up to the programmer of a synchronized native method to handle the synchronization
(in the C++ implementation of the method). In other words, you need to manually add
JvSynchronize in a native synchronized method.
11.16 Invocation
CNI permits C++ applications to make calls into Java classes, in addition to allowing Java
code to call into C++. Several functions, known as the invocation API, are provided to
support this.
jint JvCreateJavaVM (JvVMInitArgs* vm_args )
[Function]
Initializes the Java runtime. This function performs essential initialization of the
threads interface, garbage collector, exception handling and other key aspects of the
runtime. It must be called once by an application with a non-Java main() function,
before any other Java or CNI calls are made. It is safe, but not recommended, to call
JvCreateJavaVM() more than once provided it is only called from a single thread.
The vmargs parameter can be used to specify initialization parameters for the Java
runtime. It may be NULL.
JvVMInitArgs represents a list of virtual machine initialization arguments.
JvCreateJavaVM() ignores the version field.
typedef struct JvVMOption
{
// a VM initialization option
char* optionString;
52
// extra information associated with this option

void* extraInfo;
} JvVMOption;
typedef struct JvVMInitArgs
{
// for compatibility with JavaVMInitArgs
jint version;
// number of VM initialization options
jint nOptions;
// an array of VM initialization options
JvVMOption* options;
// true if the option parser should ignore unrecognized options
jboolean ignoreUnrecognized;
} JvVMInitArgs;
JvCreateJavaVM() returns 0 upon success, or -1 if the runtime is already initialized.
Note: In GCJ 3.1, the vm_args parameter is ignored. It is recognized and used as of
release 4.0.
java::lang::Thread* JvAttachCurrentThread (jstring name,

java::lang::ThreadGroup* group )
[Function]
Registers an existing thread with the Java runtime. This must be called once from
each thread, before that thread makes any other Java or CNI calls. It must be called
after JvCreateJavaVM. name specifies a name for the thread. It may be NULL, in
which case a name will be generated. group is the ThreadGroup in which this thread
will be a member. If it is NULL, the thread will be a member of the main thread group.
The return value is the Java Thread object that represents the thread. It is safe to
call JvAttachCurrentThread() more than once from the same thread. If the thread
is already attached, the call is ignored and the current thread object is returned.
jint JvDetachCurrentThread ()
[Function]
Unregisters a thread from the Java runtime. This should be called by threads that
were attached using JvAttachCurrentThread(), after they have finished making calls
to Java code. This ensures that any resources associated with the thread become
eligible for garbage collection. This function returns 0 upon success, or -1 if the
current thread is not attached.
11.16.1 Handling uncaught exceptions

If an exception is thrown from Java code called using the invocation API, and no handler
for the exception can be found, the runtime will abort the application. In order to make
the application more robust, it is recommended that code which uses the invocation API
be wrapped by a top-level try/catch block that catches all Java exceptions.
53
11.16.2 Example
The following code demonstrates the use of the invocation API. In this example, the C++
application initializes the Java runtime and attaches itself. The java.lang.System class is
initialized in order to access its out field, and a Java string is printed. Finally, the thread
is detached from the runtime once it has finished making Java calls. Everything is wrapped
with a try/catch block to provide a default handler for any uncaught exceptions.
The example can be compiled with c++ -c test.cc; gcj test.o.
// test.cc
#include <gcj/cni.h>
#include <java/lang/System.h>
#include <java/io/PrintStream.h>
#include <java/lang/Throwable.h>
int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
try
{
JvCreateJavaVM(NULL);
JvAttachCurrentThread(NULL, NULL);
String *message = JvNewStringLatin1("Hello from C++");
JvInitClass(&System::class$);
System::out->println(message);
JvDetachCurrentThread();
}
catch (Throwable *t)
{
System::err->println(JvNewStringLatin1("Unhandled Java exception:"));
t->printStackTrace();
}
}
11.17 Reflection
Reflection is possible with CNI code, it functions similarly to how it functions with JNI.
The types jfieldID and jmethodID are as in JNI.
The functions:
JvFromReflectedField,
JvFromReflectedMethod,
JvToReflectedField
JvToFromReflectedMethod
will be added shortly, as will other functions corresponding to JNI.
Chapter 12: System properties
54
12 System properties
The runtime behavior of the libgcj library can be modified by setting certain
system properties. These properties can be compiled into the program using the
-Dname [=value ] option to gcj or by setting them explicitly in the program by calling
the java.lang.System.setProperty() method. Some system properties are only used
for informational purposes (like giving a version number or a user name). A program can
inspect the current value of a property by calling the java.lang.System.getProperty()
method.
12.1 Standard Properties

The following properties are normally found in all implementations of the core libraries for
the Java language.
java.version
The libgcj version number.
java.vendor
Set to The Free Software Foundation, Inc.
java.vendor.url
Set to http://gcc.gnu.org/java/.
java.home
The directory where gcj was installed. Taken from the --prefix option given
to configure.
java.class.version
The class format version number supported by the libgcj byte code interpreter.
(Currently 46.0)
java.vm.specification.version
The Virtual Machine Specification version implemented by libgcj. (Currently
1.0)
java.vm.specification.vendor
The name of the Virtual Machine specification designer.
java.vm.specification.name
The name of the Virtual Machine specification (Set to Java Virtual Machine
Specification).
java.vm.version
The gcj version number.
java.vm.vendor
Set to The Free Software Foundation, Inc.
java.vm.name
Set to GNU libgcj.
java.specification.version
The Runtime Environment specification version implemented by libgcj. (Currently set to 1.3)
55
java.specification.vendor
The Runtime Environment specification designer.
java.specification.name
The name of the Runtime Environment specification (Set to Java Platform
API Specification).
java.class.path
The paths (jar files, zip files and directories) used for finding class files.
java.library.path
Directory path used for finding native libraries.
java.io.tmpdir
The directory used to put temporary files in.
java.compiler
Name of the Just In Time compiler to use by the byte code interpreter. Currently not used in libgcj.
java.ext.dirs
Directories containing jar files with extra libraries. Will be used when resolving
classes.
java.protocol.handler.pkgs
A | separated list of package names that is used to find classes that implement
handlers for java.net.URL.
java.rmi.server.codebase
A list of URLs that is used by the java.rmi.server.RMIClassLoader to load
classes from.
jdbc.drivers
A list of class names that will be loaded by the java.sql.DriverManager when
it starts up.
file.separator
The separator used in when directories are included in a filename (normally /
or \ ).
file.encoding
The default character encoding used when converting platform native files to
Unicode (usually set to 8859_1).
path.separator
The standard separator used when a string contains multiple paths (normally
: or ;), the string is usually not a valid character to use in normal directory
names.)
line.separator
The default line separator used on the platform (normally \n, \r or a combination of those two characters).
policy.provider
The class name used for the default policy provider returned by
java.security.Policy.getPolicy.
56
user.name
The name of the user running the program. Can be the full name, the login
name or empty if unknown.
user.home
The default directory to put user specific files in.
user.dir
The current working directory from which the program was started.
user.language
The default language as used by the java.util.Locale class.
user.region
The default region as used by the java.util.Local class.
user.variant
The default variant of the language and region local used.
user.timezone
The default timezone as used by the java.util.TimeZone class.
os.name
The operating system/kernel name that the program runs on.
os.arch
The hardware that we are running on.
os.version
The version number of the operating system/kernel.
awt.appletWarning
The string to display when an untrusted applet is displayed. Returned by
java.awt.Window.getWarningString() when the window is insecure.
awt.toolkit
The class name used for initializing the default java.awt.Toolkit. Defaults
to gnu.awt.gtk.GtkToolkit.
http.proxyHost
Name of proxy host for http connections.
http.proxyPort
Port number to use when a proxy host is in use.
12.2 GNU Classpath Properties

libgcj is based on the GNU Classpath (Essential Libraries for Java) a GNU project to
create free core class libraries for use with virtual machines and compilers for the Java
language. The following properties are common to libraries based on GNU Classpath.
gcj.dumpobject
Enables printing serialization debugging by the java.io.ObjectInput and
java.io.ObjectOutput classes when set to something else then the empty
string. Only used when running a debug build of the library.
gnu.classpath.vm.shortname
This is a succinct name of the virtual machine. For libgcj, this will always be
libgcj.
57
gnu.classpath.home.url
A base URL used for finding system property files (e.g., classpath.security).
By default this is a file: URL pointing to the lib directory under
java.home.
12.3 libgcj Runtime Properties

The following properties are specific to the libgcj runtime and will normally not be found
in other core libraries for the java language.
java.fullversion
The combination of java.vm.name and java.vm.version.
java.vm.info
Same as java.fullversion.
impl.prefix
Used by the java.net.DatagramSocket class when set to something else then
the empty string. When set all newly created DatagramSockets will try to load
a class java.net.[impl.prefix]DatagramSocketImpl instead of the normal
java.net.PlainDatagramSocketImpl.
gnu.gcj.progname
The class or binary name that was used to invoke the program. This will be
the name of the "main" class in the case where the gij front end is used, or the
program binary name in the case where an application is compiled to a native
binary.
gnu.gcj.user.realname
The real name of the user, as taken from the password file. This may not always
hold only the users name (as some sites put extra information in this field).
Also, this property is not available on all platforms.
gnu.gcj.runtime.NameFinder.use_addr2line
Whether an external process, addr2line, should be used to determine line number information when tracing the stack. Setting this to false may suppress
line numbers when printing stack traces and when using the java.util.logging infrastructure. However, performance may improve significantly for applications
that print stack traces or make logging calls frequently.
gnu.gcj.runtime.NameFinder.show_raw
Whether the address of a stack frame should be printed when the line number
is unavailable. Setting this to true will cause the name of the object and the
offset within that object to be printed when no line number is available. This
allows for off-line decoding of stack traces if necessary debug information is
available. The default is false, no raw addresses are printed.
gnu.gcj.runtime.NameFinder.remove_unknown
Whether stack frames for non-java code should be included in a stack trace. The
default value is true, stack frames for non-java code are suppressed. Setting
this to false will cause any non-java stack frames to be printed in addition to
frames for the java code.
58
gnu.gcj.runtime.VMClassLoader.library_control
This controls how shared libraries are automatically loaded by the built-in class
loader. If this property is set to full, a full search is done for each requested
class. If this property is set to cache, then any failed lookups are cached and
not tried again. If this property is set to never (the default), then lookups
are never done. For more information, See Section 2.2 [Extensions], page 28.
gnu.gcj.runtime.endorsed.dirs
This is like the standard java.endorsed.dirs, property, but specifies some extra directories which are searched after the standard endorsed directories. This
is primarily useful for telling libgcj about additional libraries which are ordinarily incorporated into the JDK, and which should be loaded by the bootstrap
class loader, but which are not yet part of libgcj itself for some reason.
gnu.gcj.jit.compiler
This is the full path to gcj executable which should be used to compile classes
just-in-time when ClassLoader.defineClass is called. If not set, gcj will not
be invoked by the runtime; this can also be controlled via Compiler.disable.
gnu.gcj.jit.options
This is a space-separated string of options which should be passed to gcj when
in JIT mode. If not set, a sensible default is chosen.
gnu.gcj.jit.cachedir
This is the directory where cached shared library files are stored. If not set, JIT
compilation is disabled. This should never be set to a directory that is writable
by any other user.
gnu.gcj.precompiled.db.path
This is a sequence of file names, each referring to a file created by gcj-dbtool.
These files will be used by libgcj to find shared libraries corresponding to
classes that are loaded from bytecode. libgcj often has a built-in default
database; it can be queried using gcj-dbtool -p.
Chapter 13: Resources
59
13 Resources
While writing gcj and libgcj we have, of course, relied heavily on documentation from
Sun Microsystems. In particular we have used The Java Language Specification (both
first and second editions), the Java Class Libraries (volumes one and two), and the
Java Virtual Machine Specification. In addition weve used the online documentation at
http://java.sun.com/.
The current gcj home page is http://gcc.gnu.org/java/.
For more information on gcc, see http://gcc.gnu.org/.
Some libgcj testing is done using the Mauve test suite. This is a free software
Java class library test suite which is being written because the JCK is not free. See
http://sources.redhat.com/mauve/ for more information.
Index
60
Index
C
class path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
class$ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
E
elements on template<class T> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
F
FDL, GNU Free Documentation License . . . . . . . 13
G
GCJ_PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
J
jclass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
jobject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
jstring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
JvAllocBytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
JvAttachCurrentThread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
JvCreateJavaVM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
JvDetachCurrentThread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
JvFree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
JvGetArrayLength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
JvGetStringChars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
JvGetStringUTFLength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
JvGetStringUTFRegion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
JvMalloc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
JvNewBooleanArray. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
JvNewObjectArray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
JvNewString . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
JvNewStringLatin1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
JvNewStringUTF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
JvPrimClass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
JvRealloc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Input and output files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Compatibility with the Java Platform . . . . . . . 28

Standard features not yet supported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

11.1 Basic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS

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10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE

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ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents

Chapter 1: Invoking gcj

1.1 Input and output files

1.2 Input Options

Chapter 1: Invoking gcj

Chapter 1: Invoking gcj

This is the same as gccs -Wunused.

This is the same as -Wredundant-modifiers -Wextraneous-semicolon

Chapter 1: Invoking gcj

Create an application whose command-line processing is that of the gij command.

1.6 Code Generation

Chapter 1: Invoking gcj

as core:/resource-name . Note that resource-name is the name of the

Chapter 1: Invoking gcj

Chapter 1: Invoking gcj

1.7 Configure-time Options

Chapter 2: Compatibility with the Java Platform

2 Compatibility with the Java Platform

2.1 Standard features not yet supported

2.2 Extra features unique to gcj

Chapter 2: Compatibility with the Java Platform

Chapter 3: Invoking jcf-dump

Disassemble method bodies. By default method bodies are not printed.

Generate output in javap format. The implementation of this feature is very

Print help, then exit.

Chapter 4: Invoking gij

Set the initial heap size.

Set the maximum heap size.

Set the thread stack size.

Chapter 4: Invoking gij

Unrecognized -X options are ignored, for compatibility with other runtimes.