Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Page 1 of 9
Background
Cold agglutinin disease is a form of autoimmune hemolytic anemia caused by coldreacting autoantibodies. Autoantibodies that bind to the erythrocyte membrane
leading to premature erythrocyte destruction (hemolysis) characterize autoimmune
hemolytic anemia. (See Pathophysiology and Etiology.)
Autoimmune hemolytic anemia is classified as primary or secondary and is
subclassified according to autoantibody type. (See Pathophysiology, Etiology, and
Presentation.)
Peripheral blood smear showing several clumps of RBCs with the largest in the center. These
are typical of aggregates seen in persons with cold agglutinin disease.
Several factors play a role in determining the ability of a cold agglutinin to induce an
active hemolytic anemia.[1, 2] These include the following:
Ability to initiate
Extent of antibody-induced complement activation
Concentration of the antibody
Range of temperatures, including the highest temperature at which the
antibody interacts with the RBC (its thermal amplitude)
Qualitative binding of IgM to the RBC
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/135327-overview
07-Mar-16
Page 2 of 9
Pathophysiology
Cold agglutinin disease usually results from the production of a specific IgM antibody
directed against the I/i antigens (precursors of the ABH and Lewis blood group
substances) on red blood cells (RBCs). Cold agglutinins commonly have variable
heavy-chain regions encoded by VH, with a distinct idiotype identified by the 9G4 rat
murine monoclonal antibody.[1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]
Because the I antigen is not activated until after birth, anti-i autoantibodies
predominantly agglutinate neonatal RBCs, and anti-I autoantibodies predominantly
agglutinate adult RBCs.
VH genes
The 9G4 idiotope is localized to the V4-34 encoded portion of the variable region.[20]
It is found on cold agglutinin-producing malignant lymphoid cells in the bone marrow
in persons with lymphoproliferative disorders, on a small proportion of normal
lymphoid cells, and in the spleen of a 15-week-old fetus. In contrast, the cold
agglutinins found in healthy individuals, those with no clinical symptoms, are often
derived from a variable segment other than the V4-34 portion.[21, 22]
The VH genes appear to regulate not only the production of cold agglutinins, but also
the formation of normal antibodies to other carbohydrate antigens, both sharing the
same fundamental mechanism of production. The I/i antigen analogues are present
on human lymphocytes, neutrophils, and monocytes and in human saliva, milk, and
amniotic fluid. Thus, in disease states, the finding of a clone of B cells producing this
antibody may be the result of expansion of a normal clone that is specific for the
production of an immunoglobulin with these properties. Autoimmune and
lymphoproliferative disorders can also be associated with the production of cold
agglutinins.
In vitro studies have shown that human monoclonal antibodies encoded by the V434 gene segment not only have cold agglutinin properties but also exhibit
multireactivity. This is in contrast to the generally monospecific I/i reactivity of sera
from patients with cold agglutinin disease.[17]
Associated infections
The hemolytic anemia associated with monoclonal cold agglutinins is typically more
serious than that associated with polyclonal cold agglutinins. The monoclonal form is
usually chronic, whereas the polyclonal form is often limited.[23]
Some polyclonal IgM cold agglutinins arise in association with infections with
Mycoplasma pneumoniae, infectious mononucleosis, influenza B, and human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV), as well as with other infections. (Cold agglutinins
develop in more than 60% of patients with infectious mononucleosis, but hemolytic
anemia is rare.)
In the case of infectious mononucleosis, hemolysis tends to develop 1-2 weeks after
the onset of illness, but it may occur simultaneously for up to 2 months after onset.[24]
Furthermore, increased expression of I/i antigens have been described on
hemoglobin SS (HbSS) erythrocytes, which suggests that such patients may have
increased susceptibility to cold-mediated hemolysis.[25]
Antigen specificity
In its classic presentation, with hemolytic anemia and Raynaud syndrome, cold
agglutinin disease is usually idiopathic. As with most autoimmune diseases of a
chronic nature, stimulated B lymphocytes begin to produce pathogenic antibodies
against an antigen that is normally present in human tissue. In cold agglutinin
disease, the antibody is an IgM, usually monoclonal, with kappa () or lambda ()
light chains. In chronic cold agglutinin disease, the antibody is usually directed
against the I antigen on the membrane of normal adult RBCs.
Uncommonly, the antibody may be directed against only the i antigen found on fetal
cord blood RBCs, which lack the mature I antigen; this has been reported in
association with infectious mononucleosis.[8]
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/135327-overview
07-Mar-16
Page 3 of 9
agglutinins.[4] Thus, benign and malignant cold agglutinins exhibit differences in their
light chains and their specificities toward membrane antigens.
In vivo, the IgM antibody attaches to RBCs and causes them to agglutinate at
temperatures below 37C and maximally at 0-5C, resulting in impaired blood flow to
the digits, nose, and ears (ie, areas more likely to have colder temperatures [in the
30C range]) when exposed to the cold.
Fixation of the C3 component of complement to the RBC by the cold agglutinin
usually occurs in vivo at higher temperatures than those required by the IgM cold
agglutinin to attach to the RBC, but it is generally less than 31C. When the
IgM/C3b-coated RBC circulates to warmer tissues, the IgM dissociates, leaving
complement C3b on the original RBC.
The dissociated IgM cold agglutinin can then bind to another RBC at lower
temperatures. Fixation of complement results in C3b and/or C4b components on the
RBC membrane, which may lead to phagocytosis by macrophages in the
reticuloendothelial system, particularly in the liver, where the macrophages have
specific complement receptors. With time, the C3b components are converted
enzymatically to C3dg, which is not recognized by macrophage receptors.
Monoclonal cold agglutinin IgM antibodies found in patients with lymphoma are the
product of the abnormal clone. Progression of an idiopathic cold agglutinin disease
to malignant lymphoma may occur in some cases; thus, affected patients require
close, long-term follow-up, with obvious therapeutic implications.[8, 12] One study of
86 patients in Norway showed clonal light-chain predominance in 90% of patients,
evidence of lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma in 50% of patients, and lymphoma of any
type in 76% of patients overall.[2]
In mixed antibody syndromes, the IgG and IgM antibody components can be
separated. The cold autoantibodies reactive at temperatures of 30C or higher often
show blood group specificity to the adult I antigen, whereas the warm autoantibodies
are not directed against this system. A combination of cold agglutinins and
cryoglobulins has also been reported with an IgM/ monoclonal antibody, with
specificity to the Pr2 antigen system.[18]
Biphasic hemolysins
Etiology
Classic chronic cold agglutinin disease is idiopathic, associated with symptoms and
signs in relation to cold exposure. Causes of the monoclonal secondary disease
include the following:
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/135327-overview
07-Mar-16
Page 4 of 9
Transient acute hemolysis may occur secondary to certain infectious diseases, such
as M pneumoniae infection and infectious mononucleosis (eg, EBV). Other viral
infections, such as influenza, HIV, CMV, rubella, varicella, and mumps, have also
been reported to be associated with a hemolytic anemia due to cold agglutinins.
Associated illnesses also include subacute bacterial endocarditis, syphilis, and
malaria. The development of a febrile illness in a patient with chronic cold agglutinin
disease may also accelerate hemolysis.
CANOMAD syndrome
Malignancies
Cytogenetic studies in patients with cold agglutinin disease have revealed the
presence of trisomy 3 and trisomy 12. Translocation (8;22) has also been reported in
association with cold agglutinin disease.[2, 33, 34]
Transplantation
Systemic sclerosis
Cold agglutinin disease has been described in patients with sclerodermic features,
with the degree of anemia being associated with increasing disease activity of the
patients systemic sclerosis. This may suggest a close association between systemic
rheumatic disease and autoimmune hematologic abnormalities.[38]
DPT vaccination
Other
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/135327-overview
07-Mar-16
Page 5 of 9
Epidemiology
International occurrence
Data regarding the incidence of cold agglutinin disease are lacking. Frequency
figures listed for the United States probably also apply to Canada and the United
Kingdom.
In general, no predilection for either sex is noted, although some report a female
predilection in older populations. Autoimmune hemolytic anemia appears to be more
common in male children and female adolescents.[3, 8]
Only rarely do Infants and children develop chronic cold agglutinin disease, although
M pneumoniae and infectious mononucleosis are diseases of young persons.
Chronic cold agglutinin disease appears to affect adults who are of middle age and
older, with an average age of older than 60 years and peaking in the seventh and
eighth decades of life. Although found in persons of all age groups, mixed
autoimmune hemolysis is also more frequent in later life.
Prognosis
The investigators found that patients who were DAT negative tended to have milder
anemia and hemolysis than did patients who were DAT positive and that they
needed significantly lower steroid doses during maintenance treatment. The 2
groups of patients were found to have an equally good response to steroids. Survival
at 1-year follow-up for each group was comparable to that of the other.
Patient Education
It is essential to educate patients with chronic cold agglutinin disease about the
importance of keeping all body parts warm at all times and avoiding cooling of body
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/135327-overview
07-Mar-16
Page 6 of 9
Teach patients to watch for signs of anemia, such as dyspnea, palpitations, and
pallor, and to observe for signs of hemolysis, such as jaundice and dark urine.
For patient education information, see Anemia.
Clinical Presentation
Author
Salman Abdullah Aljubran, MD Clinical Fellow, Division of Allergy and Immunology, University of South Florida
College of Medicine
Salman Abdullah Aljubran, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Allergy
Asthma and Immunology, American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, American Thoracic Society,
Massachusetts Medical Society
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Coauthor(s)
Richard F Lockey, MD University Distinguished Health Professor, Professor of Medicine, Pediatrics and Public
Health, Joy McCann Culverhouse Chair in Allergy and Immunology, University of South Florida College of
Medicine; Director, Division of Allergy and Immunology, James A Haley Veterans Hospital
Richard F Lockey, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of
Allergy Asthma and Immunology, American Association for the Advancement of Science, American College of
Occupational and Environmental Medicine, American College of Chest Physicians, American College of
Physicians, American Medical Association, Florida Medical Association
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Chief Editor
Michael A Kaliner, MD Clinical Professor of Medicine, George Washington University School of Medicine;
Medical Director, Institute for Asthma and Allergy
Michael A Kaliner, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Allergy Asthma and
Immunology, American Association of Immunologists, American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology,
American Society for Clinical Investigation, American Thoracic Society, Association of American Physicians
Disclosure: Received honoraria from Meda for speaking and teaching; Received honoraria from genentech for
speaking and teaching.
Acknowledgements
Nicolas A Camilo, MD Consulting Staff, Mountain States Tumor Institute, Division of Pediatric HematologyOncology, St Luke's Regional Medical Center
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Max J Coppes, MD, PhD, MBA Senior Vice President, Center for Cancer and Blood Disorders, Children's
National Medical Center; Professor of Medicine, Oncology, and Pediatrics, Georgetown University School of
Medicine; Clinical Professor of Pediatrics, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences
Max J Coppes, MD, PhD, MBA is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for Cancer
Research, American Society of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, and Society for Pediatric Research
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Sharon Georgy, MD Resident Physician, Department of Internal Medicine, University of South Florida College of
Medicine
Sharon Georgy, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Phi Beta Kappa
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
James L Harper, MD Associate Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Hematology/Oncology and Bone
Marrow Transplantation, Associate Chairman for Education, Department of Pediatrics, University of Nebraska
Medical Center; Assistant Clinical Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Creighton University School of Medicine;
Director, Continuing Medical Education, Children's Memorial Hospital; Pediatric Director, Nebraska Regional
Hemophilia Treatment Center
James L Harper, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American
Association for Cancer Research, American Federation for Clinical Research, American Society of Hematology,
American Society of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Council on Medical Student Education in Pediatrics, and
Hemophilia and Thrombosis Research Society
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/135327-overview
07-Mar-16
Page 7 of 9
Gary R Jones, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American
Society of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, and Western Society for Pediatric Research
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Jeffrey Lee Kishiyama, MD Assistant Clinical Professor of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco,
School of Medicine; Consulting Staff, Allergy and Asthma Associates of Santa Clara Valley Research Center
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Rajalaxmi McKenna, MD, FACP Southwest Medical Consultants, SC, Department of Medicine, Good Samaritan
Hospital, Advocate Health Systems
Rajalaxmi McKenna, MD, FACP is a member of the following medical societies: American Society of Clinical
Oncology, American Society of Hematology, and International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Harry L Messmore, Jr, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American College
of Angiology, American College of Physicians, American Heart Association, American Society of Hematology, and
Phi Beta Kappa
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College
of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference
Disclosure: Medscape Salary Employment
Mary L Windle, PharmD Adjunct Associate Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of
Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
References
1. Rosse WF, Adams JP. The variability of hemolysis in the cold agglutinin syndrome. Blood. 1980 Sep. 56
(3):409-16. [Medline]. [Full Text].
2. Gertz MA. Cold agglutinin disease. Haematologica. 2006 Apr. 91(4):439-41. [Medline]. [Full Text].
3. Dacie J, The auto-immune haemolytic anaemias. The Haemolytic Anaemias. 3rd ed. Edinburgh, United
Kingdom: Churchill Livingstone; 1992. Vol 3.: 210-362.
4. Harboe M, van Furth R, Schubothe H, Lind K, Evans RS. Exclusive occurrence of K chains in isolated cold
haemagglutinins. Scand J Haematol. 1965. 2(3):259-66. [Medline].
5. Angevine CD, Andersen BR, Barnett EV. A cold agglutinin of the IgA class. J Immunol. 1966 Apr. 96(4):57886. [Medline].
6. Garratty G, Petz LD, Hoops JK. The correlation of cold agglutinin titrations in saline and albumin with
haemolytic anaemia. Br J Haematol. 1977 Apr. 35(4):587-95. [Medline].
7. Wortman J, Rosse W, Logue G. Cold agglutinin autoimmune hemolytic anemia in nonhematologic
malignancies. Am J Hematol. 1979. 6(3):275-83. [Medline].
8. Petz LD, Garratty G, eds. Acquired Immune Hemolytic Anemias. New York, NY: Churchill Livingstone; 1980.
37-50.
9. Roelcke D. The Lud cold agglutinin: a further antibody recognizing N-acetylneuraminic acid-determined
antigens not fully expressed at birth. Vox Sang. 1981 Nov-Dec. 41(5-6):316-8. [Medline].
10. Crisp D, Pruzanski W. B-cell neoplasms with homogeneous cold-reacting antibodies (cold agglutinins). Am J
Med. 1982 Jun. 72(6):915-22. [Medline].
11. Sokol RJ, Hewitt S, Stamps BK. Autoimmune hemolysis: mixed warm and cold antibody type. Acta
Haematol. 1983. 69(4):266-74. [Medline].
12. Roelcke D. Reaction of anti-Gd, anti-Fl and anti-Sa cold agglutinins with p erythrocytes. Vox Sang. 1984. 46
(3):161-4. [Medline].
13. Agarwal SK, Ghosh PK, Gupta D. Cardiac surgery and cold-reactive proteins. Ann Thorac Surg. 1995 Oct.
60(4):1143-50. [Medline].
14. Packman CH, Leddy JP. Cryopathic hemolytic syndromes. Beutler E, Lichtman M, Coller B, Kippst, eds.
Williams Hematology. 5th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 1995. 685-91.
15. Jacobs A. Cold agglutinin hemolysis responding to fludarabine therapy. Am J Hematol. 1996 Dec. 53
(4):279-80. [Medline].
16. Terness P, Kirschfink M, Navolan D, et al. Inverse correlation between IgG-antihinge region and
antierythrocyte autoantibody in chronic benign and malignant cold agglutination. J Clin Immunol. 1997 May.
17(3):220-7. [Medline].
17. Thorpe SJ, Turner CE, Stevenson FK, et al. Human monoclonal antibodies encoded by the V4-34 gene
segment show cold agglutinin activity and variable multireactivity which correlates with the predicted charge
of the heavy-chain variable region. Immunology. 1998 Jan. 93(1):129-36. [Medline]. [Full Text].
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/135327-overview
07-Mar-16
Page 8 of 9
18. Ciejka JZ, Cook EB, Lawler D, et al. Severe cold agglutinin disease and cryoglobulinemia secondary to a
monoclonal anti-Pr2 IgM lambda cryoagglutinin. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1999 Mar-Apr. 17(2):227-31.
[Medline].
19. De Silva BD, McLaren K, Doherty VR. Equestrian perniosis associated with cold agglutinins: a novel finding.
Clin Exp Dermatol. 2000 Jun. 25(4):285-8. [Medline].
20. Potter KN. Molecular characterization of cold agglutinins. Transfus Sci. 2000 Feb-Apr. 22(1-2):113-9.
[Medline].
21. Jefferies LC, Carchidi CM, Silberstein LE. Naturally occurring anti-i/I cold agglutinins may be encoded by
different VH3 genes as well as the VH4.21 gene segment. J Clin Invest. 1993 Dec. 92(6):2821-33.
[Medline]. [Full Text].
22. Berentsen S, Beiske K, Tjonnfjord GE. Primary chronic cold agglutinin disease: an update on pathogenesis,
clinical features and therapy. Hematology. 2007 Oct. 12(5):361-70. [Medline]. [Full Text].
23. Gertz MA. Management of cold haemolytic syndrome. Br J Haematol. 2007 Aug. 138(4):422-9. [Medline].
24. McNicholl FP. Clinical syndromes associated with cold agglutinins. Transfus Sci. 2000 Feb-Apr. 22
(1-2):125-33. [Medline].
25. Maniatis A, Papayannopoulou T, Bertles JF. Fetal characteristics of erythrocytes in sickle cell anemia: an
immunofluorescence study of individual cells. Blood. 1979 Jul. 54(1):159-68. [Medline]. [Full Text].
26. Sokol RJ, Booker DJ, Stamps R, Walewska R. Cold haemagglutinin disease: clinical significance of serum
haemolysins. Clin Lab Haematol. 2000 Dec. 22(6):337-44. [Medline].
27. Maura F, Visco C, Falisi E, Reda G, Fabris S, Agnelli L, et al. B-cell receptor configuration and adverse
cytogenetics are associated with autoimmune hemolytic anemia in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Am J
Hematol. 2012 Sep 26. [Medline].
28. Khan FY, A yassin M. Mycoplasma pneumoniae associated with severe autoimmune hemolytic anemia:
case report and literature review. Braz J Infect Dis. 2009 Feb. 13(1):77-9. [Medline].
29. Delval A, Stojkovic T, Vermersch P. Relapsing sensorimotor neuropathy with ophthalmoplegia, antidisialosyl
antibodies, and extramembranous glomerulonephritis. Muscle Nerve. 2006 Feb. 33(2):274-7. [Medline].
30. Siddiqui K, Cahalane E, Keogan M, Hardiman O. Chronic ataxic neuropathy with cold agglutinins: atypical
phenotype and response to anti-CD20 antibodies. Neurology. 2003 Nov 11. 61(9):1307-8. [Medline].
31. Skorupa A, Chaudhary UB, Lazarchick J. Cold agglutinin induced autoimmune hemolytic anemia and NKcell leukemia: a new association. Am J Hematol. 2007 Jul. 82(7):668-71. [Medline]. [Full Text].
32. Cao L, Kaiser P, Gustin D, Hoffman R, Feldman L. Cold agglutinin disease in a patient with uterine
sarcoma. Am J Med Sci. 2000 Nov. 320(5):352-4. [Medline].
33. Michaux L, Dierlamm J, Wlodarska L, et al. Trisomy 3q11-q29 is recurrently observed in B-cell nonHodgkin's lymphomas associated with cold agglutinin syndrome. Ann Hematol. 1998 May. 76(5):201-4.
[Medline].
34. Chng WJ, Chen J, Lim S, et al. Translocation (8;22) in cold agglutinin disease associated with B-cell
lymphoma. Cancer Genet Cytogenet. 2004 Jul 1. 152(1):66-9. [Medline].
35. Kitamura T, Mizuta K, Kawarasaki H, Sugawara Y, Makuuchi M. Severe hemolytic anemia related to
production of cold agglutinins following living donor liver transplantation: a case report. Transplant Proc.
2003 Feb. 35(1):399-400. [Medline].
36. Tamura T, Kanamori H, Yamazaki E, et al. Cold agglutinin disease following allogeneic bone marrow
transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant. 1994 Mar. 13(3):321-3. [Medline].
37. Thomson AW, Bonham CA, Zeevi A. Mode of action of tacrolimus (FK506): molecular and cellular
mechanisms. Ther Drug Monit. 1995 Dec. 17(6):584-91. [Medline].
38. Oshima M, Maeda H, Morimoto K, Doi M, Kuwabara M. Low-titer cold agglutinin disease with systemic
sclerosis. Intern Med. 2004 Feb. 43(2):139-42. [Medline]. [Full Text].
39. Torres JR, Villegas L, Perez H, et al. Low-grade parasitaemias and cold agglutinins in patients with hyperreactive malarious splenomegaly and acute haemolysis. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2003 Mar. 97(2):125-30.
[Medline].
40. Johnson ST, McFarland JG, Kelly KJ, Casper JT, Gottschall JL. Transfusion support with RBCs from an Mk
homozygote in a case of autoimmune hemolytic anemia following diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus vaccination.
Transfusion. 2002 May. 42(5):567-71. [Medline].
41. Gunduz Gedikoglu A, Cantez T. Haemolytic-anaemia relapses after immunisation and pertussis. Lancet.
1967 Oct 21. 2(7521):894-5. [Medline].
42. Zupanska B, Lawkowicz W, Gorska B, et al. Autoimmune haemolytic anaemia in children. Br J Haematol.
1976 Nov. 34(3):511-20. [Medline].
43. Haneberg B, Matre R, Winsnes R, et al. Acute hemolytic anemia related to diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus
vaccination. Acta Paediatr Scand. 1978 May. 67(3):345-50. [Medline].
44. Kamesaki T, Toyotsuji T, Kajii E. Characterization of direct antiglobulin test-negative autoimmune hemolytic
anemia: A study of 154 cases. Am J Hematol. 2012 Oct 25. [Medline].
45. Schubothe H. The cold hemagglutinin disease. Semin Hematol. 1966 Jan. 3(1):27-47. [Medline].
46. Hamblin T. Management of cold agglutination syndrome. Transfus Sci. 2000 Feb-Apr. 22(1-2):121-4.
[Medline].
47. Hoppe B, Gaedicke G, Kiesewetter H, Salama AR. Response to intravenous immunoglobulin G in an infant
with immunoglobulin A-associated autoimmune haemolytic anaemia. Vox Sang. 2004 Feb. 86(2):151-3.
[Medline].
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/135327-overview
07-Mar-16
Page 9 of 9
48. Giulino LB, Bussel JB, Neufeld EJ. Treatment with rituximab in benign and malignant hematologic disorders
in children. J Pediatr. 2007 Apr. 150(4):338-44, 344.e1. [Medline]. [Full Text].
49. Webster D, Ritchie B, Mant MJ. Prompt response to rituximab of severe hemolytic anemia with both cold
and warm autoantibodies. Am J Hematol. 2004 Apr. 75(4):258-9. [Medline]. [Full Text].
50. Berentsen S, Ulvestad E, Tjonnfjord GE. B-lymphocytes as targets for therapy in chronic cold agglutinin
disease. Cardiovasc Hematol Disord Drug Targets. 2007 Sep. 7(3):219-27. [Medline].
51. Berentsen S, Randen U, Vagan AM, Hjorth-Hansen H, Vik A, Dalgaard J. High response rate and durable
remissions following fludarabine and rituximab combination therapy for chronic cold agglutinin disease.
Blood. 2010 Oct 28. 116(17):3180-4. [Medline].
52. Roy-Burman A, Glader BE. Resolution of severe Donath-Landsteiner autoimmune hemolytic anemia
temporally associated with institution of plasmapheresis. Crit Care Med. 2002 Apr. 30(4):931-4. [Medline].
53. Teachey DT, Felix CA. Development of cold agglutinin autoimmune hemolytic anemia during treatment for
pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2005 Jul. 27(7):397-9. [Medline].
54. Inaba H, Geiger TL, Lasater OE, Wang WC. A case of hemoglobin SC disease with cold agglutinin-induced
hemolysis. Am J Hematol. 2005 Jan. 78(1):37-40. [Medline]. [Full Text].
55. Batalias L, Trakakis E, Loghis C, et al. Autoimmune hemolytic anemia caused by cold agglutinins in a young
pregnant woman. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2006 Apr. 19(4):251-3. [Medline].
56. Atkinson VP, Soeding P, Horne G, Tatoulis J. Cold agglutinins in cardiac surgery: management of
myocardial protection and cardiopulmonary bypass. Ann Thorac Surg. 2008 Jan. 85(1):310-1. [Medline].
57. Aoki A, Kay GL, Zubiate P, Ruggio J, Kay JH. Cardiac operation without hypothermia for the patient with
cold agglutinin. Chest. 1993 Nov. 104(5):1627-9. [Medline].
58. Barbara DW, Mauermann WJ, Neal JR, Abel MD, Schaff HV, Winters JL. Cold agglutinins in patients
undergoing cardiac surgery requiring cardiopulmonary bypass. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2013 Sep. 146
(3):668-80. [Medline].
59. Hippe E, Jensen KB, Olesen H, Lind K, Thomsen PE. Chlorambucil treatment of patients with cold
agglutinin syndrome. Blood. 1970 Jan. 35(1):68-72. [Medline]. [Full Text].
60. O'Connor BM, Clifford JS, Lawrence WD, Logue GL. Alpha-interferon for severe cold agglutinin disease.
Ann Intern Med. 1989 Aug 1. 111(3):255-6. [Medline].
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/135327-overview
07-Mar-16