EVAPORATOR DESIGN

1- INTRODUCTION
Evaporation, one of the main methods used for the concentration of aqueous solutions, refers to the
removal of water from a solution by boiling the liquor in a suitable vessel, the evaporator, and
withdrawing the vapour. If the solution contains dissolved solids, the resulting strong liquor may
.become saturated so that crystals are deposited. Evaporation has three main uses in the food industry
1.

Pre-concentration of a liquid prior to further processing, e.g. before spray drying.

2.

Reduction of liquid volume to reduce, packaging, storage and transport costs, e.g. orange juice.

3.

To reduce water activity by increasing the concentration of soluble solids in food materials, as an
aid to preservation, e.g. sweetened condensed milk.

Evaporation is carried out by adding heat to the solution to vaporise the solvent. The heat is supplied
principally to provide the latent heat of vaporisation, and, by adopting methods for recovery of heat
from the vapour, it has been possible to achieve great economy in heat utilisation. Whilst the normal
heating medium is generally low pressure exhaust steam from turbines, special heat transfer fluids or
.flue gases may be used
The design of an evaporation unit requires the practical application of data on heat transfer to boiling
.liquids, together with a realisation of what happens to the liquid during concentration

1.1

Basic Evaporator Construction

Industrial evaporator systems normally consist of:

1. A heat exchanger to supply sensible heat and latent heat of evaporation to the feed. In the food
industry saturated steam is usually used as the heating medium.
2.

A separator in which the vapour is separated from the concentrated liquid phase.

3.

A condenser to effect condensation of the vapour and its removal from the system. This may be
omitted if the system is working at atmospheric pressure.

In the food industry, risk of heat damage to the concentrating liquid often arises if evaporation is
.carried out at atmospheric pressure. It is usual to evaporate food liquids at reduced pressures

1.2

Heat Transfer in Evaporators

1.2.1

Heat Transfer Coefficients

The normal rate equation for heat transfer takes the form:
Q= UAT
where Q is the heat transferred per unit time, U is the overall coefficient of heat transfer, A is the heat
transfer surface, and T is the temperature difference between the two streams.

1.2.2

Resistances to heat transfer

1.

The condensing film heat transfer coefficient on the steam side of the heat exchanger.

2.

The boiling liquid film coefficient on the liquid side of the heat exchanger.

3.

The scale or fouling factors on both inner and outer walls bounding the heat transfer surfaces.

4.

The thermal resistance of the wall material.

1.2.3

Boiling Point Rise

The boiling point of a solution is higher than that of the pure solute at the same pressure. The more
concentrated the solution becomes, then the higher the boiling point. As evaporation proceeds the
liquid concentration increases and so the boiling point rises. This leads to a progressively decreasing
temperature driving force, and so rate of heat transfer. This must be allowed for in the design of the
evaporator. The boiling point elevation of a solution (liquid food) is defined as the increase in boiling
point over that of pure water, at a given pressure.
A simple method to estimate boiling point elevation is by the use of Dhrings rule. The Dhring rule
states that a linear relationship exists between the boiling point temperature of the solution and the
boiling point temperature of water at the same pressure. The linear relationship does not hold over a
wide range of temperatures, but over moderate temperature ranges it is quite acceptable.
Example
Use Dhrings chart to determine the initial and final boiling point of a liquid food with composition
that exerts vapour pressure similar to that of sodium chloride solution. The pressure in the evaporator is
20 kPa, the product is being concentrated from 5% to 25% total solids concentration.
To use the Dhrings chart we need the boiling point of water, this value can be obtained from steam
tables. The boiling point of the liquid can then be read directly from the chart.
From steam tables, at 20 kPa, the boiling point of water is 60 C or 333 K. Thus from the chart, the
boiling point at initial concentration of 5% total solids is 333 K = 60 C. The boiling point at the final
concentration of 25% solids is 337 K = 64 C.

1.3

Influence of feed liquor properties on evaporation

The choice of evaporator type for a given process duty is greatly influenced by the properties of the
feed liquor and those of the product desired.

1.3.1

Viscosity

Higher viscosities lead to reduced circulation rates and lower heat transfer coefficients. Since in
general, viscosity of the product will increase as evaporation proceeds, this is to be expected.

1.3.2

Fouling

As in other heat exchange processes in the food industry, fouling of heat transfer surfaces can be a
major cause of declining efficiency in evaporator systems. Deposition of scale, lowers the U-value and
can even cause blockage. The design engineer will allow a fouling factor in to the OHTC for the
design.

1.3.3

Entrainment and Foaming

The rapid production of vapour under conditions of vigorous boiling frequently causes entrainment of
droplets of liquid in the vapour leaving the evaporator. In some cases, e.g. milk, this leads to the
formation of a stable foam. This is particularly the case when boiling takes place under reduced
pressure. The problem will result in loss of product.

1.3.4

Temperature sensitivity

To reduce the risk of heat damage to heat-sensitive materials during evaporation, boiling temperatures
should be kept low and residence times of the liquid in the heating zone short. Boiling temperatures are
reached by lowering the operating pressure of the evaporator.

1.3.5

Aroma Loss

The organic aroma and flavour compounds in many liquid foods are more volatile than water. Thus
during evaporation loss will generally occur. These can be recovered by distillation of the exhaust
gases and added back to the concentrate.

1.4

Mass Balances

The mass balance states that:

input = output

Example
If 100 kg h-1 of liquid containing 12% total solids is to be concentrated to produce a liquid containing
32% total solids, how much water is removed each hour, under steady state conditions.
Let the mass of water removed be m and the mass of concentrate produced be C. Therefore the total
balance is;
100= m + C
and the solids balance is;
100 x 0.12 = C x 0.32
It is assumed that the water leaving the evaporator contains no solid. Thus:
C = 37.5 kg, m = 62.5 kg.
Water needs to removed at a rate of 62.5 kg h-1.
TYPES AND DESIGN

Figure 1. Some types of evaporators. (a) Horizontal tube. (b) Calandria type. (c) Thermocompressor evaporator. (d) Long tube vertical. (e) Falling film. (f) Forced circulation evaporatorcrystallizer. (g) Three types of Oslo/Krystal circulating liquid evaporator-crystalliers.

Figure 2. Forward and backward of liquid flow with respect to steam flow in triple-effect
evaporators. (a) Forward flow of liquid by action of pressure differences in the vessels. (b) Backwardpumped flow of liquid through the vessels.

1.4.1

Examples

1.4.1.1 Example 1 Single effect evaporator

A single effect evaporator is used to concentrate 7 kg.s-1 of an aqueous solution from 10 to 50 % solids.
Steam is available at 205 kN.m2 and evaporation takes place at 13.5 kN.m2. If the overall heat transfer
coefficient is 3 kW.m2.K-1, calculate the heating surface required and the amount of steam used if the
feed to the evaporator is at 294 K and the condensate leaves the heating space at 352.7 K. (Specific
heat of 10 % solution = 3.76 kJ.kg-1.K-1; Specific heat of 50% solution = 3.14 kJ.kg-1.K-1). Assume there
.is no boiling point rise
Solution
From steam tables, assuming steam is dry and saturated at 205 kN.m2, the steam temperature = 394 K
.and the total enthalpy = 2530 kJ.kg-1
At 13.5 kN.m2 water boils at 325 K. As there is no boiling point rise, this will be taken as the
.temperature of evaporation. The total enthalpy of steam at 325 K is 2594 kJ.kg-1

The feed containing 10 % solids has to be heated therefore from 294 K to 325 K at which the
.evaporation takes place
Mass balance
Feed
10%
Product 50%

Solids
kg.s-1
0.7
0.7

Water
kg.s-1
6.3
0.7

Evaporation

Total
kg.s-1
7
1.4

5.6

5.6

:Using a datum of 273 K

Heat entering with feed = (7.0 3.76) (294 - 273) = 552.7 kW
Heat leaving with product = (1.4 3.14) (325 - 273) = 228.6 kW
Heat leaving with evaporated water = (5.6 2594) = 14 526 kW
heat transferred from steam = (14 526 - 228.6) - 552.7 = 14 202 kW
The condensed steam leaves at 352.7 K, at which the enthalpy
kJ.kg-1 333.2 = (273 - 352.7) 4.18 =
Thus heat transferred from 1 kg steam = (2530 - 333.2) = 2196.8 kJ.kg-1
Then the steam required =

14202
= 6.47 kg.s-1
2196.8

The temperature driving force will be taken as the difference between the temperature of the
condensing steam and that of the evaporating water as the preheating of the solution and subcooling of
the condensate represent but a small proportion of the total load, that is
T = (394 - 325) = 69 K

Q
UT

m2 68.6

= A

Thus

14202
3 69

1.4.1.2 Example 2 Design of a Single Effect Evaporator

Apple juice is being concentrated in a natural circulation single effect evaporator. Ar steady state
conditions, dilute juice is the feed introduced at a rate of 0.67 kg.s-1. The concentration of the dilute
juice is 11% total solids. The juice is concentrated to 75% total solids. The specific heats of dilute apple
juice and concentrate are 3.9 and 2.3 kJ.kg-1.C, respectively. The steam pressure is measurd to be
304.42 kPa. The inlet feed temperature is 43.3 C. The product inside the evaporator boils at 62.2 C.
The overall heat transfer coefficient is assumed to be 943 W.m-2.C-1. Assume negligible boiling point
elevation. Calculate the mass flow rate of concentrated product, steam requirements, steam economy,
and the heat transfer area.
Mass flow rate of feed mf = 0.67 kg.s-1 Given:
Concentration of feed xf = 0.11
Concentration of product xp = 0.75
Steam pressure = 304.42 kPa
Feed temperature Tf = 43.3 C
Boiling temperature T1 in evaporator = 62.2 C
Overall heat transfer coefficient = 943 W.m-2.K-1

Specific heat of dilute feed cpf = 3.9 kj.kg-1.C-1

Specific heat of concentrated product cpp = 2.3 kj.kg-1.C
Approach
We will use heat and mass balances to determine the unknowns. Enthalpy values for steam and
.vapours will be obtained from steam tables
Solution
Mass balance:

0.11 0.67 kg.s-1 = 0.75 mp

mp = 0.098 kg.s-1

.Thus mass flow rate of concentrated product is 0.098 kg.s-1 and mass flow rate of vapour is .57 kg.s-1
:Heat balance
Need to solve following enthalpy balance
mfHf + msHv = mvHv +mpHp + msHc
feed + steam = vapour + product + condensate
:Determine Hf and Hp as follows
Hf = 3.9 (43.3 -0) = 168.9 kj.kg-1
Hp = 2.3 (62.2 - 0) = 143.1 kj.kg-1
From steam tables
Temperature of steam at 304.42 kPa = 134 C
Enthalpy for saturated vapour Hv (Ts = 134 C) = 2725.9 kj.kg-1
Enthalpy for saturated vapour Hc (Ts = 134 C) = 563.41 kj.kg-1
Enthalpy for saturated vapour Hv (Ts = 134 C) = 2613.4 kj.kg-1

(ms 563.41) + (0.098 143.1) + (0.57 2613.4) = (ms 2725.9) + ( 168.9 0.67)
ms = 1390.5 2162.49
ms = 0.64 kg.s-1

:Steam economy
Use mv / ms = 0.57 / 0.64 = 0.89 kg water evaporated / kg steam
:Surface area of heat exchanger
Use q = UA (Ts - T1) = ms.Hv - ms.Hc
A 943 (134 - 62.2) = 0.64 1000 (2725.9 - 563.14)
A = 20.4 m2

2.

HEAT CONSERVATION

There are two main types of ways of improving steam economy in evaporators. One is to use a multiple
.effect evaporator, the other is to use mechanical vapour recompression. These will be described
If an evaporator, fed with steam at 399 K with a total heat of 2714 kJ/kg, is evaporating water at 373 K,
then each kilogram of water vapour produced will have a total heat of 2675 kJ. If this heat is allowed to
go to waste, by condensing it in a tubular condenser or by direct contact in a jet condenser for example,
such a system makes very poor use of steam. The vapour produced is, however, suitable for passing to
the calandria of a similar unit, provided the boiling temperature in the second unit is reduced so that an
adequate temperature difference is maintained. This can be effected by applying a vacuum to the
second effect in order to reduce the boiling point of the liquor. This is the principle reached in the
.multiple effect systems which were introduced by Rillieux in about 1830

2.1

Multiple Effect Evaporators

2.1.1

General Principles

Considering three evaporators arranged as shown, in which the temperatures and pressures are T1, T2,
T3, and P1, P2, P3, respectively, in each unit, if the liquor has no boiling point rise, then the heat
:transmitted per unit time across each effect will be

,where T1 = (To - T1)

,where T2 = (Tl - T2)

where T3 = (T2 - T3)

Q1 = U1 A1 T1,
Q2 = U2 A2 T2,
Q3 = U3 A3 T3,

Effect 1
Effect 2
Effect 3

To = intial steam temperature, Tf = feed temperature. Neglecting the heat required to heat the feed from
Tf to T1, the heat Q1 transferred across A1 appears as latent heat in the vapour D1 and is used as steam in
:the second effect, and
Q1 = Q2 = Q3
So that
U1 A1 T1 = U2 A2 T2 = U3 A3 T3

:If, as is commonly the case, the individual effects are alike, A1 = A2 = A3, so that
U1 T1 = U2 T2 = U3 T3
On this analysis, the difference in temperature across each effect is inversely proportional to the heat
:transfer coefficient. This, however, represents a simplification, since
the heat required to heat the feed from To to T1 has been neglected, and (a)
the liquor passing from (1) to (2) carries heat into the second effect, and this is responsible (b)
.for some evaporation; similarly for the third effect
The latent heat required to evaporate 1 kg of water in (1), is approximately equal to the heat obtained in
condensing 1 kg of steam at To.
Thus 1 kg of steam fed to (1) evaporates 1 kg of water in (1). Again the 1 kg of steam from (1)
evaporates about 1 kg of steam in (2).
Thus, in a system of N effects, 1 kg of steam fed to the first effect will evaporate in all about N kg of
liquid. This gives a simplified picture, as discussed later, though it does show that one of the great
attractions of a multiple effect system is that considerably more evaporation per kilogram of steam is
obtained than in a single effect unit. The economy of the system, measured by the kilograms of water
vaporised per kilogram of steam condensed, increases with the number of effects.
The water evaporated in each effect is proportional to Q since the latent heat is approximately constant.
Thus the total capacity,
Q = Q1 = Q2 = Q3
= U1 A1 T1 = U2 A2 T2 = U3 A3 T3

:If an average value of the coefficients Uav is taken, then

Q = Uav (T1 + T2 + T3) A
assuming the area of each effect is the same. A single effect evaporator operating with a temperature
difference T, with this average coefficient Uav, would, however, have the same capacity Q = Uav A
T. Thus, it is seen that the capacity of a multiple effect system is the same as that of a single effect,
operating with the same total temperature difference and having an area A equal to that of one of the
multiple effect units. The value of the multiple effect system is that better use is made of steam though,

in order to bring this about, it is necessary to make a much bigger capital outlay for the increased
number of units and accessories.

2.1.2

Operation of Multiple Effect Evaporator Systems

2.1.2.1 Forward Feeding

This is the simplest, and so the most common form of feeding. Feed passes in the same direction as the
vapours, namely from the first effect to the second effect, to the third and so on. An extraction pump
only is required, the final effect being operated at low pressure. With this arrangement the viscosity of
the process liquor increases during passage through the plant owing to both an increase in
concentration and reduction in temperature. Thus the overall heat transfer coefficient is low in the later
effects. However less heat damage may occur as a result.
High quality steam condenses in the first effect calandria. If the initial feed is below its boiling point
some of the heat must be transferred must be used for pre-heating the feedstock. Since less heat is
available for vaporisation, less vapour condenses in the second effect and this pattern is repeated in
later effects. The overall result is a loss in steam economy.

2.1.2.2 Backward feeding

Interstage pumps are required for this arrangement. Dilute, cooler feed liquor meets poorer quality
steam since steam and liquor flows are counter current. An improved steam economy results. The
increase in viscosity is offset by the higher temperatures encountered. Care must be taken to overcome
localised overheating.

2.1.2.3 Mixed feeding

This method is common with a larger number of effects. It represents a compromise between the
simplicity of forward feeding and the greater economy of backward feeding. The method is very useful
with very viscous liquids and is recommended when large increases in viscosity with concentration are
likely.

2.1.3

Examples

2.1.3.1 Temperatures in effects

A triple effect evaporator concentrates a liquid with no appreciable elevation of boiling point. If the
temperature of the steam to the first effect is 395 K and vacuum is applied to the third effect so that the
boiling point is 325 K, what are the approximate boiling pints in the three effects? The overall transfer
coefficients may be taken as 3.1, 2.3 and 1.1 kW.m-2.K-1.
Solution
For thermal equal loads in each effect, that is Q1 = Q2 = Q3,
U1A1T1 = U2A2T2 = U3A3T3
Or for equal areas in each effect
U1T1 = U2T2 = U3T3
In this case,
3.1 T1 = 2.3 T2 = 1.1T3
T1 = 0.742 T2 and T3 = 1.091 T2
Now T = T1 + T2 + T3 = (395 - 325) = 70 K

0.742 T2 + T2 + 1.091 T2 = 70
T2 = 18.3 K

and

T1 = 13.5 K, T3 = 38.2 K

The temperatures in each effect are therefore:

T1 = (395 - 13.5) = 381.5 K
T2 = (381.5 - 183) = 363.2 K
T3 = (363.2 - 38.2) = 325 K

2.1.3.2 Forward Feeding

A liquor at 10% solids is fed at 294 K to the first effect of a triple effect evaporator. The feed rate is 4
kg s-1. It is required that the product leaving the third effect is to have a solid content of 50%. The third
effect will be at a pressure of 0.13 bar (13 kN m-2). Assume the liquor has a specific heat of 4.18 kj kg-1
K-1 and no boiling point rise. Saturated dry steam at 205 kN m-2 is fed to the heat exchanger in the first
effect, and the condensate is removed at the steam temperature in each effect.
If the three units are to have equal areas, estimate the area, the temperature differences and the steam
consumption.
Given: Heat transfer coefficients for the first, second and third effects are respectively 3.1, 2.0 and 1.1
kW m-2 K-1.
The steam fed to the first effect, D0 = 1.635 kg s-1
Solution
Temperature of dry saturated steam at 205 kN m-2 = 394 K
At a pressure of 0.13 bar (13 kN m-2), the boiling point of water is 325 K, so that the total temperature
.difference T = (394 - 325) = 69 K

:First approximation. Assume the relation

U1T1 = U2T2 = U3T3

:Then substituting the values of U1, U2 and U3 and T = 69 K

T1 = 13 K, T2 = 20 K, T3 = 36 K
Since the feed is cold, it will be necessary to have a greater value of T1 than given by this analysis.
.Assume therefore that T1 = 18 K, T2 = 17 K, T3 = 34 K

:If the latent heat values are given by 0, 1, 2 and 3, then from Steam Tables
T0 = 394 K and 0 = 2200 kj kg-1
T1 = 376 K and 1 = 2249 kj kg-1
T2 = 359 K and 2 = 2293 kj kg-1
T3 = 325 K and 3 = 2377 kj kg-1

For steam to effect 1

For steam to effect 2
For steam to effect 3

Assuming the condensate leaves at the same temperature, heat balances (in kW) may be made as
:follows
Effect 1.
D00 = (WCp (T1 - Tf) + D11

or

2200D0 = 4 x 4.18 (376 - 294) + 2249 D1

Effect 2.
D11 + (W - D1) Cp (T1 - T2) = D22 or

2249D1 + (4 - D1) 4.18 (376 - 359) = 2293D2

Effect 3.
D22 + (W - D1 - D2) Cp (T2 - T3) = D33 or

2293 D2 + (4 - D1 - D2) 4.18 (359 -325) = 2377 D3

where W is the liquor fed to the system per unit time, and Cp is the specific heat capacity of the liquid
.assumed to be constant
Making use of the previous equations and the fact that (D1 + D2 +D3) = 3.2 kg s-1, the evaporation in
each unit is, D1 = 0.991, D2 = 1.065, D3 = 1.144 and D0 = 1.635 kg s-1. The area of the surface of each
:calandria can then be obtained as
D0 0
1.635 2200
2
A1

U 1T1

31
. 18

64.5 m

A2

D1 1
0.991 2249

65.6 m 2
U 2 T2
2.0 17

A3

D2 2
1.085 2293

65.3 m 2
U 3 T3
11
. 34

These are approximately equal so the assumptions of the temperature differences can be taken as nearly
.correct

.The steam economy can be calculated as being e = (3.2/1.635) = 2.0

.Thus although energy savings have been made, this is not as large as would be expected
2.1.3.3 Backward Feeding
A liquor at 10% solids is fed at 294 K to the third effect of a triple effect evaporator. The feed rate is 4
kg s-1. It is required that the concentrated product leaving the first effect is to have a solids content of
50%. The third effect will be at a pressure of 0.13 bar (13 kN m-2). Assume the liquor has a specific
heat of 4.18 kj kg-1 K-1 and no boiling point rise. Saturated dry steam at 205 kN m-2 is fed to the heat
exchanger in the first effect, and the condensate is removed at the steam temperature in each effect. If
the three units are to have equal areas, estimate the area and the temperature differences. The steam
produced by effect 3 is 0.853kg s-1.
Since the weak liquor is now at the lowest temperature and the strong liquor is at the highest, the heat
transfer coefficients will not be the same as with the forward feed. In effect , the liquor is now much
stronger than in the former case, and hence U1 will not be as large as before. Again, on the same
arguement, U3 will be larger than before. Although it is unlikely to be exactly the same, U2 will be
taken as being unaltered by the arrangement. Taking values of U1 = 2.5, U2 = 2.0 and U3 = 1.6 kW.m2.K-1, the temperature distribution can be determined in the same manner as for forward feed by taking
heat balances across each unit.
Solution
In this case, it is more difficult to make a reasonable first guess at the temperature differences because
the liquid temperature is increasing as it passes from effect (3 2 1) and sensible heat must be
added at each stage. It may be necessary to make several trial and error solutions befiore achieving the
conditons for equal areas. Futhermore, the values of U1, U2 and U3 may be different from those in
forward feed, depending on they do on concentration.
Taking:

T1 = 20 K, T2 = 24 K, T3 = 25 K.

:If the latent heat values are given by 0, 1, 2 and 3, then from Steam Tables
T0 = 394 K and 0 = 2200 kj kg-1
T1 = 374 K and 1 = 2254 kj kg-1
T2 = 350 K and 2 = 2314 kj kg-1
T3 = 325 K and 3 = 2377 kj kg-1

For steam to effect 1

For steam to effect 2
For steam to effect 3

Assuming the condensate leaves at the same temperature, heat balances (in kW) may be made as
:follows

.Effect 3
D22 = WCp (T3 - Tf) + D33

or

2314D2 = 4 x 4.18 (325 - 294) + 2377 D3

.Effect 2
D11 = (W - D3) Cp (T2 - T3) + D22

or

2254D1 = (4 - D3) 4.18 (350 - 325) + 2314D2

or

2200 D0 = (4 - D3 - D2) 4.18 (374 -350) + 2254 D1

.Effect 1
D00 = (W - D2 - D3) Cp (T1 - T2) + D11

where W is the liquor fed to the system per unit time, and Cp is the specific heat capacity of the liquid
.assumed to be constant
Making use of the previous equations and the fact that (D1 + D2 +D3) = 3.2 kg s-1, the evaporation in
each unit is, D1 = 1.261, D2 = 1.086, D3 = 0.853 and D0 = 1.387 kg s-1. The area of the surface of each
:calandria can then be obtained as
D0 0
1.387 2200
2
A1

U 1 T1

2.5 20

61.0 m

A2

D1 1
1.261 2254

59.2 m 2
U 2 T2
2.0 24

A3

D2 2
1.086 2314

62.8 m 2
U 3 T3
1.6 25

These are approximately equal so the assumptions of the temperature differences can be taken as nearly
.correct
The steam economy can be calculated as being e = (3.2/1.387) = 2.3.

2- Vapor-Liquid Separation
Entrainment can be separated from a gas stream with a variety of mechanisms, including
gravity, inertial impaction, interception, centrifugal force, and Brownian motion. Separators can
be classified according to mechanism, but it is more useful to categorize them by construction
type. Separators in common use include:
(I ) flash tanks
(2) vane impingement separators
(3) wire mesh separators
(4) Karbate strut separators
(5) centrifugal separators
(6) cyclones
(7) special separator types.

2-1 Flash tanks

Vertical separators are usually more economical when the diameter is less than 8 feet; for larger sizes,
horizontal separators may be less expensive.
Vertical vapor bodies may be sized using a value of 0.2 for F in Equation 14.2. Horizontal vapor bodies
should be sized with a target value of F = 0.15 based on the surface area at the gas/liquid interface.
Recommended vertical flash tank dimensions are shown in Figure 14-1.

Cyclone separater

2-2 Cyclone separater

3.
3.1

DESIGN OF VAPOUR CONDENSERS FOR PANS AND

EVAPORATORS
Introduction

The function of the condenser is, self evidently, to condense the vapour being driven
off the syrup or massecuite in an evaporator or vacuum pan. This is done in order to
create a vacuum in the pan or final effect evaporator. The vacuum pump's function is
to remove the incondesible gases that find their way into the vapour stream. The
incondensible gases come from the following sources:

leakage of air into the vessels;

inherently in the juice;
air in the heating steam
air in the cooling water

Direct Contact Condensers

In this kind of condenser the condensing medium (cold water) is in direct contact
with the vapour. The amount of cold water required is calculated from an energy
balance around the condenser
Hin = Hout
where H = enthapy [kJ]
or in more detail
mc hc + mv hv = mt ht
also
mc + mv = mt
hence
mc = mv (hv - ht) / (ht - hc)
and so Qc = mc/

m represents
h represents
Q represents
represents
subscripts
c represents
v represents
t represents

mass flow [kg/s]

specific enthalpy [kJ/kg]
volume flow [m3/s]
density [kg/m3]
cooling water
vapour
tailpipe water

Condenser Designs
A number of different designs are discussed by Hugot (pg 798 3rd ed). Single
perforated tray rain-type condensers are discussed in Moult JM and Smits JH, Single
Tray Rain Type Condensers, Proc S Afr Sugar Technol Assoc 1979, pg 98.

This design consists of a single perforated plate tray, with a number of so-called
chimneys to allow incondensible gases to pass from below the tray to above to be
drawn off by the vacuum pump.

Tray Design
10% of the water flowing into the tray leaves the tray via the circumferential holes
and 10% overflows the tray. This is to ensure the walls of the condensor are
continually wetted. It is understood that most of the condensation happens on the
walls. The remaining 80% of the inflowing water leaves via the perforated plate tray
bottom. The cicumferential holes and the plate perforations are sharp edged orifices
and the volume flow through a sharp edged orifice is
Qp=/4d2CD(2gh)

where
Qp is volume flow
through one
Now the number of perforations, N is given by
perforation
N = 0.80 Qc/Qp
orifice [m3/s]
Furthermore it can be shown that the per unit open area of a d is
orifice diameter
perforated plate is given by
[m]
2
2
puOA = /(2 3) d /p
CD is co-efficient of
discharge = 0.65
now puOA tray area = N perforation orifice area OR
g is
= 9.81 m/s2
/(2 3) d2/p2 /4 D2 = N /4 d2 which gives
h is
head of liquid
above orifice
D = (N23/)0.5 p
centre line [m]
This calculation does not take into account the area given up D is
tray diameter
to the incondensible gas chimneys or the unperforated
[m]

p is
section directly below the water inlet. The actual tray

perforated plate
hole pitch [m]

The tray should be of the order of 1.8m to 2m above the vapour inlet pipe centre line.
Usually there are four chimneys, their total cross sectional area is about twice the
incondensible outlet cross sectional area. The incondesible gas outlet is sized so that
the flow velocity is 15m/s. There are as many ideas on the amount of incondensibles
as there are authors and designers; a consevative figure to use is about 0.7% by
volume on vapour into the condenser. The vapour inlet nozzle is sized so that the
flow velocity is less than 60m/s. The cooling water inlet nozzle is sized so that the
flow velocity is less than 2m/s.
The tailpipe is sized to be self venting in which JL* < 0.3 and
JL*=4 Q/(d2 (g d))